Chapter II: Part 2

Henry V. measured Humphrey's capacity, and by his will named him merely deputy for Bedford in England. Humphrey at once claimed the full position of regent, but the parliament and council allowed him only the title of protector during Bedford's absence, with limited powers. His lack of discretion soon justified this caution. In the autumn of 1422 he married Jacqueline of Bavaria, heiress of Holland, to whose lands Philip of Burgundy had claims. Bedford, in the interest of so important an ally, endeavoured vainly to restrain his brother. Finally in October 1424 Humphrey took up arms in his wife's behalf, but after a short campaign in Hainault went home, and left Jacqueline to be overwhelmed by Burgundy. Returning to England in April 1425 he soon entangled himself in a quarrel with the council and his uncle Henry Beaufort, and stirred up a tumult in London. Open war was averted only by Beaufort's prudence, and Bedford's hurried return. Humphrey had charged his uncle with disloyalty to the late and present kings. With some difficulty Bedford effected a formal reconciliation at Leicester in March 1426, and forced Humphrey to accept Beaufort's disavowal. When Bedford left England next year Humphrey renewed his intrigues. But one complication was removed by the annulling in 1428 of his marriage with Jacqueline. His open adultery with his mistress, Eleanor Cobham, also made him unpopular. To check his indiscretion the council, in November 1429, had the king crowned, and so put an end to Humphrey's protectorate. However, when Henry VI. was soon afterwards taken to be crowned in France, Humphrey was made lieutenant and warden of the kingdom, and thus ruled England for nearly two years. His jealousy of Bedford and Beaufort still continued, and when the former died in 1435 there was no one to whom he would defer. The defection of Burgundy roused English feeling, and Humphrey won popularity as leader of the war party. In 1436 he commanded in a short invasion of Flanders. But he had no real power, and his political importance lay in his persistent opposition to Beaufort and the councillors of his party. In 1439 he renewed his charges against his uncle without effect. His position was further damaged by his connexion with Eleanor Cobham, whom he had now married. In 1441 Eleanor was charged with practising sorcery against the king, and Humphrey had to submit to see her condemned, and her accomplices executed. Nevertheless, he continued his political opposition, and endeavoured to thwart Suffolk, who was now taking Beaufort's place in the council, by opposing the king's marriage to Margaret of Anjou. Under Suffolk's influence Henry VI. grew to distrust his uncle altogether. The crisis came in the parliament of Bury St Edmunds in February 1447. Immediately on his arrival there Humphrey was arrested, and four days later, on the 23rd of February, he died. Rumour attributed his death to foul play. But his health had been long undermined by excesses, and his end was probably only hastened by the shock of his arrest.

Humphrey was buried at St Albans Abbey, in a fine tomb, which still exists. He was ambitious and self-seeking, but unstable and unprincipled, and, lacking the fine qualities of his brothers, excelled neither in war nor in peace. Still he was a cultured and courtly prince, who could win popularity. He was long remembered as the good Duke Humphrey, and in his lifetime was a liberal patron of letters. He had been a great collector of books, many of which he presented to the university of Oxford. He contributed also to the building of the Divinity School, and of the room still called Duke Humphrey's library. His books were dispersed at the Reformation and only three volumes of his donation now remain in the Bodleian library. Titus Livius, an Italian in Humphrey's service, wrote a life of Henry V. at his patron's bidding. Other Italian scholars, as Leonardo Aretino, benefited by his patronage. Amongst English men of letters he befriended Reginald Pecock, Whethamstead of St Albans, Capgrave the historian, Lydgate, and Gilbert Kymer, who was his physician and chancellor of Oxford university. A popular error found Humphrey a fictitious tomb in St Paul's Cathedral. The adjoining aisle, called Duke Humphrey's Walk, was frequented by beggars and needy adventurers. Hence the 16th-century proverb "to dine with Duke Humphrey," used of those who loitered there dinnerless.

