Chapter VIII: Front Matter (8)

DUMICHEN, JOHANNES (1833-1894), German Egyptologist, was born near Grossglogau. He studied philology and theology in Berlin and Breslau. Subsequently he became a pupil of Lepsius and Brugsch, and devoted himself to the study of Egyptian inscriptions. He travelled widely in Egypt, and published his results in a number of important books. In 1872 he was chosen professor of Egyptology at Strassburg. The value of his work consists not only in the stores of material which he collected, but also in the success with which he dealt with many of the problems raised by the inscriptions.

Among his works are _Bauurkunde des Tempels von Dendera_ (1865);
_Geographische Inschriften altagyptischer Denkmaler_ (4 vols.,
1865-1885); _Altagyptische Kalenderinschriften_ (1866); _Altagypt.
Tempelinschriften_ (2 vols., 1867); _Historische Inschriften altagypt.
Denkmaler_ (2 vols., 1867-1869); _Baugeschichte und Beschreibung des
Denderatempels_ (Strassburg, 1877); _Die Oasen der libyschen Wuste_
(1878); _Die kalendarischen Opferfestlisten von Medinet-Habu_(1881);
_Gesch. des alten Aegypten_ (1878-1883); _Der Grabpalast des
Patuamenap in der thebanischen Nekropolis_ (1884-1894).

DUMMLER, ERNST LUDWIG (1830-1902), German historian, the son of Ferdinand Dummler (1777-1846), a Berlin bookseller, was born in Berlin, on the 2nd of January 1830. He studied at Bonn under J.W. Lobell (1786-1863), under L. von Ranke and W. Wattenbach, and his doctor's dissertation, _De Arnulfo Francorum rege_ (Berlin, 1852), was a notable essay. He entered the faculty at Halle in 1855, and started an historical _Seminar_. In 1858 he became professor extraordinary, in 1866 full professor. In 1875 he became a member of the revised committee directing the _Monumenta Germaniae historica_, himself undertaking the direction of the section _Antiquitates_, and in 1888 became president of the central board in Berlin. This was an official recognition of Dummler's leading position among German historians. In addition to numerous critical works and editions of texts, he published _Piligrim von Passau und das Erzbistum Lorch_ (1854), _Uber die alteren Slawen in Dalmatien_ (1856), _Das Formelbuch des Bischofs Salomo III. von Konstanz_ (1857) and _Anselm der Peripatetiker_ (1872). But his great work was the _Geschichte des ostfrankischen Reiches_ (Berlin, 1862-1865, in 2 vols.; 2nd ed. 1887-1888, in 3 vols.). In conjunction with Wattenbach he completed the _Monumenta Alcuiniana_ (Berlin, 1873), which had been begun by Philipp Jaffe, and with R. Kopke he wrote _Kaiser Otto der Grosse_ (Leipzig, 1876). He edited the first and second volumes of the _Poetae latini aevi Carolini_ for the _Monumenta Germaniae historica_ (Berlin, 1881-1884). Dummler died in Berlin on the 11th of September 1902.

His son, Ferdinand (1859-1896), who won some reputation as an archaeologist and philologist, was professor at the university of Basel from 1890 until his death on the 15th of November 1896.

DUMONT, the name of a family of prominent French artists. Francois Dumont (1688-1726), a sculptor, best known for his figures in the church of Saint Sulpice, Paris, was the brother of the painter Jacques Dumont,[1] known as "le Romain" (1701-1781), whose chief success was gained with a great allegorical composition for the Paris _hotel-de-ville_ in 1761. Francois's son Edme (1720-1775), the latter's son Jacques Edme (1761-1844), and the last-named's son Augustin Alexander (1801-1884) were also famous sculptors.

See G. Vattier, _Une Famille d'artistes_ (1890).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Not to be confounded with his contemporary Jean Joseph Dumons
(1687-1779), sometimes called Dumont, best known for his designs for
the Aubusson tapestries.

DUMONT, ANDRE HUBERT (1809-1857), Belgian geologist, was born at Liege on the 15th of February 1809. His first work was a masterly _Memoire_ on the geology of the province of Liege published in 1832. A few years later he became professor of mineralogy and geology and afterwards rector in the university of Liege. His attention was now given to the mineralogical and stratigraphical characters of the geological formations in Belgium--and the names given by him to many subdivisions of Cretaceous and Tertiary ages have been adopted. His _Memoire sur les terrains ardennais et rhenan de l'Ardenne, du Brabant et du Condroz_ (1847-1848) is notable for the care with which the mineral characters of the strata were described, but the palaeontological characters were insufficiently considered, and neither the terms "Silurian" nor "Devonian" were adopted. During twenty years he laboured at the preparation of a geological map of Belgium (1849). He spared no pains to make his work as complete as possible, examining on foot almost every area of importance in the country. Journeying to the more southern parts of Europe, he investigated the shores of the Bosphorus, the mountains of Spain and other tracts, and gradually gathered materials for a geological map of Europe: a work of high merit which was "one of the first serious attempts to establish on a larger scale the geological correlation of the various countries of Europe." The Geological Society of London awarded him in 1840 the Wollaston medal. He died at Liege on the 28th of February 1857.

See Memoir by Major-General J.E. Portlock in _Address to Geol. Soc._
(London, 1858).

