Chapter XV: Part 15

_Administration, Revenue, &c._--The country is governed as a crown
colony, the governor being assisted by a legislative council composed
of officials and nominated unofficial members. Laws, called
ordinances, are enacted by the governor with the advice and consent of
this council. The law of the colony is the common law and statutes of
general application in force in England in 1874, modified by local
ordinances passed since that date. The governor is also governor of
Ashanti and the Northern Territories, but in those dependencies the
legislative council has no authority.

Native laws and customs--which are extremely elaborate and
complicated--are not interfered with "except when repugnant to natural
justice." Those relating to land tenure and succession may be thus
summarized. Individual tenure is not unknown, but most land is held by
the tribe or by the family in common, each member having the right to
select a part of the common land for his own use. Permanent alienation
can only take place with the unanimous consent of the family and is
uncommon, but long leases are granted. Succession is through the
female, i.e. when a man dies his property goes to his sister's
children. The government of the tribes is by their own kings and
chiefs under the supervision of district commissioners. Slavery has
been abolished in the colony. In the Northern Territories the dealing
in slaves is unlawful, neither can any person be put in pawn for debt;
nor will any court give effect to the relations between master and
slave except in so far as those relations may be in accordance with
the English laws relating to master and servant.

For administrative purposes the colony is divided into three provinces
under provincial commissioners, and each province is subdivided into
districts presided over by commissioners, who exercise judicial as
well as executive functions. The supreme court consists of a chief
justice and three puisne judges. The defence of the colony is
entrusted to the Gold Coast regiment of the West African Frontier
Force, a force of natives controlled by the Colonial Office but
officered from the British army. There is also a corps of volunteers
(formed 1892).

The chief source of revenue is the customs and (since 1902) railway
receipts, whilst the heaviest items of expenditure are transport
(including railways) and mine surveys, medical and sanitary services,
and maintenance of the military force. The revenue, which in the
period 1894-1898 averaged L244,559 yearly, rose in 1898-1903 to an
average of L556,316 a year. For the five years 1903-1907 the average
annual revenue was L647,557 and the average annual expenditure
L615,696. Save for municipal purposes there is no direct taxation in
the colony and no poor-houses exist. There is a public debt of
(December 1907) L2,206,964. It should be noted that the expenditure on
Ashanti and the Northern Territories is included in the Gold Coast
budget.

_History._--It is a debated question whether the Gold Coast was discovered by French or by Portuguese sailors. The evidence available is insufficient to prove the assertion, of which there is no contemporary record, that a company of Norman merchants established themselves about 1364 at a place they named La Mina (Elmina), and that they traded with the natives for nearly fifty years, when the enterprise was abandoned. It is well established that a Portuguese expedition under Diogo d'Azambuja, accompanied probably by Christopher Columbus, took possession of (or founded) Elmina in 1481-1482. By the Portuguese it was called variously Sao Jorge da Mina or Ora del Mina--the mouth of the (gold) mines. That besides alluvial washings they also worked the gold mines was proved by discoveries in the latter part of the 19th century. The Portuguese remained undisturbed in their trade until the Reformation, when the papal bull which had given the country, with many others, to Portugal ceased to have a binding power. English ships in 1553 brought back from Guinea gold to the weight of 150 lb. The fame of the Gold Coast thereafter attracted to it adventurers from almost every European nation. The English were followed by French, Danes, Brandenburgers, Dutch and Swedes. The most aggressive were the Dutch, who from the end of the 16th century sought to oust the Portuguese from the Gold Coast, and in whose favour the Portuguese did finally withdraw in 1642, in return for the withdrawal on the part of the Dutch of their claims to Brazil. The Dutch henceforth made Elmina their headquarters on the coast. Traces of the Portuguese occupation, which lasted 160 years, are still to be found, notably in the language of the natives. Such familiar words as palaver, fetish, caboceer and dash (i.e. a gift) have all a Portuguese origin.

Appearance of the English.

An English company built a fort at Kormantine previously to 1651, and some ten years later Cape Coast Castle was built. The settlements made by the English provoked the hostility of the Dutch and led to war between England and Holland, during which Admiral de Ruyter destroyed (1664-1665) all the English forts save Cape Coast castle. The treaty of Breda in 1667 confirmed the Dutch in the possession of their conquests, but the English speedily opened other trading stations. Charles II. in 1672 granted a charter to the Royal African Company, which built forts at Dixcove, Sekondi, Accra, Whydah and other places, besides repairing Cape Coast Castle. At this time the trade both in slaves and gold was very great, and at the beginning of the 18th century the value of the gold exported annually was estimated by Willem Bosman, the chief Dutch factor at Elmina, to be over L200,000. The various European traders were constantly quarrelling among themselves and exercised scarcely any control over the natives. Piracy was rife along the coast, and was not indeed finally stamped out until the middle of the 19th century. The Royal African Company, which lost its monopoly of trade with England in 1700, was succeeded by another, the African Company of Merchants, which was constituted in 1750 by act of parliament and received an annual subsidy from government. The slave trade was then at its height and some 10,000 negroes were exported yearly. Many of the slaves were prisoners of war sold to the merchants by the Ashanti, who had become the chief native power. The abolition of the slave trade (1807) crippled the company, which was dissolved in 1821, when the crown took possession of the forts.

Danish and Dutch forts purchased.