The most important contemporary sources are Stevenson's _Wars of the
English in France_, Whethamstead's _Register_, and Beckington's
_Letters_ (all in Rolls Ser.), with the various _London Chronicles_,
and the works of Waurin and Monstrelet. For his relations with
Jacqueline see F. von Loher's _Jacobaa von Bayern und ihre Zeit_ (2
vols., Nordlingen, 1869). For other modern authorities consult W.
Stubbs's _Constitutional History_; J. H. Ramsay's _Lancaster and
York_; _Political History of England_, vol. iv.; R. Pauli, _Pictures
of Old England_, pp. 373-401 (1861); and K. H. Viekers, _Humphrey,
Duke of Gloucester_ (1907). For Humphrey's correspondence with Piero
Candido Decembrio see the _English Historical Review_, vols. x., xix.,
xx. (C. L. K.)

GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE, EARL OF (1222-1262), was a son of Gilbert de Clare, 6th earl of Gloucester and 7th earl of Clare, and was born on the 4th of August 1222, succeeding to his father's earldoms on the death of the latter in October 1230. His first wife was Margaret, daughter of Hubert de Burgh, and after her death in 1237 he married Maud, daughter of John de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, and passed his early years in tournaments and pilgrimages, taking for a time a secondary and undecided part in politics. He refused to help Henry III. on the French expedition of 1250, but was afterwards with the king at Paris; then he went on a diplomatic errand to Scotland, and was sent to Germany to work among the princes for the election of his stepfather, Richard, earl of Cornwall, as king of the Romans. About 1258 Gloucester took up his position as a leader of the barons in their resistance to the king, and he was prominent during the proceedings which followed the Mad Parliament at Oxford in 1258. In 1259, however, he quarrelled with Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester; the dispute, begun in England, was renewed in France and he was again in the confidence and company of the king. This attitude, too, was only temporary, and in 1261 Gloucester and Leicester were again working in concord. The earl died at his residence near Canterbury on the 15th of July 1262. A large landholder like his son and successor, Gilbert, Gloucester was the most powerful English baron of his time; he was avaricious and extravagant, but educated and able. He left several children in addition to Earl Gilbert.

GLOUCESTER, ROBERT, EARL OF (d. 1147), was a natural son of Henry I. of England. He was born, before his father's accession, at Caen in Normandy; but the exact date of his birth, and his mother's name are unknown. He received from his father the hand of a wealthy heiress, Mabel of Gloucester, daughter of Robert Fitz Hamon, and with her the lordships of Gloucester and Glamorgan. About 1121 the earldom of Gloucester was created for his benefit. His rank and territorial influence made him the natural leader of the western baronage. Hence, at his father's death, he was sedulously courted by the rival parties of his half-sister the empress Matilda and of Stephen. After some hesitation he declared for the latter, but tendered his homage upon strict conditions, the breach of which should be held to invalidate the contract. Robert afterwards alleged that he had merely feigned submission to Stephen with the object of secretly furthering his half-sister's cause among the English barons. The truth appears to be that he was mortified at finding himself excluded from the inner councils of the king, and so resolved to sell his services elsewhere. Robert left England for Normandy in 1137, renewed his relations with the Angevin party, and in 1138 sent a formal defiance to the king. Returning to England in the following year, he raised the standard of rebellion in his own earldom with such success that the greater part of western England and the south Welsh marches were soon in the possession of the empress. By the battle of Lincoln (Feb. 2, 1141), in which Stephen was taken prisoner, the earl made good Matilda's claim to the whole kingdom. He accompanied her triumphal progress to Winchester and London; but was unable to moderate the arrogance of her behaviour. Consequently she was soon expelled from London and deserted by the bishop Henry of Winchester who, as legate, controlled the policy of the English church. With Matilda the earl besieged the legate at Winchester, but was forced by the royalists to beat a hasty retreat, and in covering Matilda's flight fell into the hands of the pursuers. So great was his importance that his party purchased his freedom by the release of Stephen. The earl renewed the struggle for the crown and continued it until his death (Oct. 31, 1147); but the personal unpopularity of Matilda, and the estrangement of the Church from her cause, made his efforts unavailing. His loyalty to a lost cause must be allowed to weigh in the scale against his earlier double-dealing. But he hardly deserves the extravagant praise which is lavished upon him by William of Malmesbury. The sympathies of the chronicler are too obviously influenced by the earl's munificence towards literary men.