DUMONT, FRANCOIS (1751-1831), French miniature painter, was born at Luneville (Meurthe), and was left an orphan when quite young, with five brothers and sisters to support. He was for a while a student under Jean Girardet, and then, on the advice of a Luneville Academician, Madame Coster, set up a studio for himself. In 1784 he journeyed to Rome, returning after four years' careful study, and in 1788 was accepted as an Academician and granted an apartment in the Louvre. He married the daughter of Antoine Vestier, the miniature painter, and had two sons, Aristide and Bias, both of whom became painters. He was one of the three greatest miniature painters of France, painting portraits of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, Louis XVIII. and Charles X., and of almost all the important persons of his day. His own portrait was engraved both by Audouin and by Tardieu. He resided the greater part of his life in Paris, and there he died. A younger brother, known as Tony Dumont, was also a miniature painter, a pupil of his brother, a frequent exhibitor and the recipient of a medal from the Academy in 1810. Each artist signed with the surname only, and there is some controversy concerning the attribution to each artist of his own work. Tony was an expert violinist and delighted in painting portraits of persons who were playing upon the violin. Many of Dumont's finest paintings came into the collection of Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, but others are in the Louvre, presented by the heir of Bias Dumont. The work of both painters is distinguished by breadth, precision and a charming scheme of colouring, and the unfinished works of the elder brother are amongst some of the most beautiful miniatures ever produced.

See _The History of Portrait Miniatures_, by G.C. Williamson (London,
1904); also the privately printed _Catalogue of the Collection of
Miniatures of Mr J. Pierpont Morgan_, vol. iv. (G. C. W.)

DUMONT, JEAN (d. 1726), French publicist, was born in France in the 17th century, the precise date being unknown. He followed the profession of arms; but, not obtaining promotion so rapidly as he expected, he quitted the service and travelled through different parts of Europe. He stopped in Holland with the intention of publishing an account of his travels. But in the interval, at the request of his bookseller, he wrote and published several pamphlets, which were eagerly sought after, owing to the unceremonious manner in which he treated the ministry of France. This freedom having deprived him of all hope of employment in his own country, he thought of forming a permanent establishment in that where he resided, and accordingly commenced a course of lectures on public law. The project succeeded far beyond his expectations; and some useful compilations which he published about the same period made him favourably known in other countries. The emperor appointed him his historiographer, and some time afterwards conferred on him the title of baron de Carlscroon. He died at Vienna in 1726, at an advanced age.

The following is a list of his publications:--(1) _Voyages en France,
en Italie, en Allemagne, a Malte, et en Turquie_ (Hague, 1699, 4 vols.
12mo); (2) _Memoires politiques pour servir a la parfaite intelligence
de l'histoire de la Paix de Ryswick_ (Hague, 1699, 4 vols. 12mo); (3)
_Recherches modestes des causes de la presente guerre, en ce qui
concerne les Provinces Unies_ (1713, 12mo); (4) _Recueil de traites
d'alliance, de pai, et de commerce entre les rois, princes, et etats,
depuis la Paix de Munster_ (Amsterdam, 1710, 2 vols. 12mo); (5)
_Soupirs de l'Europe a la vue du projet de paix contenu dans la
harangue de la reine de la Grande-Bretagne_ (1712, 12mo); (6) _Corps
universel diplomatique du droit des gens, contenant un recueil des
traites de paix, d'alliance, &c., faits en Europe, depuis Charlemagne
jusqu'a present_ (Amsterdam, 1626, and following years, 8 vols. fol.,
continued after Dumont's death by J. Rousset); and (7) _Batailles
gagnees par le Prince Eugene de Savoie_ (Hague, 1723). Dumont was also
the author of _Lettres historiques contenant ce qui se passe de plus
important en Europe_ (12mo). This periodical, which was commenced in
1692, two volumes appearing annually, Dumont conducted till 1710, from
which time it was continued by Basnage and others until 1728. The
earlier volumes are much prized.

DUMONT, PIERRE ETIENNE LOUIS (1759-1829), French political writer, was born on the 18th of July 1759 at Geneva, of which his family had been citizens of good repute from the days of Calvin. He was educated for the ministry at the college of Geneva, and in 1781 was chosen one of the pastors of the city. The political troubles which disturbed Geneva in 1782, however, suddenly turned the course of his life. He belonged to the liberals or democrats, and the triumph of the aristocratic party, through the interference of the courts of France and Sardinia, made residence in his native town impossible, though he was not among the number of the proscribed. He therefore went to join his mother and sisters at St Petersburg. In this he was probably influenced in part by the example of his townsman Pierre Lefort, the first tutor, minister, and general of the tsar. At St Petersburg he was for eighteen months pastor of the French church. In 1785 he removed to London, Lord Shelburne, then a minister of state, having invited him to undertake the education of his sons. It was at the house of Lord Shelburne, now 1st marquess of Lansdowne, where he was treated as a friend or rather member of the family, that he became acquainted with many illustrious men, amongst others Fox, Sheridan, Lord Holland and Sir Samuel Romilly. With the last of these he formed a close and enduring friendship, which had an important influence on his life and pursuits.

In 1788 Dumont visited Paris with Romilly. During a stay of two months in that city he had almost daily intercourse with Mirabeau, and a certain affinity of talents and pursuits led to an intimacy between two persons diametrically opposed to each other in habits and in character. On his return from Paris Dumont made the acquaintance of Jeremy Bentham. Filled with admiration for the genius of Bentham, Dumont made it one of the chief objects of his life to recast and edit the writings of the great English jurist in a form suitable for the ordinary reading public. This literary relationship was, according to Dumont's own account, one of a somewhat peculiar character. All the fundamental ideas and most of the illustrative material were supplied in the manuscripts of Bentham; Dumont's task was chiefly to abridge by striking out repeated matter, to supply lacunae, to secure uniformity of style, and to improve the French. The following works of Bentham were published under his editorship: _Traite de legislation civile et penale_ (1802), _Theorie des peines et des recompenses_ (1811), _Tactique des assemblees legislatives_ (1815), _Traite des preuves judiciaires_ (1823) and _De l'organization judiciaire et de la codification_ (1828).