Since the beginning of the 19th century the British had begun to exercise territorial rights in the towns where they held forts, and in 1817 the right of the British to control the natives living in the coast towns was recognized by Ashanti. In 1824 the first step towards the extension of British authority beyond the coast region was taken by Governor Sir Charles M'Carthy, who incited the Fanti to rise against their oppressors, the Ashanti. (The Fanti's country had been conquered by the Ashanti in 1807.) Sir Charles and the Fanti army were defeated, the governor losing his life, but in 1826 the English gained a victory over the Ashanti at Dodowah. At this period, however, the home government, disgusted with the Gold Coast by reason of the perpetual disturbances in the protectorate and the trouble it occasioned, determined to abandon the settlements, and sent instructions for the forts to be destroyed and the Europeans brought home. The merchants, backed by Major Rickets, 2nd West India regiments, the administrator, protested, and as a compromise the forts were handed over to a committee of merchants (Sept. 1828), who were given a subsidy of L4000 a year. The merchants secured (1830) as their administrator Mr George Maclean--a gentleman with military experience on the Gold Coast and not engaged in trade. To Maclean is due the consolidation of British interests in the interior. He concluded, 1831, a treaty with the Ashanti advantageous to the Fanti, whilst with very inadequate means he contrived to extend British influence over the whole region of the present colony. In the words of a Fanti trader Maclean understood the people, "he settled things quietly with them and the people also loved him."[2] Complaints that Maclean encouraged slavery reached England, but these were completely disproved, the governor being highly commended on his administration by the House of Commons Committee. It was decided, nevertheless, that the Colonial Office should resume direct control of the forts, which was done in 1843, Maclean continuing to direct native affairs until his death in 1847. The jurisdiction of England on the Gold Coast was defined by the bond of the 6th of March 1844, an agreement with the native chiefs by which the crown received the right of trying criminals, repressing human sacrifice, &c. The limits of the protectorate inland were not defined. The purchase of the Danish forts in 1850, and of the Dutch forts and territory in 1871, led to the consolidation of the British power along the coast; and the Ashanti war of 1873-74 resulted in the extension of the area of British influence. Since that time the colony has been chiefly engaged in the development of its material resources, a development accompanied by a slow but substantial advance in civilization among the native population. (For further historical information see ASHANTI.)

For a time the Gold Coast formed officially a limb of the "West African Settlements" and was virtually a dependency of Sierra Leone. In 1874 the settlements on the Gold Coast and Lagos were created a separate crown colony, this arrangement lasting until 1886 when Lagos was cut off from the Gold Coast administration.

_Northern Territories._

The Northern Territories of the Gold Coast form a British protectorate to the north of Ashanti. They are bounded W. and N.--where 11 deg. N. is the frontier line except at the eastern extremity--by the French colonies of the Ivory Coast and Upper Senegal and Niger, E. by the German colony of Togoland. The southern frontier, separating the protectorate from Ashanti, is the Black Volta to a point a little above its junction with the White Volta. Thence the frontier turns south and afterwards east so as to include the Brumasi district in the protectorate, the frontier gaining the main Volta below Yeji. The Territories include nearly all the country from the meridian of Greenwich to 3 deg. W. and between 8 deg. and 11 deg. N., and cover an area of about 33,000 sq. m.

Lying north of the great belt of primeval forest which extends parallel to the Guinea coast, the greater part of the protectorate consists of open country, well timbered, and much of it presenting a park-like appearance. There are also large stretches of grassy plains, and in the south-east an area of treeless steppe. The flora and fauna resemble those of Ashanti. The country is well watered, the Black Volta forming the west and southern frontier for some distance, while the White Volta traverses its central regions. Both rivers, and also the united stream, contain rapids which impede but do not prevent navigation (see VOLTA). The climate is much healthier than that of the coast districts, and the fever experienced is of a milder type. The rainfall is less than on the coast; the dry season lasts from November (when the harmattan begins to blow) to March. The mean temperature at Gambaga is 80 deg. F., the mean annual rainfall 43 in. The inhabitants were officially estimated in 1907 to number "at least 1,000,000." The Dagomba, Dagarti, Grunshi, Kangarga, Moshi and Zebarima, Negro or Negroid tribes, constitute the bulk of the people, and Fula, Hausa and Yoruba have settled as traders or cattle raisers. A large number of the natives are Moslems, the rest are fetish worshippers. The tribal organization is maintained by the British authorities, who found comparatively little difficulty in putting an end to slave-raiding and gaining the confidence of the chiefs. Trained by British officers, the natives make excellent soldiers.

_Agriculture and Trade._--The chief crops are maize, guinea-corn,
millet, yams, rice, beans, groundnuts, tobacco and cotton. Cotton is
grown in most parts of the protectorate, the soil and climate in many
districts being very suitable for its cultivation. Rubber is found in
the north-western regions. When the protectorate was assumed by Great
Britain the Territories were singularly destitute of fruit trees. The
British have introduced the orange, citron, lime, guava, mango and
soursop, and among plants the banana, pine-apple and papaw. A large
number of vegetables and flowers have also been introduced by the
administration.

Stock-raising is carried on extensively, and besides oxen and sheep
there are large numbers of horses and donkeys in the Territories. The
chief exports are cattle, _dawa-dawa_ (a favourite flavouring matter
for soup among the Ashanti and other tribes) and shea-butter--the
latter used in cooking and as an illuminant. The principal imports are
kola-nuts, salt and cotton goods. A large proportion of the European
goods imported is German and comes through Togoland. The
administration levies a tax on traders' caravans, and in return
ensures the safety of the roads. This tax is the chief local source of
revenue. The revenue and expenditure of the Territories, as well as
statistics of trade, are included in those of the Gold Coast.

Gold exists in quartz formation, chiefly in the valley of the Black
Volta, and is found equally on the British and French sides of the
frontier.