See the _Historia novella_ by William of Malmesbury (Rolls edition);
the _Historia Anglorum_ by Henry of Huntingdon (Rolls edition); J. H.
Round's _Geoffrey de Mandeville_ (1892); and O. Rossler's _Kaiserin
Mathilde_ (Berlin, 1897). (H. W. C. D.)

GLOUCESTER, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK, DUKE OF (1355-1397), seventh and youngest son of the English king Edward III., was born at Woodstock on the 7th of January 1355. Having married Eleanor (d. 1399), daughter and co-heiress of Humphrey de Bohun, earl of Hereford, Essex and Northampton (d. 1373), Thomas obtained the office of constable of England, a position previously held by the Bohuns, and was made earl of Buckingham by his nephew, Richard II., at the coronation in July 1377. He took part in defending the English coasts against the attacks of the French and Castilians, after which he led an army through northern and central France, and besieged Nantes, which town, however, he failed to take.

Returning to England early in 1381, Buckingham found that his brother, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, had married his wife's sister, Mary Bohun, to his own son, Henry, afterwards King Henry IV. The relations between the brothers, hitherto somewhat strained, were not improved by this proceeding, as Thomas, doubtless, was hoping to retain possession of Mary's estates. Having taken some part in crushing the rising of the peasants in 1381, Buckingham became more friendly with Lancaster; and while marching with the king into Scotland in 1385 was created duke of Gloucester, a mark of favour, however, which did not prevent him from taking up an attitude of hostility to Richard. Lancaster having left the country, Gloucester placed himself at the head of the party which disliked the royal advisers, Michael de la Pole, earl of Suffolk and Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, whose recent elevation to the dignity of duke of Ireland had aroused profound discontent. The moment was propitious for interference, and supported by those who were indignant at the extravagance and incompetence, real or alleged, of the king, Gloucester was soon in a position of authority. He forced on the dismissal and impeachment of Suffolk; was a member of the commission appointed in 1386 to reform the kingdom and the royal household; and took up arms when Richard began proceedings against the commissioners. Having defeated Vere at Radcot in December 1387 the duke and his associates entered London to find the king powerless in their hands. Gloucester, who had previously threatened his uncle with deposition, was only restrained from taking this extreme step by the influence of his colleagues; but, as the leader of the "lords appellant" in the "Merciless Parliament," which met in February 1388 and was packed with his supporters, he took a savage revenge upon his enemies, while not neglecting to add to his own possessions.

He was not seriously punished when Richard regained his power in May 1389, but he remained in the background, although employed occasionally on public business, and accompanying the king to Ireland in 1394. In 1396, however, uncle and nephew were again at variance. Gloucester disliked the peace with France and Richard's second marriage with Isabella, daughter of King Charles VI.; other causes of difference were not wanting, and it has been asserted that the duke was plotting to seize the king. At all events Richard decided to arrest him. By refusing an invitation to dinner the duke frustrated the first attempt, but on the 11th of July 1397 he was arrested by the king himself at his residence, Pleshey castle in Essex. He was taken at once to Calais, and it is probable that he was murdered by order of the king on the 9th of September following. The facts seem to be as follows. At the beginning of September it was reported that he was dead. The rumour, probably a deliberate one, was false, and about the same time a justice, Sir William Rickhill (d. 1407), was sent to Calais with instructions dated the 17th of August to obtain a confession from Gloucester. On the 8th of September the duke confessed that he had been guilty of treason, and his death immediately followed this avowal. Unwilling to meet his parliament so soon after his uncle's death, Richard's purpose was doubtless to antedate this occurrence, and to foster the impression that the duke had died from natural causes in August. When parliament met in September he was declared guilty of treason and his estates forfeited. Gloucester had one son, Humphrey (c. 1381-1399), who died unmarried, and four daughters, the most notable of whom was Anne (c. 1380-1438), who was successively the wife of Thomas, 3rd earl of Stafford, Edmund, 5th earl of Stafford, and William Bourchier, count of Eu. Gloucester is supposed to have written _L'Ordonnance d'Angleterre pour le camp a l'outrance, ou gaige de bataille_.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See T. Walsingham, _Historia Anglicana_, edited by H.
T. Riley (London, 1863-1864); The Monk of Evesham, _Historia vitae et
regni Ricardi II._, edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1729); _Chronique de
la traison et mort de Richard II_, edited by B. Williams (London,
1846); J. Froissart, _Chroniques_, edited by S. Luce and G. Raynaud
(Paris, 1869-1897); W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. ii.
(Oxford, 1896); J. Tait in _Owens College Historical Essays_ and S.
Armitage-Smith, _John of Gaunt_ (London, 1904).