In the summer of 1789 Dumont went to Paris. The object of the journey was to obtain through Necker, who had just returned to office, an unrestricted restoration of Genevese liberty, by cancelling the treaty of guarantee between France and Switzerland, which prevented the republic from enacting new laws without the consent of the parties to this treaty. The proceedings and negotiations to which this mission gave rise necessarily brought Dumont into connexion with most of the leading men in the Constituent Assembly, and made him an interested spectator, sometimes even a participator, indirectly, in the events of the French Revolution. The same cause also led him to renew his acquaintance with Mirabeau, whom he found occupied with his duties as a deputy, and with the composition of his journal, the _Courier de Provence_. For a time Dumont took an active and very efficient part in the conduct of this journal, supplying it with reports as well as original articles, and also furnishing Mirabeau with speeches to be delivered or rather read in the assembly, as related in his highly instructive and interesting posthumous work entitled _Souvenirs sur Mirabeau_ (1832). In fact his friend George Wilson used to relate that one day, when they were dining together at a _table d'hote_ at Versailles, he saw Dumont engaged in writing the most celebrated paragraph of Mirabeau's address to the king for the removal of the troops. He also reported such of Mirabeau's speeches as he did not write, embellishing them from his own stores, which were inexhaustible. But this co-operation soon came to an end; for, being attacked in pamphlets as one of Mirabeau's writers, he felt hurt at the notoriety thus given to his name in connexion with a man occupying Mirabeau's peculiar position, and returned to England in 1791.

In 1801 he travelled over various parts of Europe with Lord Henry Petty, afterwards 3rd marquess of Lansdowne, and on his return settled down to the editorship of the works of Bentham already mentioned. In 1814 the restoration of Geneva to independence induced Dumont to return to his native place, and he soon became the leader of the supreme council. He devoted particular attention to the judicial and penal systems of his native state, and many improvements on both are due to him. He died at Milan when on an autumn tour on the 29th of September 1829.

DUMONT D'URVILLE, JULES SEBASTIEN CESAR (1790-1842), French navigator, was born at Conde-sur-Noireau, in Normandy, on the 23rd of May 1790. The death of his father, who before the revolution had held a judicial post in Conde, devolved the care of his education on his mother and his maternal uncle, the Abbe de Croizilles. Failing to pass the entrance examination for the Ecole Polytechnique, he went to sea in 1807 as a novice on board the "Aquilon." During the next twelve years he gradually rose in the service, and added a knowledge of botany, entomology, English, German, Spanish, Italian and even Hebrew and Greek to the professional branches of his studies. In 1820, while engaged in a hydrographic survey of the Mediterranean, he was fortunate enough to recognize the Venus of Milo (Melos) in a Greek statue recently unearthed, and to secure its preservation by the report he presented to the French ambassador at Constantinople. A wider field for his energies was furnished in 1822 by the circumnavigating expedition of the "Coquille" under the command of his friend Duperrey; and on its return in 1825 his services were rewarded by promotion to the rank of _capitaine de fregate_, and he was entrusted with the control of a similar enterprise, with the especial purpose of discovering traces of the lost explorer La Perouse, in which he was successful. The "Astrolabe," as he renamed the "Coquille," left Toulon on the 25th of April 1826, and returned to Marseilles on the 25th of March 1829, having traversed the South Atlantic, coasted the Australian continent from King George's Sound to Port Jackson, charted various parts of New Zealand, and visited the Fiji Islands, the Loyalty Islands, New Caledonia, New Guinea, Amboyna, Van Diemen's Land, the Caroline Islands, Celebes and Mauritius. Promotion to the rank of _capitaine de vaisseau_ was bestowed on the commander in August 1829; and in August of the following year he was charged with the delicate task of conveying the exiled king Charles X. to England. His proposal to undertake a voyage of discovery to the south polar regions was discouraged by Arago and others, who criticized the work of the previous expedition in no measured terms; but at last, in 1837, all difficulties were surmounted, and on the 7th of September he set sail from Toulon with the "Astrolabe" and its convoy "La Zelee." On the 15th of January 1838 they sighted the Antarctic ice, and soon after their progress southward was blocked by a continuous bank, which they vainly coasted for 300 m. to the east. Returning westward they visited the South Orkney Islands and part of the New Shetlands, and discovered Joinville Island and Louis Philippe Land, but were compelled by scurvy to seek succour at Talcahuano in Chile. Thence they proceeded across the Pacific and through the Asiatic archipelago, visiting among others the Fiji and the Pelew Islands, coasting New Guinea, and circumnavigating Borneo. In 1840, leaving their sick at Hobart Town, Tasmania, they returned to the Antarctic region, and on the 21st of the month were rewarded by the discovery of Adelie Land, which D'Urville named after his wife, in 140 deg. E. The 6th of November found them at Toulon. D'Urville was at once appointed _contre-amiral_, and in 1841 he received the gold medal of the Societe de Geographie. On the 8th of May 1842 he was killed, with his wife and son, in a railway accident near Meudon.

His principal works are--_Enumeratio plantarum quas in insulis Archipelagi aut littoribus Ponti Euxini_, &c. (1822); _Voyage de la corvette "l'Astrolabe," 1826-1829_ (Paris, 1830-1835), and _Voyage au pole sud et dans l'Oceanie, 1837-1840_ (Paris, 1842-1854), in each of which his scientific colleagues had a share; _Voyages autour du monde; resume general des voyages de Magellan_, &c. (Paris, 1833 and 1844). An island (also called Kairu) off the north coast of New Guinea, and a cape on the same coast, bear the name of D'Urville.