_Towns._--The headquarters of the administration are at Tamale (or
Tamari), a town in the centre of the Dagomba country east of the White
Volta and 200 m. N.E. of Kumasi. Its inhabitants are keen traders, and
it forms a distributing centre for the whole protectorate. Gambaga, an
important commercial centre and from 1897 to 1907 the seat of
government, is in Mamprusi, the north-east corner of the protectorate
and is 85 m. N.N.E. of Tamale. A hundred and forty miles due south of
Gambaga is Salaga. This town is situated on the caravan route from the
Hausa states to Ashanti, and has a considerable trade in kola-nuts,
shea-butter and salt. On the White Volta, midway between Gambaga and
Salaga, is the thriving town of Daboya. On the western frontier are
Bole (Baule) and Wa. They carry on an extensive trade with Bontuku,
the capital of Jaman, and other places in the Ivory Coast colony. In
all the towns the population largely consists of aliens--Hausa,
Ashanti, Mandingos, &c.

_Communications._--Lack of easy communication with the sea hinders the
development of the country. The ancient caravan routes have been,
however, supplemented by roads built by the British, who have further
organized a service of boats on the Volta. Large cargo boats, chiefly
laden with salt, ascend that river from Addah to Yeji and Daboya. From
Yeji, the port of Salaga, a good road, 150 m. long, has been made to
Gambaga. There is also a river service from Yeji to Longoro on the
Black Volta, the port of Kintampo, in northern Ashanti. There is a
complete telegraphic system connecting the towns of the protectorate
with Kumasi and the Gold Coast ports.

_History._--It was not until the last quarter of the 19th century that the country immediately north of Ashanti became known to Europeans. The first step forward was made by Monsieur M. J. Bonnat (one of the Kumasi captives, see ASHANTI) who, ascending the Volta, reached Salaga (1875-1876). In 1882 Captain R. La Trobe Lonsdale, an officer in British colonial service, went farther, visiting Yendi in the north and Bontuku in the west. Two years later Captain Brandon Kirby made his way to Kintampo. In 1887-1889 Captain L. G. Binger, a French officer, traversed the country from north to south. Thereafter the whole region was visited by British, French and German political missions. Prominent among the British agents was Mr George E. Ferguson, a native of West Africa, who had previously explored northern Ashanti. Between 1892 and 1897 Ferguson concluded several treaties guarding British interests. In 1897 Lieutenant Henderson and Ferguson occupied Wa, where they were attacked by the _sofas_ of Samory (see SENEGAL, S 3). Henderson, who had gone to the _sofa_ camp to parley, was held prisoner for some time, while Ferguson was killed. Meantime negotiations were opened in Europe to settle the spheres of influence of the respective countries. (The Anglo-French agreement of 1889 had fixed the boundaries of the hinterlands of the French colony of the Ivory Coast and the British colony of the Gold Coast as far as 9 deg. N. only.) A period of considerable tension, arising from the proximity of British and French troops in the disputed territory, was ended by the signature of a convention in Paris (14th of June 1898), in which the western and northern boundaries were defined. The British abandoned their claim to the important town and district of Wagadugu in the north. In the following year (14th of November 1899) an agreement defining the eastern frontier was concluded with Germany. Previously a square block of territory to the north of 8 deg. N. had been regarded as neutral, both by Britain and Germany. This was in virtue of an arrangement made in 1888. By the 1899 convention the neutral zone was parcelled out between the two powers. The delimitation of the frontiers agreed upon took place during 1900-1904.

In 1897 the Northern Territories were constituted a separate district of the Gold Coast hinterland, and were placed in charge of a chief commissioner. Colonel H. P. Northcott (killed in the Boer War, 1899-1902) was the first commissioner and commandant of the troops. He was succeeded by Col. A. H. Morris. In 1901 the Territories were made a distinct administration, under the jurisdiction of the governor of the Gold Coast colony. The government was at first of a semi-military character, but in 1907 a civilian staff was appointed to carry on the administration, and a force of armed constabulary replaced the troops which had been stationed in the protectorate and which were then disbanded. The prosperity of the country under British administration has been marked.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A good summary of the condition and history of the
colony to the close of the 19th century will be found in vol. 3, "West
Africa," of the _Historical Geography of the British Empire_ by C. P.
Lucas (2nd ed., Oxford, 1900). For current information see the _Gold
Coast Civil Service List_ (London, yearly), the annual Blue Books
published in the colony, and the annual _Report_ issued by the
Colonial Office, London. For fuller information consult the _Report
from the Select Committee on Africa_ (_Western Coast_) (London, 1865),
a mine of valuable information; _The Gold Coast, Past and Present_, by
G. Macdonald (London, 1898); _History of the Gold Coast and Ashanti_,
by C. C. Reindorf, a native pastor (Basel, 1895); _A History of the
Gold Coast_, by Col. A. B. Ellis (London, 1893); _Wanderings in West
Africa_ (London, 1863) and _To the Gold Coast for Gold_ (London,
1883), both by Sir Richard Burton. Of the earlier books the most
notable are _The Golden Coast or a Description of Guinney together
with a relation of such persons as got wonderful estates by their
trade thither_ (London, 1665), and _A New and Accurate Description of
the Coast of Guinea_ written (in Dutch) by Willem Bosman, chief factor
for the Dutch at Elmina (Eng. trans., 2nd ed., 1721). For a complete
survey of the Gold Coast under Dutch control see "Die Niederlandisch
West-Indische Compagnie an der Gold-Kuste" by J. G. Doorman in _Tijds
Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenk_, vol. 40 (1898). For ethnography,
religion, law, &c., consult _The Land of Fetish_ (London, 1883) and
_The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the West Coast of Africa_ (London,
1887), both by Col. A. B. Ellis; _Fanti Customary Law_ (2nd ed.,
London, 1904) and _Fanti Law Report_ (London, 1904), both by J. M.
Sarbah. The _Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa_ by Sir Alfred
Moloney (London, 1887) contains a comprehensive list of economic
plants. See also _Report on Economic Agriculture on the Gold Coast_
(Colonial Office Reports, No. 110, 1890), and _Papers relating to the
Construction of Railways in ... the Gold Coast_ (London, 1904). The
best map is that of Major F. G. Guggisberg, over 70 sheets, scale 1 :
125,000 (London, 1907-1909). There is a War Office map on the scale 1
: 1,000,000 in one sheet. See also the works quoted under ASHANTI.