GLOUCESTER (abbreviated as pronounced _Glo'ster_), a city, county of a city, municipal and parliamentary borough and port, and the county town of Gloucestershire, England, on the left (east) bank of the river Severn, 114 m. W.N.W. of London. Pop. (1901) 47,955. It is served by the Great Western railway and the west-and-north branch of the Midland railway; while the Berkeley Ship Canal runs S.W. to Sharpness Docks in the Severn estuary (16-1/2 m.). Gloucester is situated on a gentle eminence overlooking the Severn and sheltered by the Cotteswolds on the east, while the Malverns and the hills of the Forest of Dean rise prominently to the west and north-west.

The cathedral, in the north of the city near the river, originates in the foundation of an abbey of St Peter in 681, the foundations of the present church having been laid by Abbot Serlo (1072-1104); and Walter Froucester (d. 1412) its historian, became its first mitred abbot in 1381. Until 1541, Gloucester lay in the see of Worcester, but the separate see was then constituted, with John Wakeman, last abbot of Tewkesbury, for its first bishop. The diocese covers the greater part of Gloucestershire, with small parts of Herefordshire and Wiltshire. The cathedral may be succinctly described as consisting of a Norman nucleus, with additions in every style of Gothic architecture. It is 420 ft. long, and 144 ft. broad, with a beautiful central tower of the 15th century rising to the height of 225 ft. and topped by four graceful pinnacles. The nave is massive Norman with Early English roof; the crypt also, under the choir, aisles and chapels, is Norman, as is the chapter-house. The crypt is one of the four apsidal cathedral crypts in England, the others being at Worcester, Winchester and Canterbury. The south porch is Perpendicular, with fan-tracery roof, as also is the north transept, the south being transitional Decorated. The choir has Perpendicular tracery over Norman work, with an apsidal chapel on each side. The choir-vaulting is particularly rich, and the modern scheme of colouring is judicious. The splendid late Decorated east window is partly filled with ancient glass. Between the apsidal chapels is a cross Lady chapel, and north of the nave are the cloisters, with very early example of fan-tracery, the carols or stalls for the monks' study and writing lying to the south. The finest monument is the canopied shrine of Edward II. who was brought hither from Berkeley. By the visits of pilgrims to this the building and sanctuary were enriched. In a side-chapel, too, is a monument in coloured bog oak of Robert Curthose, a great benefactor to the abbey, the eldest son of the Conqueror, who was interred there; and those of Bishop Warburton and Dr Edward Jenner are also worthy of special mention. A musical festival (the Festival of the Three Choirs) is held annually in this cathedral and those of Worcester and Hereford in turn. Between 1873 and 1890 and in 1897 the cathedral was extensively restored, principally by Sir Gilbert Scott. Attached to the deanery is the Norman prior's chapel. In St Mary's Square outside the Abbey gate, Bishop Hooper suffered martyrdom under Queen Mary in 1555.