DUMORTIERITE, a mineral described in 1881 by M.F. Gonnard, who named it after Eugene Dumortier, a palaeontologist of Lyons, France. It is essentially a basic aluminium borosilicate, belonging to the orthorhombic system; it occurs usually in fibrous forms, of smalt-blue, greenish-blue, lavender or almost black colour, and exhibits strong pleochroism. According to W.T. Schaller (_Amer. Journ. Sci._, 1905 (iv.), 19, p. 211) a purple colour may be due to the presence of titanium. Analyses of some specimens point to the formula (SiO4)3Al(AlO)7(BO)H, which, written in this form, explains the analogy with andalusite and the alteration into muscovite. Dumortierite occurs in gneiss at Chaponost, near Lyons, and at a few other European localities; it is found also in the United States, being known from near New York City, from Riverside and San Diego counties, California, and from Yuma county, Arizona. The last-named locality yields the mineral in some quantity in the form of dense fibres embedded in quartz, to which it imparts a blue colour. The mineral aggregate is polished as an ornamental stone, rather resembling lapis-lazuli.

DUMOULIN, CHARLES [MOLINAEUS] (1500-1566), French jurist, was born in Paris in 1500. He began practice as an advocate before the parlement of Paris. Dumoulin turned Calvinist, and when the persecution of the Protestants began he went to Germany, where for a long time he taught law at Strassburg, Besancon and elsewhere. He returned to France in 1557. Dumoulin had, in 1552, written _Commentaire sur l'edit du roi Henri II sur les petites dates_, which was condemned by the Sorbonne, but his _Conseil sur le fait du concile de Trente_ created a still greater stir, and aroused against him both the Catholics and the Calvinists. He was imprisoned by order of the parlement until 1564. It was as a jurist that Dumoulin gained his great reputation, being regarded by his contemporaries as the "prince of jurisconsults." His remarkable erudition and breadth of view had a considerable effect on the subsequent development of French law. He was a bitter enemy of feudalism, which he attacked in his _De feudis_ (Paris, 1539). Other important works were his commentaries on the customs of Paris (Paris, 1539, 1554; Frankfort, 1575; Lausanne, 1576), valuable as the only commentary on those in force in 1510, and the _Extricatio labyrinthi dividui et individui_, a treatise on the law of surety.

A collected edition of Dumoulin's works was published in Paris in 1681
(5 vols.).

DUMOURIEZ, CHARLES FRANCOIS (1739-1823), French general, was born at Cambray in 1739. His father was a commissary of the royal army, and educated his son most carefully in various branches of learning. The boy continued his studies at the college of Louis-le-Grand, and in 1757 began his military career as a volunteer in the campaign of Rossbach. He received a commission for good conduct in action, and served in the later German campaigns of the Seven Years' War with distinction; but at the peace he was retired as a captain, with a small pension and the cross of St Louis. Dumouriez then visited Italy and Corsica, Spain and Portugal, and his memorials to the duc de Choiseul on Corsican affairs led to his re-employment on the staff of the French expeditionary corps sent to the island, for which he gained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. After this he became a member of the _Secret du roi_, the secret service under Louis XV., where his fertility of diplomatic resource had full scope. In 1770 he was sent on a mission into Poland, where in addition to his political business he organized a Polish militia. The fall of Choiseul brought about his recall, and somewhat later he was imprisoned in the Bastille, where he spent six months, occupying himself with literary pursuits. He was then removed to Caen, where he was detained until the accession of Louis XVI.

Upon his release in 1774 he married his cousin Mlle de Broissy, but he was neglectful and unfaithful, and in 1789 the pair separated, the wife taking refuge in a convent. Meanwhile Dumouriez had devoted his attention to the internal state of his own country, and amongst the very numerous memorials which he sent in to the government was one on the defence of Normandy and its ports, which procured him in 1778 the post of commandant of Cherbourg, which he administered with much success for ten years. He became _marechal de camp_ in 1788; but his ambition was not satisfied, and at the outbreak of the Revolution, seeing the opportunity for carving out a career, he went to Paris, where he joined the Jacobin Club. The death of Mirabeau, to whose fortunes he had attached himself, was a great blow to him; but, promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general and commandant of Nantes, his opportunity came after the flight to Varennes, when he attracted attention by offering to march to the assistance of the Assembly. He now attached himself to the Girondist party, and on the 15th of March 1792 was appointed minister of foreign affairs. He was mainly responsible for the declaration of war against Austria (April 20), and the invasion of the Low Countries was planned by him. On the dismissal of Roland, Claviere and Servan (June 13), he took the latter's post of minister of war, but resigned it two days later on account of the king's refusal to come to terms with the Assembly, and went to join the army of Marshal Luckner. After the _emeute_ of August 10 and Lafayette's flight he was appointed to the command of the "Army of the Centre," and at the same moment the Coalition assumed the offensive. Dumouriez acted promptly. His subordinate Kellermann repulsed the Prussians at Valmy (September 20, 1792), and he himself severely defeated the Austrians at Jemappes (November 6). Returning to Paris, he was received with a popular ovation; but he was out of sympathy with the extremists in power, his old-fashioned methodical method of conducting war exposed him to the criticism of the ardent Jacobins, and a defeat would mean the end of his career. Defeat coming to him at Neerwinden in January 1793, he ventured all on a desperate stroke. Arresting the commissaries of the Convention sent to inquire into his conduct, he handed them over to the enemy, and then attempted to persuade his troops to march on Paris and overthrow the revolutionary government. The attempt failed, and Dumouriez, with the duc de Chartres (afterwards King Louis Philippe) and his brother the duc de Montpensier, fled into the Austrian camp.

He now wandered from country to country, occupied in ceaseless intrigues with Louis XVIII., or for setting up an Orleanist monarchy, until in 1804 he settled in England, where the government conferred on him a pension of L1200 a year. He became a valuable adviser to the War Office in connexion with the struggle with Napoleon, though the extent to which this went was only known in public many years later. In 1814 and 1815 he endeavoured to procure from Louis XVIII. the baton of a marshal of France, but was refused. He died at Turville Park, near Henley-on-Thames, on the 14th of March 1823. His memoirs were published at Hamburg in 1794. An enlarged edition, _La Vie et les memoires du General Dumouriez_, appeared at Paris in 1823. Dumouriez was also the author of a large number of political pamphlets.