For the Northern Territories see L. G. Binger, _Du Niger au Golfe de
Guinee_ (Paris, 1892), a standard authority; H. P. Northcott, _Report
on the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast_ (War Office, London,
1899), a valuable compilation summarizing the then available
information. Annual _Reports_ on the protectorate are issued by the
British Colonial Office. A map on the scale of 1 : 1,000,000 is issued
by the War Office. (F. R. C.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] This name appears in a great variety of forms--Kwi, Ekwi, Okwi,
Oji, Odschi, Otsui, Tyi, Twi, Tschi, Chwee or Chee.

[2] Blue Book on _Africa_ (_Western Coast_) (1865), p. 233.

GOLDEN, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county, Colorado, U.S.A., on Clear Creek (formerly called the Vasquez fork of the South Platte), about 14 m. W. by N. of Denver. Pop. (1900) 2152; (1910) 2477. Golden is a residential suburb of Denver, served by the Colorado & Southern, the Denver & Intermountain (electric), and the Denver & North-Western Electric railways. It is about 5700 ft. above sea-level. About 600 ft. above the city is Castle Rock, with an amusement park, and W. of Golden is Lookout Mountain, a natural park of 3400 acres. About 1 m. S. of the city is a state industrial school for boys, and in Golden is the Colorado State School of Mines (opened 1874), which offers courses in mining engineering and metallurgical engineering. The Independent Pyritic Smelter is at Golden, and among the city's manufactures are pottery, firebrick and tile, made from clays found near by, and flour. There are deposits of coal, copper and gold in the vicinity. Truck-farming and the growing of fruit are important industries in the neighbourhood. The first settlement here was a gold mining camp, established in 1859, and named in honour of Tom Golden, one of the pioneer prospectors. The village was laid out in 1860, and Golden was incorporated as a town in 1865 and was chartered as a city in 1870. Golden was made the capital of Colorado Territory in 1862, and several sessions (or parts of sessions) of the Assembly were held here between 1864 and 1868, when the seat of government was formally established at Denver; the territorial offices of Colorado, however, were at Golden only in 1866-1867.

GOLDEN BULL (Lat. _Bulla Aurea_), the general designation of any charter decorated with a golden seal or _bulla_, either owing to the intrinsic importance of its contents, or to the rank and dignity of the bestower or the recipient. The custom of thus giving distinction to certain documents is said to be of Byzantine origin, though if this be the case it is somewhat strange that the word employed as an equivalent for golden bull in Byzantine Greek should be the hybrid [Greek: chrysoboullon] (cf. Codinus Curopalates, [Greek: ho megas logothetes diatattei ta para tou basileos apostellomena prostagmata kai chrysoboulla pros te Hregas, Soultanas, kai toparchous]; and Anna Comnena, Alexiad, lib. iii. [Greek: dia Xpusobouliou logou]; lib. viii., [Greek: chrysoboulon logon]). In Germany a Golden Bull is mentioned under the reign of Henry I. the Fowler in Chronica Cassin. ii. 31, and the oldest German example, if it be genuine, dates from 983. At first the golden seal was formed after the type of a solid coin, but at a later date, while the golden surface presented to the eye was greatly increased, the seal was really composed of two thin metal plates filled in with wax. The number of golden bulls issued by the imperial chancery must have been very large; the city of Frankfort, for example, preserves no fewer than eight.

The name, however, has become practically restricted to a few documents of unusual political importance, the golden bull of the Empire, the golden bull of Brabant, the golden bull of Hungary and the golden bull of Milan--and of these the first is undoubtedly _the_ Golden Bull _par excellence_. The main object of the Golden Bull was to provide a set of rules for the election of the German kings, or kings of the Romans, as they are called in this document. Since the informal establishment of the electoral college about a century before (see ELECTORS), various disputes had taken place about the right of certain princes to vote at the elections, these and other difficulties having arisen owing to the absence of any authoritative ruling. The spiritual electors, it is true, had exercised their votes without challenge, but far different was the case of the temporal electors. The families ruling in Saxony and in Bavaria had been divided into two main branches and, as the German states had not yet accepted the principles of primogeniture, it was uncertain which member of the divided family should vote. Thus, both the prince ruling in Saxe-Lauenburg and the prince ruling in Saxe-Wittenberg claimed the vote, and the two branches of the family of Wittelsbach, one settled in Bavaria and the other in the Rhenish palatinate, were similarly at variance, while the duke of Bavaria also claimed the vote at the expense of the king of Bohemia. Moreover, there had been several disputed and double elections to the German crown during the past century. In more than one instance a prince, chosen by a minority of the electors, had claimed to exercise the functions of king, and as often civil war had been the result. Under these circumstances the emperor Charles IV. determined by an authoritative pronouncement to make such proceedings impossible in the future, and at the same time to add to his own power and prestige, especially in his capacity as king of Bohemia.

Having arranged various disputes in Germany, and having in April 1355 secured his coronation in Rome, Charles gave instructions for the bull to be drawn up. It is uncertain who is responsible for its actual composition. The honour has been assigned to Bartolo of Sassoferrato, professor of law at Pisa and Perugia, to the imperial secretary, Rudolph of Friedberg, and even to the emperor himself, but there is no valid authority for giving it to any one of the three in preference to the others. In its first form the bull was promulgated at the diet of Nuremberg on the 10th of January 1356, but it was not accepted by the princes until some modifications had been introduced, and in its final form it was issued at the diet of Metz on the 25th of December following.