Quaint gabled and timbered houses preserve the ancient aspect of the city. At the point of intersection of the four principal streets stood the Tolsey or town hall, replaced by a modern building in 1894. None of the old public buildings, in fact, is left, but the New Inn in Northgate Street is a beautiful timbered house, strong and massive, with external galleries and courtyards, built in 1450 for the pilgrims to Edward II.'s shrine, by Abbot Sebroke, a traditional subterranean passage leading thence to the cathedral. The timber is principally chestnut. There are a large number of churches and dissenting chapels, and it may have been the old proverb, "as sure as God's in Gloucester," which provoked Oliver Cromwell to declare that the city had "more churches than godliness." Of the churches four are of special interest: St Mary de Lode, with a Norman tower and chancel, and a monument of Bishop Hooper, on the site of a Roman temple which became the first Christian church in Britain; St Mary de Crypt, a cruciform structure of the 12th century, with later additions and a beautiful and lofty tower; the church of St Michael, said to have been connected with the ancient abbey of St Peter; and St Nicholas church, originally of Norman erection, and possessing a tower and other portions of later date. In the neighbourhood of St Mary de Crypt are slight remains of Greyfriars and Blackfriars monasteries, and also of the city wall. Early vaulted cellars remain under the Fleece and Saracen's Head inns.

There are three endowed schools: the College school, refounded by Henry VIII. as part of the cathedral establishment; the school of St Mary de Crypt, founded by Dame Joan Cooke in the same reign; and Sir Thomas Rich's Blue Coat hospital for 34 boys (1666). At the Crypt school the famous preacher George Whitefield (1714-1770) was educated, and he preached his first sermon in the church. The first Sunday school was held in Gloucester, being originated by Robert Raikes, in 1780.

The noteworthy modern buildings include the museum and school of art and science, the county gaol (on the site of a Saxon and Norman castle), the Shire Hall and the Whitefield memorial church. A park in the south of the city contains a spa, a chalybeate spring having been discovered in 1814. West of this, across the canal, are the remains (a gateway and some walls) of Llanthony Priory, a cell of the mother abbey in the vale of Ewyas, Monmouthshire, which in the reign of Edward IV. became the secondary establishment.

Gloucester possesses match works, foundries, marble and slate works, saw-mills, chemical works, rope works, flour-mills, manufactories of railway wagons, engines and agricultural implements, and boat and ship-building yards. Gloucester was declared a port in 1882. The Berkeley canal was opened in 1827. The Gloucester canal-harbour and that at Sharpness on the Severn are managed by a board. Principal imports are timber and grain; and exports, coal, salt, iron and bricks. The salmon and lamprey fisheries in the Severn are valuable. The tidal bore in the river attains its extreme height just below the city, and sometimes surmounts the weir in the western branch of the river, affecting the stream up to Tewkesbury lock. The parliamentary borough returns one member. The city is governed by a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area, 2315 acres.

_History._--The traditional existence of a British settlement at Gloucester (Caer Glow, Gleawecastre, Gleucestre) is not confirmed by any direct evidence, but Gloucester was the Roman municipality or _colonia_ of _Glevum_, founded by Nerva (A.D. 96-98). Parts of the walls can be traced, and many remains and coins have been found, though inscriptions (as is frequently the case in Britain) are somewhat scarce. Its situation on a navigable river, and the foundation in 681 of the abbey of St Peter by Aethelred favoured the growth of the town; and before the Conquest Gloucester was a borough governed by a portreeve, with a castle which was frequently a royal residence, and a mint. The first overlord, Earl Godwine, was succeeded nearly a century later by Robert, earl of Gloucester. Henry II. granted the first charter in 1155 which gave the burgesses the same liberties as the citizens of London and Winchester, and a second charter of Henry II. gave them freedom of passage on the Severn. The first charter was confirmed in 1194 by Richard I. The privileges of the borough were greatly extended by the charter of John (1200) which gave freedom from toll throughout the kingdom and from pleading outside the borough. Subsequent charters were numerous. Gloucester was incorporated by Richard III. in 1483, the town being made a county in itself. This charter was confirmed in 1489 and 1510, and other charters of incorporation were received by Gloucester from Elizabeth in 1560, James I. in 1604, Charles I. in 1626 and Charles II. in 1672. The chartered port of Gloucester dates from 1580. Gloucester returned two members to parliament from 1275 to 1885, since when it has been represented by one member. A seven days' fair from the 24th of June was granted by Edward I. in 1302, and James I. licensed fairs on the 25th of March and the 17th of November, and fairs under these grants are still held on the first Saturday in April and July and the last Saturday in November. The fair now held on the 28th of September was granted to the abbey of St Peter in 1227. A market on Wednesday existed in the reign of John, was confirmed by charter in 1227 and is still held. The iron trade of Gloucester dates from before the Conquest, tanning was carried on before the reign of Richard III., pin-making and bell-founding were introduced in the 16th, and the long-existing coal trade became important in the 18th century. The cloth trade flourished from the 12th to the 16th century. The sea-borne trade in corn and wine existed before the reign of Richard I.