See A. von Boguslawski, _Das Leben des Generals Dumouriez_ (Berlin,
1878-1879); _Revue des deux mondes_ (15th July, 1st and 15th August
1884); H. Welschinger, _Le Roman de Dumouriez_ (1890); A. Chuquet, _La
Premiere Invasion, Valmy, La Retraite de Brunswick, Jemappes, La
Trahison de Dumouriez_ (Paris, 1886-1891); A. Sorel, _L'Europe et la
Revolution francaise_ (1885-1892); J. Holland Rose and A.M. Broadley,
_Dumouriez and the Defence of England_ (1908); E. Daudet, _La
Conjuration de Pichegru et les complots royalistes du midi et du
l'est, 1795-1797_ (Paris, 1901).

DUMP. (1) (Of obscure origin; corresponding in form and possibly connected with the word, are the Mid. Dutch _domp_, mist or haze, and the Ger. _dumpf_, dull or dazed), a state of wonder, perplexity or melancholy. The word thus occurs particularly in the plural, in such phrases as "doleful dumps." It was also formerly used for a tune, especially one of a mournful kind, a dirge. (2) (Connected with "dumpy," but appearing later than that word, and also of obscure origin), something short and thick, and hence used of many objects such as a lead counter or medal, of a coin formerly used in Australia, formed by punching a circular piece out of a Spanish dollar, and of a short thick bolt used in shipbuilding. (3) (Probably of Norse origin, cf. Nor. _dumpa_, and Dan. _dumpe_, meaning "to fall" suddenly, with a bump), to throw down in a heap, and hence particularly applied to the depositing of any large quantity of material, to the shooting of rubbish, or tilting a load from a cart. It is thus used of the method of disposal of the masses of gravel, &c., disintegrated by water in the hydraulic method of gold mining. A "dump" or "dumping-ground" is thus the place where such waste material is deposited. The use of the term "dumping" in the economics of international trade has come into prominence in the tariff reform controversy in the United Kingdom. It is sometimes used loosely of the importing of foreign goods at prices below those ruling in the importing country; but strictly the term is applied to the importing, at a price below the cost of production, of the surplus of manufactures of a foreign country over and above what has been disposed of in its home market. The ability to sell such a surplus in a foreign market below the cost of production depends on the prices of the home market being artificially sustained at a sufficiently high level by a monopoly or by a tariff or by bounties. An essential factor in the operation of "dumping" is the lessening of the whole cost of production by manufacture on a large scale.

DUNASH, the name of two Jewish scholars of the 10th century.

1. DUNASH BEN LABRAT, grammarian and poet, belonged to the brilliant circle attracted to Cordova by Hasdai, and took a large share in promoting the Jewish "Golden Age" under the Moors in Andalusia. Dunash not only helped in the foundation of a school of scientific philology, but adapted Arabian metres to Hebrew verse, and thereby gave an impulse to the neo-Hebraic poetry, which reached its highest level in Spain.

2. DUNASH IBN TAMIM was, like the preceding, a leader in the critical study of language among Arabic-speaking Jews. Professor Bacher says of him: "In the history of Hebrew philology, Ibn Tamim ranks as one of the first representatives of the systematic comparison of Hebrew and Arabic." The philological researches of the 10th century were closely associated with the Spanish-Moorish culture of the period. (I. A.)

DUNBAR, GEORGE (1774-1851), English classical scholar and lexicographer, was born at Coldingham in Berwickshire. In early life he followed the humble profession of gardening, but, having been permanently injured by an accident, devoted himself to the study of the classics. When about thirty years of age, he settled in Edinburgh, where he obtained a tutorship in the family of Lord Provost Fettes. In 1807 he succeeded Andrew Dalzel as professor of Greek in the university. Dunbar held his appointment till his death on the 6th of December 1851. Although a man of great energy and industry, Dunbar did not produce anything of permanent value. He deserves mention, however, for his Greek-English and English-Greek lexicon (1840), on the compilation of which he spent eight years. Although now superseded, it was the best work of its kind that had appeared in England.

The little that is known of Dunbar's life will be found in the
_Caledonian Mercury_ (8th of December 1851).

DUNBAR, PAUL LAURENCE (1872-1906), American author, of negro descent, was born in Dayton, Ohio, on the 27th of June 1872. He graduated (1891) from the Dayton high school, had a varied experience as elevator boy, mechanic and journalist, and in 1897-1898 held a position on the staff of the Library of Congress, resigning in December 1898 to devote himself to literary work. He died of consumption at his home in Dayton on the 8th of February 1906. His poetry was brought to the attention of American readers by William Dean Howells, who wrote an appreciative introduction to his _Lyrics of Lowly Life_ (1896). Subsequently Dunbar published eleven other volumes of verse, three novels and five collections of short stories. Some of his short stories and sketches, especially those dealing with the American negro, are charming; they are far superior to his novels, which deal with scenes in which the author is not so much at home. His most enduring work, however, is his poetry. Some of this is in literary English, but the best is in the dialect of his people. In it he has preserved much of their very temperament and outlook on life, usually with truth and freshness of feeling, united with a happy choice of language and much lyrical grace and sweetness, and often with rare humour and pathos. These poems of the soil are a distinct contribution to American literature, and entitle the author to be called pre-eminently the poet of his race in America.

See _Life and Works of Paul Laurence Dunbar_ (Naperville, Ill., 1907),
with a biography by L.K. Wiggins.