The text of the Golden Bull consists of a prologue and of thirty-one chapters. Some lines of verse invoking the aid of Almighty God are followed by a rhetorical statement of the evils which arise from discord and division, illustrations being taken from Adam, who was divided from obedience and thus fell, and from Helen of Troy who was divided from her husband. The early chapters are mainly concerned with details of the elaborate ceremonies which are to be observed on the occasion of an election. The number of electors is fixed at seven, the duke of Saxe-Wittenberg, not the duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, receiving the Saxon vote, and the count palatine, not the duke of Bavaria, obtaining the vote of the Wittelsbachs. The electors were arranged in order of precedence thus: the archbishops of Mainz, of Trier and of Cologne, the king of Bohemia, _qui inter electores laicos ex regiae dignitatis fastigio jure et merito obtinet primatiam_, the count palatine of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony and the margrave of Brandenburg. The three archbishops were respectively arch-chancellors of the three principal divisions of the Empire, Germany, Arles and Italy, and the four secular electors each held an office in the imperial household, the functions of which they were expected to discharge on great occasions. The king of Bohemia was the arch-cupbearer, the count palatine was the arch-steward (_dapifer_), the duke of Saxony was arch-marshal, and the margrave of Brandenburg was arch-chamberlain. The work of summoning the electors and of presiding over their deliberations fell to the archbishop of Mainz, but if he failed to discharge this duty the electors were to assemble without summons within three months of the death of a king. Elections were to be held at Frankfort; they were to be decided by a majority of votes, and the subsequent coronation at Aix-la-Chapelle was to be performed by the archbishop of Cologne. During a vacancy in the Empire the work of administering the greater part of Germany was entrusted to the count palatine of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony being responsible, however, for the government of Saxony, or rather for the districts _ubi Saxonica jura servantur_.

The chief result of the bull was to add greatly to the power of the electors; for, to quote Bryce (_Holy Roman Empire_), it "confessed and legalized the independence of the electors and the powerlessness of the crown." To these princes were given sovereign rights in their dominions, which were declared indivisible and were to pass according to the rule of primogeniture. Except in extreme cases, there was to be no appeal from the sentences of their tribunals, and they were confirmed in the right of coining money, of taking tolls, and in other privileges, while conspirators against their lives were to suffer the penalties of treason. One clause gave special rights and immunities to the king of Bohemia, who, it must be remembered, at this time was Charles himself, and others enjoined the observance of the public peace. Provision was made for an annual meeting of the electors, to be held at Metz four weeks after Easter, when matters _pro bono et salute communi_ were to be discussed. This arrangement, however, was not carried out, although the electors met occasionally. Another clause forbade the cities to receive _Pfahlburger_, i.e. forbade them to take men dwelling outside their walls under their protection. It may be noted that there is no admission whatever that the election of a king needs confirmation from the pope.

The Golden Bull was thus a great victory for the electors, but it weakened the position of the German king and was a distinct humiliation for the other princes and for the cities. The status of those rulers who did not obtain the electoral privilege was lowered by this very fact, and the regulations about the _Pfahlburger_, together with the prohibition of new leagues and associations, struck a severe blow at the cities. The German kings were elected according to the conditions laid down in the bull until the dissolution of the Empire in 1806. At first the document was known simply as the Lex Carolina; but gradually the name of the Book with the Golden Bull came into use, and the present elliptical title was sufficiently established by 1417 to be officially employed in a charter by King Sigismund. The original autograph was committed to the care of the elector of Mainz, and it was preserved in the archives at Mainz till 1789. Official transcripts were probably furnished to each of the seven electors at the time of the promulgation, and before long many of the other members of the Empire secured copies for themselves. The transcript which belonged to the elector of Trier is preserved in the state archives at Stuttgart, that of the elector of Cologne in the court library at Darmstadt, and that of the king of Bohemia in the imperial archives at Vienna. Berlin, Munich and Dresden also boast the possession of an electoral transcript; and the town of Kitzingen has a contemporary copy in its municipal archives. There appears, however, to be good reason to doubt the genuineness of most of these so-called original transcripts. But perhaps the best known example is that of Frankfort-on-Main, which was procured from the imperial chancery in 1366, and is adorned with a golden seal like the original. Not only was it regularly quoted as the indubitable authority in regard to the election of the emperors in Frankfort itself, but it was from time to time officially consulted by members of the Empire.