See W. H. Stevenson, _Records of the Corporation of Gloucester_
(Gloucester, 1893); _Victoria County History, Gloucestershire_.

GLOUCESTER, a city and port of entry of Essex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., beautifully situated on Cape Ann. Pop. (1890) 24,651; (1900) 26,121, of whom 8768 were foreign-born, including 4388 English Canadians, 800 French Canadians, 665 Irish, 653 Finns and 594 Portuguese; (1910 census) 24,398. Area, 53.6 sq. m. It is served by the Boston & Maine railway and by a steamboat line to Boston. The surface is sterile, naked and rugged, with bold, rocky ledges, and a most picturesque shore, the beauties of which have made it a favourite summer resort, much frequented by artists. Included within the city borders are several villages, of which the principal one, also known as Gloucester, has a deep and commodious harbour. Among the other villages, all summer resorts, are Annisquam, Bay View and Magnolia (so called from the _Magnolia glauca_, which grows wild there, this being probably its most northerly habitat); near Magnolia are Rafe's Chasm (60 ft. deep and 6-10 ft. wide) and Norman's Woe, the scene of the wreck of the "Hesperus" (which has only tradition as a basis), celebrated in Longfellow's poem. There is some slight general commerce--in 1909 the imports were valued at $130,098; the exports at $7853--but the principal business is fishing, and has been since early colonial days. The pursuit of cod, mackerel, herring and halibut fills up, with a winter coasting trade, the round of the year. In this industry Gloucester is the most important place in the United States; and is, indeed, one of the greatest fishing ports of the world. Most of the adult males are engaged in it. The "catch" was valued in 1895 at $3,212,985 and in 1905 at $3,377,330. The organization of the industry has undergone many transformations, but a notable feature is the general practice--especially since modern methods have necessitated larger vessels and more costly gear, and correspondingly greater capital--of profit-sharing; all the crew entering on that basis and not independently. There are some manufactures, chiefly connected with the fisheries. The total factory product in 1905 was valued at $6,920,984, of which the canning and preserving of fish represented $4,068,571, and glue represented $752,003. An industry of considerable importance is the quarrying of the beautiful, dark Cape Ann granite that underlies the city and all the environs.

Gloucester harbour was probably noted by Champlain (as La Beauport), and a temporary settlement was made by English fishermen sent out by the Dorchester Company of "merchant adventurers" in 1623-1625; some of these settlers returned to England in 1625, and others, with Roger Conant, the governor, removed to what is now Salem.[1] Permanent settlement ante-dated 1639 at least, and in 1642 the township was incorporated. From Gosnold's voyages onward the extraordinary abundance of cod about Cape Ann was well known, and though the first settlers characteristically enough tried to live by farming, they speedily became perforce a sea-faring folk. The active pursuit of fishing as an industry may be dated as beginning about 1700, for then began voyages beyond Cape Sable. Voyages to the Grand Banks began about 1741. Mackerel was a relatively unimportant catch until about 1821, and since then has been an important but unstable return; halibut fishing has been vigorously pursued since about 1836 and herring since about 1856. At the opening of the War of Independence Gloucester, whose fisheries then employed about 600 men, was second to Marblehead as a fishing-port. The war destroyed the fisheries, which steadily declined, reaching their lowest ebb from 1820 to 1840. Meanwhile foreign commerce had greatly expanded. The cod take had supported in the 18th century an extensive trade with Bilbao, Lisbon and the West Indies, and though changed in nature with the decline of the Bank fisheries after the War of Independence, it continued large through the first quarter of the 19th century. Throughout more than half of the same century also Gloucester carried on a varied and valuable trade with Surinam, hake being the chief article of export and molasses and sugar the principal imports. "India Square" remains, a memento of a bygone day. About 1850 the fisheries revived, especially after 1860, under the influence of better prices, improved methods and the discovery of new grounds, becoming again the chief economic interest; and since that time the village of Gloucester has changed from a picturesque hamlet to a fairly modern, though still quaint and somewhat foreign, settlement. Gasoline boats were introduced in 1900. Ship-building is another industry of the past. The first "schooner" was launched at Gloucester in 1713. From 1830 to 1907, 776 vessels and 5242 lives were lost in the fisheries; but the loss of life has been greatly reduced by the use of better vessels and by improved methods of fishing. Gloucester became a city in 1874.