DUNBAR, WILLIAM (c. 1460-c. 1520), Scottish poet, was probably a native of East Lothian. This is assumed from a satirical reference in the _Flyting of Dunbar and Kennedie_, where, too, it is hinted that he was a member of the noble house of Dunbar. His name appears in 1477 in the Register of the Faculty of Arts at St Andrews, among the Determinants or Bachelors of Arts, and in 1479 among the masters of the university. Thereafter he joined the order of Observantine Franciscans, at St Andrews or Edinburgh, and proceeded to France as a wandering friar. He spent a few years in Picardy, and was still abroad when, in 1491, Bothwell's mission to secure a bride for the young James IV. reached the French court. There is no direct evidence that he accompanied Blackadder, archbishop of Glasgow, on a similar embassy to Spain in 1495. On the other hand, we know that he proceeded with that prelate to England on his more successful mission in 1501. Dunbar had meanwhile (about 1500) returned to Scotland, and had become a priest at court, and a royal pensioner. His literary life begins with his attachment to James's household. All that is known of him from this date to his death about 1520 is derived from the poems or from entries in the royal registers of payments of pension and grants of livery. He is spoken of as the Rhymer of Scotland in the accounts of the English privy council dealing with the visit of the mission for the hand of Margaret Tudor, rather because he wrote a poem in praise of London, than because, as has been stated, he held the post of laureate at the Scottish court. In 1511 he accompanied the queen to Aberdeen and commemorated her visit in verse. Other pieces such as the _Orisoun_ ("Quhen the Gouernour past in France"), apropos of the setting out of the regent Albany, are of historical interest, but they tell us little more than that Dunbar was alive. The date of his death is uncertain. He is named in Lyndsay's _Testament and Complaynt of the Papyngo_ (1530) with poets then dead, and the reference precedes that to Douglas who had died in 1522. He certainly survived his royal patron. We may not be far out in saying that he died about 1520.

Dunbar's reputation among his immediate successors was considerable. By later criticism, stimulated in some measure by Scott's eulogy that he is "unrivalled by any which Scotland has produced," he has held the highest place among the northern makars. The praise, though it has been at times exaggerated, is on the whole just, certainly in respect of variety of work and mastery of form. He belongs, with James I., Henryson and Douglas, to the Scots Chaucerian school. In his allegorical poems reminiscences of the master's style and literary habit are most frequent. Yet, even there, his discipleship shows certain limitations. His wilder humour and greater heat of blood give him opportunities in which the Chaucerian tradition is not helpful, or even possible. His restlessness leads us at times to a comparison with Skelton, not in respect of any parallelism of idea or literary craftsmanship, but in his experimental zeal in turning the diction and tuning the rhythms of the chaotic English which only Chaucer's genius had reduced to order. The comparison must not, however, be pushed too far. Skelton's work carries with it the interest of attempt and failure. Dunbar's command of the medium was more certain. So that while we admire the variety of his work, we also admire the competence of his effort.

One hundred and one poems have been ascribed to Dunbar. Of these at least ninety are generally accepted as his: of the eleven attributed to him it would be hard to say that they should not be considered authentic. Most doubt has clung to his verse tale _The Freiris of Berwik_.

Dunbar's chief allegorical poems are _The Goldyn Targe_ and _The Thrissil and the Rois_. The motif of the former is the poet's futile endeavour, in a dream, to ward off the arrows of Dame Beautee by Reason's "scheld of gold." When wounded and made prisoner, he discovers the true beauty of the lady: when she leaves him, he is handed over to Heaviness. The noise of the ship's guns, as the company sails off, wakes the poet to the real pleasures of a May morning. Dunbar works on the same theme in a shorter poem, known as _Beauty and the Prisoner_. _The Thrissil and the Rois_ is a prothalamium in honour of James IV. and Margaret Tudor, in which the heraldic allegory is based on the familiar beast-parliament.

The greater part of Dunbar's work is occasional--personal and social satire, complaints (in the style familiar in the minor verse of Chaucer's English successors), orisons and pieces of a humorous character. The last type shows Dunbar at his best, and points the difference between him and Chaucer. The best specimen of this work, of which the outstanding characteristics are sheer whimsicality and topsy-turvy humour, is _The Ballad of Kynd Kittok_. This strain runs throughout many of the occasional poems, and is not wanting in odd passages in Dunbar's contemporaries; and it has the additional interest of showing a direct historical relationship with the work of later Scottish poets, and chiefly with that of Robert Burns. Dunbar's satire is never the gentle funning of Chaucer: more often it becomes invective. Examples of this type are _The Satire on Edinburgh_, _The General Satire_, the _Epitaph on Donald Owre_, and the powerful vision of _The Dance of the Sevin Deidlie Synnis_. In the _Flyting of Dunbar and Kennedie_, an outstanding specimen of a favourite northern form, analogous to the continental _estrif_, or _tenzone_, he and his rival reach a height of scurrility which is certainly without parallel in English literature. This poem has the additional interest of showing the racial antipathy between the "Inglis"-speaking inhabitants of the Lothians and the "Scots" or Gaelic-speaking folk of the west country.

There is little in Dunbar which may be called lyrical, and little of the dramatic. His _Interlud of the Droichis [Dwarf's] part of the Play_, one of the pieces attributed to him, is supposed to be a fragment of a dramatic composition. It is more interesting as evidence of his turn for whimsicality, already referred to, and may for that reason be safely ascribed to his pen. If further selection be made from the large body of miscellaneous poems, the comic poem on the physician Andro Kennedy may stand out as one of the best contributions to medieval Goliardic literature; _The Two Mariit Wemen and the Wedo_, as one of the richest and most effective _pastiches_ in the older alliterative style, then used by the Scottish Chaucerians for burlesque purposes; _Done is a battell on the Dragon Blak_, for religious feeling expressed in melodious verse; and the well-known _Lament for the Makaris_. The main value of the last is historical, but it too shows Dunbar's mastery of form, even when dealing with lists of poetic predecessors.