The manuscript consists of 43 leaves of parchment of medium quality,
each measuring about 10-1/8 in. in height by 7-1/8 in breadth. The
seal is of the plate and wax type. On the obverse appears a figure of
the emperor seated on his throne, with the sceptre in his right hand
and the globe in his left; a shield, with the crowned imperial eagle,
occupies the space on the one side of the throne, and a corresponding
shield, with the crowned Bohemian lion with two tails, occupies the
space on the other side; and round the margin runs the legend,
_Karolus quartus divina favente clementia, Romanorum imperator semper
Augustus et Boemiae rex_. On the reverse is a castle, with the words
_Aurea Roma_ on the gate, and the circumscription reads, _Roma caput
mundi regit orbis frena rotundi_. The original Latin text of the bull
was printed at Nuremberg by Friedrich Creussner in 1474, and a second
edition by Anthonius Koburger (d. 1532) appeared at the same place in
1477. Since that time it has been frequently reprinted from various
manuscripts and collections. M. Goldast gave the Palatine text,
compared with those of Bohemia and Frankfort, in his _Collectio
constitutionum et legum imperialium_ (Frankfort, 1613). Another is to
be found in _De comitiis imperii_ of O. Panvinius, and a third, of
unknown history, is prefixed to the _Codex recessuum Imperii_ (Mainz,
1599, and again 1615). The Frankfort text appeared in 1742 as _Aurea
Bulla secundum exemplar originale Frankfurtense_, edited by W. C.
Multz, and the text is also found in J. J. Schmauss, Corpus juris
publici, edited by R. von Hommel (Leipzig, 1794), and in the
_Ausgewahlte Urkunden zur Erlauterung der Verfassungsgeschichte
Deutschlands im Mittelalter_, edited by W. Altmann and E. Bernheim
(Berlin, 1891, and again 1895). German translations, none of which,
however, had any official authority, were published at Nuremberg about
1474, at Venice in 1476, and at Strassburg in 1485. Among the earlier
commentators on the document are H. Canisius and J. Limnaeus who wrote
_In Auream Bullam_ (Strassburg, 1662). The student will find a good
account of the older literature on the subject in C. G. Biener's
_Commentarii de origine et progressu legum juriumque Germaniae_
(1787-1795). See also J. D. von Olenschlager, _Neue Erlauterungen der
Guldenen Bulle_ (Frankfort and Leipzig, 1766); H. G. von Thulemeyer,
_De Bulla Aurea, Argentea_, &c. (Heidelberg, 1682); J. St Putter,
_Historische Entwickelung der heutigen Staatsverfassung des teutschen
Reichs_ (Gottingen, 1786-1787), and O. Stobbe, _Geschichte der
deutschen Rechtsquellen_ (Brunswick, 1860-1864). Among the more modern
works may be mentioned: E. Nerger, _Die Goldne Bulle nach ihrem
Ursprung_ (Gottingen, 1877), O. Hahn, _Ursprung und Bedeutung der
Goldnen Bulle_ (Breslau, 1903); and M. G. Schmidt, _Die
staatsrechtliche Anwendung der Goldnen Bulle_ (Halle, 1894). There is
a valuable contribution to the subject in the _Quellensammlung zur
Geschichte der deutschen Reichsverfassung_, edited by K. Zeumer
(Leipzig, 1904), and another by O. Harnack in his _Das Kurfursten
Kollegium bis zur Mitte des 14ten Jahrhunderts_ (Giessen, 1883). There
is an English translation of the bull in E. F. Henderson's _Select
Historical Documents of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1903).
(A. W. H.*)

GOLDEN-EYE, a name indiscriminately given in many parts of Britain to two very distinct species of ducks, from the rich yellow colour of their irides. The commonest of them--the _Anas fuligula_ of Linnaeus and _Fuligula cristata_ of most modern ornithologists--is, however, usually called by English writers the tufted duck, while "golden-eye" is reserved in books for the _A. clangula_ and _A. glaucion_ of Linnaeus, who did not know that the birds he so named were but examples of the same species, differing only in age or sex; and to this day many fowlers perpetuate a like mistake, deeming the "Morillon," which is the female or young male, distinct from the "Golden-eye" or "Rattle-wings" (as from its noisy flight they oftener call it), which is the adult male. This species belongs to the group known as diving ducks, and is the type of the very well-marked genus _Clangula_ of later systematists, which, among other differences, has the posterior end of the sternum prolonged so as to extend considerably over, and, we may not unreasonably suppose, protect the belly--a character possessed in a still greater degree by the mergansers (_Merginae_), while the males also exhibit in the extraordinarily developed bony labyrinth of their trachea and its midway enlargement another resemblance to the members of the same subfamily. The golden-eye, _C. glaucion_ of modern writers, has its home in the northern parts of both hemispheres, whence in winter it migrates southward; but as it is one of the ducks that constantly resorts to hollow trees for the purpose of breeding it hardly transcends the limit of the Arctic forests on either continent. So well known is this habit to the people of the northern districts of Scandinavia, that they very commonly devise artificial nest-boxes for its accommodation and their own profit. Hollow logs of wood are prepared, the top and bottom closed, and a hole cut in the side. These are affixed to the trunks of living trees in suitable places, at a convenient distance from the ground, and, being readily occupied by the birds in the breeding season, are regularly robbed, first of the numerous eggs, and finally of the down they contain, by those who have set them up.

The adult male golden-eye is a very beautiful bird, mostly black above, but with the head, which is slightly crested, reflecting rich green lights, a large oval white patch under each eye and elongated white scapulars; the lower parts are wholly white and the feet bright orange, except the webs, which are dusky. In the female and young male, dark brown replaces the black, the cheek-spots are indistinct and the elongated white scapulars wanting. The golden-eye of North America has been by some authors deemed to differ, and has been named _C. americana_, but apparently on insufficient grounds. North America, however, has, in common with Iceland, a very distinct species, _C. islandica_, often called Barrow's duck, which is but a rare straggler to the continent of Europe, and never, so far as known, to Britain. In Iceland and Greenland it is the only habitual representative of the genus, and it occurs from thence to the Rocky Mountains. In breeding-habits it differs from the commoner species, not placing its eggs in tree-holes; but how far this difference is voluntary may be doubted, for in the countries it frequents trees are wanting. It is a larger and stouter bird, and in the male the white cheek-patches take a more crescentic form, while the head is glossed with purple rather than green, and the white scapulars are not elongated. The New World also possesses a third and still more beautiful species of the genus in _C. albeola_, known in books as the buffel-headed duck, and to American fowlers as the "spirit-duck" and "butter-ball"--the former name being applied from its rapidity in diving, and the latter from its exceeding fatness in autumn. This is of small size, but the lustre of the feathers in the male is most brilliant, exhibiting a deep plum-coloured gloss on the head. It breeds in trees, and is supposed to have occurred more than once in Britain. (A. N.)