Gloucester life has been celebrated in many books; among others in
Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward's _Singular Life_ and _Old Maid's
Paradise_, in Rudyard Kipling's _Captains Courageous_, and in James B.
Connolly's _Out of Gloucester_ (1902), _The Deep Sea's Toll_ (1905),
and _The Crested Seas_ (1907).

See J. J. Babson, _History of the Town of Gloucester_ (Gloucester,
1860; with _Notes and Additions_, on genealogy, 1876, 1891); and J. R.
Pringle, _History of the Town and City of Gloucester_ (Gloucester,
1892).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] According to some authorities (e.g. Pringle) a few settlers
remained on the site of Gloucester, the permanent settlement thus
dating from 1623 to 1625; of this, however, there is no proof, and
the contrary opinion is the one generally held.

GLOUCESTER CITY, a city of Camden county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Delaware river, opposite Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 6564; (1900) 6840, of whom 1094 were foreign-born; (1905) 8055; (1910) 9462. The city is served by the West Jersey & Seashore and the Atlantic City railways, and by ferry to Philadelphia, of which it is a residential suburb. Among its manufactures are incandescent gas-burners, rugs, cotton yarns, boats and drills. The municipality owns and operates the water works. It was near the site of Gloucester City that the Dutch in 1623 planted the short-lived colony of Fort Nassau, the first European settlement on the Delaware river, but it was not until after the arrival of English Quakers on the Delaware, in 1677, that a permanent settlement, at first called Axwamus, was established on the site of the present city. This was surveyed and laid out as a town in 1689. During the War of Independence the place was frequently occupied by troops, and a number of skirmishes were fought in its vicinity. The most noted of these was a successful attack upon a detachment of Hessians on the 25th of November 1777 by American troops under the command of General Lafayette. In 1868 Gloucester City was chartered as a city. In Camden county there is a township named GLOUCESTER (pop. in 1905, 2300), incorporated in 1798, and originally including the present township of Clementon and parts of the present townships of Waterford, Union and Winslow.