The chief authorities for the text of Dunbar's poems are:--(a) the
Asloan MS. (c. 1515); (b) the Chepman and Myllar Prints (1508)
preserved in the Advocates' library, Edinburgh; (c) Bannatyne MS.
(1568) in the same; (d) the Maitland Folio MS. (c. 1570-1590) in the
Pepysian library, Magdalene College, Cambridge. Some of the poems
appear in the Makculloch MS. (before 1500) in the library of the
university of Edinburgh; in MS. Cotton Vitellius A. xvi., appendix to
Royal MSS. No. 58, and Arundel 285, in the British Museum; in the
Reidpath MS. in the university library of Cambridge; and in the
Aberdeen Register of Sasines. The first complete edition was published
by David Laing (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1834) with a supplement
(Edinburgh, 1865). This has been superseded by the Scottish Text
Society's edition (ed. John Small, Aeneas J.G. Mackay and Walter
Gregor, 3 vols., Edinburgh, 1893), and by Dr Schipper's 1 vol. edition
(Vienna; Kais. Akad. der Wissenschaften, 1894). The editions by James
Paterson (Edinburgh, 1860) and H.B. Baildon (Cambridge, 1907) are of
minor value. Selections have been frequently reprinted since Ramsay's
_Ever-Green_ (1724) and Hailes's _Ancient Scottish Poems_ (1817). For
critical accounts see Irving's _History of Scottish Poetry_,
Henderson's _Vernacular Poetry of Scotland_, Gregory Smith's
_Transition Period_, J.H. Millar's _Literary History of Scotland_,
and the _Cambridge History of English Literature_, vol. ii. (1908).
Professor Schipper's _William Dunbar, sein Leben und seine Gedichte_
(with German translations of several of the poems), appeared at Berlin
in 1884. (G. G. S.)

DUNBAR (Gaelic, "the fort on the point"), a royal, municipal and police burgh, and seaport of Haddingtonshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 3581. It is situated on the southern shore of the entrance to the Firth of Forth, 29-1/4 m. E. by N. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. Dunbar is said to have the smallest rainfall in Scotland and is a favourite summer resort. The ruins of the castle, and the remains of the Grey Friars' monastery, founded in 1218, at the west end of the town, and Dunbar House in High Street, formerly a mansion of the Lauderdales, but now used as barracks, are of historic interest. The parish church, a fine structure in red sandstone, the massive tower of which, 107 ft. high, is a landmark for sailors, dates only from 1819, but occupies the site of what was probably the first collegiate church in Scotland, and contains the large marble monument to Sir George Home, created earl of Dunbar and March by James VI. in 1605. Among other public buildings are the town hall, assembly rooms, St Catherine's hall, the Mechanics' institute and library.

There are two harbours, difficult of access owing to the number of reefs and sunken rocks. Towards the cost of building the eastern or older harbour Cromwell contributed L300. The western or Victoria harbour is a refuge for vessels between Leith Roads and the Tyne. On the advent of steam the shipping declined, and even the herring fishery, which fostered a large curing trade, has lost much of its prosperity. The industries are chiefly those of agricultural-implement making, rope-making, brewing and distilling, but a considerable business is done in the export of potatoes. Dunbar used to form one of the Haddington district group of parliamentary burghs, but its constituency was merged in that of the county in 1885.

About 4 m. S.W. is the village of Biel, where, according to some authorities, William Dunbar the poet was born. One mile to the S.E. of the town is Broxmouth Park (or Brocksmouth House), the first position of the English left wing in the battle of 1650, now belonging to the duke of Roxburghe.

The site of Dunbar is so commanding that a castle was built on the cliffs at least as early as 856. In 1070 Malcolm Canmore gave it to Cospatric, earl of Northumberland, ancestor of the earls of Dunbar and March. The fortress was an important bulwark against English invasion, and the town--which was created a royal burgh by David II.--grew up under its protection. The castle was taken by Edward I., who defeated Baliol in the neighbourhood in 1296, and it afforded shelter to Edward II. after Bannockburn. In 1336 it was besieged by the English under William, Lord Montacute, afterwards 1st earl of Salisbury, but was successfully defended by Black Agnes of Dunbar, countess of March, a member of the Murray family. Joanna Beaufort, widow of James I., chose it for her residence, and in 1479, after his daring escape from Edinburgh Castle, the duke of Albany concealed himself within its walls, until he contrived to sail for France. In 1567 Mary made Bothwell keeper of the castle, and sought its shelter herself after the murder of Rizzio and again after her flight from Borthwick Castle. When she surrendered at Carberry Hill the stronghold fell into the hands of the regent Moray, by whom it was dismantled in 1568, but its ruins are still a picturesque object on the hill above the harbour.

The BATTLE OF DUNBAR was fought on the 3rd (13th) of September 1650 between the English army under Oliver Cromwell and the Scots under David Leslie, afterwards Lord Newark. It took place about 3 m. S.E. of the centre of the town, where between the hills and the sea coast there is a plain about 1 m. wide, through the middle of which the main road from Dunbar to Berwick runs. The plain and the road are crossed at right angles by the course of the Brocksburn, or Spott Burn, which at first separated the hostile armies. Rising from the right bank of the Brock is Doon Hill (650 ft.), which overlooks the lower course of the stream and indeed the whole field. For the events preceding the battle, see GREAT REBELLION.