GOLDEN FLEECE, in Greek mythology, the fleece of the ram on which Phrixus and Helle escaped, for which see ARGONAUTS. For the modern order of the Golden Fleece, see KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY, section _Orders of Knighthood_.

GOLDEN HORDE, the name of a body of Tatars who in the middle of the 13th century overran a great portion of eastern Europe and founded in Russia the Tatar empire of khanate known as the Empire of the Golden Horde or Western Kipchaks. They invaded Europe about 1237 under the leadership of Batu Khan, a younger son of Juji, eldest son of Jenghiz Khan, passed over Russia with slaughter and destruction, and penetrated into Silesia, Poland and Hungary, finally defeating Henry II., duke of Silesia, at Liegnitz in the battle known as the Wahlstatt on the 9th of April 1241. So costly was this victory, however, that Batu, finding he could not reduce Neustadt, retraced his steps and established himself in his magnificent tent (whence the name "golden") on the Volga. The new settlement was known as _Sir Orda_ ("Golden Camp," whence "Golden _Horde_"). Very rapidly the powers of Batu extended over the Russian princes, and so long as the khanate remained in the direct descent from Batu nothing occurred to check the growth of the empire. The names of Batu's successors are Sartak (1256), Bereke (Baraka) (1256-1266), Mangu-Timur (1266-1280), Tuda Mangu (1280-1287). (?) Tula Bugha (1287-1290), Toktu (1290-1312), Uzbeg (1312-1340), Tin-Beg (1340), Jani-Beg (1340-1357). The death of Jani-Beg, however, threw the empire into confusion. Birdi-Beg (Berdi-Beg) only reigned for two years, after which two rulers, calling themselves sons of Jani-Beg occupied the throne during one year. From that time (1359) till 1378 no single ruler held the whole empire under control, various members of the other branches of the old house of Juji assuming the title. At last in 1378 Toktamish, of the Eastern Kipchaks, succeeded in ousting all rivals, and establishing himself as ruler of eastern and western Kipchak. For a short time the glory of the Golden Horde was renewed, until it was finally crushed by Timur in 1395.

See further MONGOLS and RUSSIA; Sir Henry Howorth's _History of the
Mongols_; S. Lane-Poole's _Mohammadan Dynasties_ (1894), pp. 222-231;
for the relations of the various descendants of Jenghiz, see Stockvis,
_Manuel d'histoire_, vol. i. chap. ix. table 7.

GOLDEN ROD, in botany, the popular name for _Solidago virgaurea_ (natural order Compositae), a native of Britain and widely distributed in the north temperate region. It is an old-fashioned border-plant flowering from July to September, with an erect, sparingly-branched stem and small bright-yellow clustered heads of flowers. It grows well in common soil and is readily propagated by division in the spring or autumn.

GOLDEN ROSE (_rosa aurea_), an ornament made of wrought gold and set with gems, generally sapphires, which is blessed by the pope on the fourth (_Laetare_) Sunday of Lent, and usually afterwards sent as a mark of special favour to some distinguished individual, to a church, or a civil community. Formerly it was a single rose of wrought gold, coloured red, but the form finally adopted is a thorny branch with leaves and flowers, the petals of which are decked with gems, surmounted by one principal rose. The origin of the custom is obscure. From very early times popes have given away a rose on the fourth Sunday of Lent, whence the name Dominica Rosa, sometimes given to this feast. The practice of blessing and sending some such symbol (e.g. _eulogiae_) goes back to the earliest Christian antiquity, but the use of the rose itself does not seem to go farther back than the 11th century. According to some authorities it was used by Leo IX. (1049-1054), but in any case Pope Urban II. sent one to Fulk of Anjou during the preparations for the first crusade. Pope Urban V., who sent a golden rose to Joanna of Naples in 1366, is alleged to have been the first to determine that one should be consecrated annually. Beginning with the 16th century there went regularly with the rose a letter relating the reasons why it was sent, and reciting the merits and virtues of the receiver. When the change was made from the form of the simple rose to the branch is uncertain. The rose sent by Innocent IV. in 1244 to Count Raymond Berengar IV. of Provence was a simple flower without any accessory ornamentation, while the one given by Benedict XI. in 1303 or 1304 to the church of St Stephen at Perugia consisted of a branch garnished with five open and two closed roses enriched with a sapphire, the whole having a value of seventy ducats. The value of the gift varied according to the character or rank of the recipient. John XXII. gave away some weighing 12 oz., and worth from L250 to L325. Among the recipients of this honour have been Henry VI. of England, 1446; James III. of Scotland, on whom the rose (made by Jacopo Magnolio) was conferred by Innocent VIII., James IV. of Scotland; Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony, who received a rose from Leo X. in 1518; Henry VIII. of England, who received three, the last from Clement VII. in 1524 (each had nine branches, and rested on different forms of feet, one on oxen, the second on acorns, and the third on lions); Queen Mary, who received one in 1555 from Julius III.; the republic of Lucca, so favoured by Pius IV., in 1564; the Lateran Basilica by Pius V. three years later; the sanctuary of Loreto by Gregory XIII. in 1584; Maria Theresa, queen of France, who received it from Clement IX. in 1668; Mary Casimir, queen of Poland, from Innocent XI. in 1684 in recognition of the deliverance of Vienna by her husband, John Sobieski; Benedict XIII. (1726) presented one to the cathedral of Capua, and in 1833 it was sent by Gregory XVI. to the church of St Mark's, Venice. In more recent times it was sent to Napoleon III. of France, the empress Eugenie, and the queens Isabella II., Christina (1886) and Victoria (1906) of Spain. The gift of the golden rose used almost invariably to accompany the coronation of the king of the Romans. If in any particular year no one is considered worthy of the rose, it is laid up in the Vatican.

Some of the most famous Italian goldsmiths have been employed in making the earlier roses; and such intrinsically valuable objects have, in common with other priceless historical examples of the goldsmiths' art, found their way to the melting-pot. It is, therefore, not surprising that the number of existing historic specimens is very small. These include one of the 14th century in the Cluny Museum, Paris, believed to have been sent by Clement V. to the prince-bishop of Basel; another conferred in 1458 on his native city of Siena by Pope Pius II.; and the rose bestowed upon Siena by Alexander VII., a son of that city, which is depicted in a procession in a fresco in the Palazzo Pubblico at Siena. The surviving roses of more recent date include that presented by Benedict XIII. to Capua cathedral; the rose conferred on the empress Caroline by Pius VII., 1819, at Vienna; one of 1833 (Gregory XVI.) at St Mark's, Venice; and Pope Leo XIII.'s rose sent to Queen Christina of Spain, which is at Madrid.

AUTHORITIES.--Angelo Rocca, _Aurea Rosa_, &c. (1719); Busenelli, _De
Rosa Aurea. Epistola_ (1759); Girbal, _La Rosa de oro_ (Madrid, 1820);
C. Joret, _La Rose d'or dans l'antiquite et au moyen age_ (Paris,
1892), pp. 432-435; Eugene Muntz in _Revue d'art chretien_ (1901),
series v. vol. 12 pp. 1-11; De F. Mely, _Le Tresor de Chartres_
(1886); Marquis de Mac Swiney Mashanaglass, _Le Portugal et le Saint
Siege: Les Roses d'or envoyees par les Papes aux rois de Portugal au
XVI^e siecle_ (1904); Sir C. Young, _Ornaments and Gift consecrated by
the Roman Pontiffs: the Golden Rose, the Cap and Swords presented to
Sovereigns of England and Scotland_ (1864). (J. T. S.*; E. A. J.)

GOLDEN RULE, the term applied in all European languages to the rule of conduct laid down in the New Testament (Matthew vii. 12 and Luke vi. 31). "whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them, for this is the law and the prophets." This principle has often been stated as the fundamental precept of social morality. It is sometimes put negatively or passively, "do not that to another which thou wouldst not have done to thyself" (cf. Hobbes, _Leviathan_, xv. 79, xvii. 85), but it should be observed that in this form it implies merely abstention from evil doing. In either form the precept in ordinary application is part of a hedonistic system of ethics, the criterion of action being strictly utilitarian in character.

See H. Sidgwick, _History of Ethics_ (5th ed., 1902), p. 167; James
Seth, _Ethical Principles_, p. 97 foll.

GOLDFIELD, a town and the county-seat of Esmeralda county, Nevada, U.S.A., about 170 m. S.E. of Carson City. Pop. (1910, U.S. census) 4838. It is served by the Tonopah & Groldfield, Las Vegas & Tonopah, and Tonopah & Tidewater railways. The town lies in the midst of a desert abounding in high-grade gold ores, and is essentially a mining camp. The discovery of gold at Tonopah, about 28 m. N. of Goldfield, in 1900 was followed by its discovery at Goldfield in 1902 and 1903; in 1904 the Goldfield district produced about 800 tons of ore, which yielded $2,300,000 worth of gold, or 30% of that of the State. This remarkable production caused Goldfield to grow rapidly, and it soon became the largest town in the state. In addition to the mines, there are large reduction works. In 1907 Goldfield became the county-seat. The gold output in 1907 was $8,408,396; in 1908, $4,880,251. Soon after mining on an extensive scale began, the miners organized themselves as a local branch of the Western Federation of Miners, and in this branch were included many labourers in Goldfield other than miners. Between this branch and the mine-owners there arose a series of more or less serious differences, and there were several set strikes--in December 1906 and January 1907, for higher wages; in March and April 1907, because the mine-owners refused to discharge carpenters who were members of the American Federation of Labour, but did not belong to the Western Federation of Miners or to the Industrial Workers of the World affiliated with it, this last organization being, as a result of the strike, forced out of Goldfield; in August and September 1907, because a rule was introduced at some of the mines requiring miners to change their clothing before entering and after leaving the mines,--a rule made necessary, according to the operators, by the wholesale stealing (in miners' parlance, "high-grading") of the very valuable ore (some of it valued at as high as $20 a pound); and in November and December 1907, because some of the mine-owners, avowedly on account of the hard times, adopted a system of paying in cashier's checks. Excepting occasional attacks upon non-union workmen, or upon persons supposed not to be in sympathy with the miners' union, there had been no serious disturbance in Goldfield; but in December 1907, Governor Sparks, at the instance of the mine-owners, appealed to President Roosevelt to send Federal troops to Goldfield, on the ground that the situation there was ominous, that destruction of life and property seemed probable, and that the state had no militia and would be powerless to maintain order. President Roosevelt thereupon (December 4th) ordered General Frederick Funston, commanding the Division of California, at San Francisco, to proceed with 300 Federal troops to Goldfield. The troops arrived in Goldfield on the 6th of December, and immediately afterwards the mine-owners reduced wages and announced that no members of the Western Federation of Miners would thereafter be employed in the mines. President Roosevelt, becoming convinced that conditions had not warranted Governor Sparks's appeal for Federal assistance, but that the immediate withdrawal of the troops might nevertheless lead to serious disorders, consented that they should remain for a short time on condition that the state should immediately organize an adequate militia or police force. Accordingly, a special meeting of the legislature was immediately called, a state police force was organized, and on the 7th of March 1908 the troops were withdrawn. Thereafter work was gradually resumed in the mines, the contest having been won by the mine-owners.