Cromwell, after a war of manoeuvre near Edinburgh, had been compelled by want of supplies to withdraw to Dunbar; Leslie pursued and took up a position on Doon Hill, commanding the English line of retreat on Berwick. The situation was more than difficult for Cromwell. Some officers were for withdrawing by sea, but the general chose to hold his ground, though his army was enfeebled by sickness and would have to fight on unfavourable terrain against odds of two to one. Leslie, however, who was himself in difficulties on his post among the bare hills, and was perhaps subjected to pressure from civil authorities, descended from the heights on the 2nd of September and began to edge towards his right, in order first to confront, and afterwards to surround, his opponent. The cavalry of his left wing stood fast, west of Doon Hill, as a pivot of manoeuvre, the northern face of Doon (where the ground rises from the burn at an average slope of fifteen degrees and is even steeper near the summit) he left unoccupied. The centre of infantry stood on the forward slope of the long spur which runs east from Doon, and beyond them, practically on the plain, was the bulk of the Scottish cavalry. In the evening Cromwell drew up his army, under 11,000 effective men, along the ravine, and issued orders to attack the Scots at dawn of the 3rd (13th). The left of the Scots was ineffective, as was a part of their centre of foot on the upper part of the hillside, and the English commander proposed to deal with the remainder. Before dawn the English advanced troops crossed the ravine, attacked Doon, and pinned Leslie's left; under cover of this the whole army began its manoeuvre. The artillery was posted on the Dunbar side of the burn, directly opposite and north of Doon, the infantry and cavalry crossed where they could, and formed up gradually in a line south of and roughly parallel to the Berwick road, the extreme left of horse and foot, acting as a reserve, crossed at Brocksmouth House on the outer flank. The Scots were surprised in their bivouacs, but quickly formed up, and at first repulsed both the horse and the foot. But ere long Cromwell himself arrived with his reserve, and the whole English line advanced again. The fresh impulse enabled it to break the Scottish cavalry and repulse the foot, and Leslie's line of battle was gradually rolled up from right to left. In the words of an English officer, "The sun appearing upon the sea, I heard Nol say, 'Now let God arise, and let His enemies be scattered,' and following us as we slowly marched I heard him say, 'I profess they run.'" Driven into the broken ground, and penned between Doon Hill and the ravine, the Scots were indeed helpless. "They routed one another after we had done their work on their right wing," says the same officer. Ten thousand men, including almost the whole of the Scottish foot, surrendered, and their killed numbered three thousand. Few of the English were killed. "I do not believe," wrote Cromwell, "that we have lost twenty men."

The account of the battle of Dunbar here followed is that of C.H.
Firth, for which see his _Cromwell_, pp. 281 ff. and references there
given. For other accounts see Carlyle, _Cromwell's Letters and
Speeches_, letter cxl.; Hoenig, _Cromwell_; Baldock, _Cromwell as a
Soldier_; and Gardiner, _Hist. of the Commonwealth and Protectorate_,
vol. i.

DUNBLANE, a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, on the left bank of Allan Water, a tributary of the Forth, 5 m. N. by W. of Stirling by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 2516. It is a place of great antiquity, with narrow streets and old-fashioned houses. The leading industry is the manufacture of woollens. The cathedral is situated by the side of the river, and was one of the few ecclesiastical edifices that escaped injury at the hands of the Reformers. The first church is alleged to have been erected by Blane, a saint of the 7th century, but the cathedral was founded by David I. in 1141, and almost entirely rebuilt about 1240 by Bishop Clemens. Excepting the tower, which is Early Norman and was probably incorporated from the earlier structure, the building is of the Early Pointed style. It consists of a nave (130 ft. long, 58 ft. wide, 50 ft. high), aisles, choir (80 ft. long by 30 ft. wide), chapter-house and tower. Ruskin considered that there was "nothing so perfect in its simplicity" as the west window, the design of which resembles a leaf. After the decline of episcopacy the building was neglected for a long period, but the choir, which contains some carved oak stalls of the 16th century, was restored in 1873, and the nave roofed and restored in 1892-1895, under the direction of Sir Rowand Anderson, the architect. From the time of the Reformation the choir had been used as the parish church, but since its restoration the whole cathedral has been devoted to this purpose. The new oak roof is emblazoned with the arms of the Scottish and later British monarchs, and of the old earls of Strathearn. Several members of the families of Strathearn and Strathallan were buried in the cathedral, and three stones of blue marble in the floor of the choir are supposed to mark the graves of Lady Margaret Drummond (b. 1472), mistress of James IV., and her two sisters, daughters of Lord Drummond, who were mysteriously poisoned in 1501. An ancient Celtic cross, 6-1/2 ft. high, stands in the north-western corner of the nave. Robert Leighton was the greatest of the bishops of Dunblane, and held the see from 1661 to 1670. The library of 1500 volumes which he bequeathed to the clergy of the diocese is housed in a building with an outside stair, standing near the cathedral, and the Bishop's Walk by the river also perpetuates his memory. Of the bishop's palace only a few ruins remain. The battlefield of Sheriffmuir is about 2-1/2 m. E. of the town. A mile and a half S. of Dunblane is the estate of Keir which belonged to Sir William Stirling-Maxwell, the historian and art critic. The duke of Leeds derives the title of one of his viscounties from Dunblane.

DUNCAN, the name of two Scottish kings.

DUNCAN I. (d. 1040) was a son of Crinan or Cronan, lay abbot of Dunkeld, and became king of the Scots in succession to his maternal grandfather, Malcolm II., in 1034, having previously as _rex Cumbrorum_ ruled in Strathclyde. His accession was "the first example of inheritance of the Scottish throne in the direct line." Duncan is chiefly known through his connexion with Macbeth, which has been immortalized by Shakespeare. The feud between these two princes originated probably in a dispute over the succession to the throne; its details, however, are obscure, and the only fact which can be ascertained with any certainty is that Duncan was slain by Macbeth in 1040. Two of Duncan's sons, Malcolm III. Canmore and Donald V. Bane, were afterwards kings of the Scots.

DUNCAN II. (d. 1094) was a son of Malcolm III. and therefore a grandson of Duncan I. For a time he lived as a hostage in England and became king of the Scots after driving out his uncle, Donald Bane, in 1093, an enterprise in which he was helped by some English and Normans. He was killed in the following year.

See W.F. Skene, _Celtic Scotland_ (1876-1880), and A. Lang, _History
of Scotland_, vol. i. (1900).