GLOUCESTERSHIRE, a county of the west midlands of England, bounded N. by Worcestershire, N.E. by Warwickshire, E. by Oxfordshire, S.E. by Berkshire and Wiltshire, S. by Somerset, and W. by Monmouth and Herefordshire. Its area is 1243-3 sq. m. The outline is very irregular, but three physical divisions are well marked--the hills, the vale and the forest. (1) The first (the eastern part of the county) lies among the uplands of the Cotteswold Hills (q.v.), whose westward face is a line of heights of an average elevation of 700 ft., but exceeding 1000 ft. at some points. This line bisects the county from S.W. to N.E. The watershed between the Thames and Severn valleys lies close to it, so that Gloucestershire includes Thames Head itself, in the south-east near Cirencester, and most of the upper feeders of the Thames which join the main stream, from narrow and picturesque valleys on the north. (2) The western Cotteswold line overlooks a rich valley, that of the lower Severn, usually spoken of as "The Vale," or, in two divisions, as the vale of Gloucester and the vale of Berkeley. This great river receives three famous tributaries during its course through Gloucestershire. Near Tewkesbury, on the northern border, the Avon joins it on the left and forms the county boundary for 4 m. This is the river known variously as the Upper, Worcestershire, Warwickshire, Stratford or Shakespeare's Avon, which descends a lovely pastoral valley through the counties named. It is to be distinguished from the Bristol Avon, which rises as an eastward flowing stream of the Cotteswolds, in the south-east of Gloucestershire, sweeps southward and westward through Wiltshire, pierces the hills through a narrow valley which becomes a wooded gorge where the Clifton suspension bridge crosses it below Bristol, and enters the Severn estuary at Avonmouth. For 17 m. from its mouth it forms the boundary between Gloucestershire and Somersetshire, and for 8 m. it is one of the most important commercial waterways in the kingdom, connecting the port of Bristol with the sea. The third great tributary of the Severn is the Wye. From its mouth in the estuary, 8 m. N. of that of the Bristol Avon, it forms the county boundary for 16 m. northward, and above this, over two short reaches of its beautiful winding course, it is again the boundary. (3) Between the Wye and the Severn lies a beautiful and historic tract, the forest of Dean, which, unlike the majority of English forests, maintains its ancient character. Gloucestershire has thus a share in the courses of five of the most famous of English rivers, and covers two of the most interesting physical districts in the country. The minor rivers of the county are never long. The vale is at no point within the county wider than 24 m., and so does not permit the formation of any considerable tributary to the Severn from the Dean Hills on the one hand or the Cotteswolds on the other. The Leadon rises east of Hereford, forms part of the north-western boundary, and joins the Severn near Gloucester, watering the vale of Gloucester, the northern part of the vale. In the southern part, the vale of Berkeley, the Stroudwater traverses a narrow, picturesque and populous valley, and the Little Avon flows past the town of Berkeley, joining the Severn estuary on the left. The Frome runs southward to the Bristol Avon at Bristol. The principal northern feeders of the Thames are the Churn (regarded by some as properly the headwater of the main river) rising in the Seven Springs, in the hills above Cheltenham, and forming the southern county boundary near its junction with the Thames at Cricklade; the Coln, a noteworthy trout-stream, joining above Lechlade, and the Lech (forming part of the eastern county boundary) joining below the same town; while from the east of the county there pass into Oxfordshire the Windrush and the Evenlode, much larger streams, rising among the bare uplands of the northern Cotteswolds.

_Geology._--No county in England has a greater variety of geological
formations. The pre-Cambrian is represented by the gneissic rocks at
the south end of the Malvern Hills and by grits at Huntley. At Damory,
Charfield and Woodford is a patch of greenstone, the cause of the
upheaval of the Upper Silurian basin of Tortworth, in which are the
oldest stratified rocks of the county. Of these the Upper Llandovery
is the dominant stratum, exposed near Damory mill, Micklewood chase
and Purton passage, wrapping round the base of May and Huntley hills,
and reappearing in the vale of Woolhope. The Wenlock limestone is
exposed at Falfield mill and Whitfield, and quarried for burning at
May hill. The Lower Ludlow shales or mudstones are seen at Berkeley
and Purton, where the upper part is probably Aymestry limestone. The
series of sandy shales and sandstones which, as Downton sandstones and
Ledbury shales, form a transition to the Old Red Sandstone are
quarried at Dymock. The "Old Red" itself occurs at Berkeley, Tortworth
Green, Thornbury, and several places in the Bristol coal-field, in
anticlinal folds forming hills. It forms also the great basin
extending from Ross to Monmouth and from Dymock to Mitcheldean,
Abenhall, Blakeney, &c., within which is the Carboniferous basin of
the forest. It is cut through by the Wye from Monmouth to Woolaston.
This formation is over 8000 ft. thick in the forest of Dean. The
Bristol and Forest Carboniferous basins lie within the synclinal folds
of the Old Red Sandstone; and though the seams of coal have not yet
been correlated, they must have been once continuous, as further
appears from the existence of an intermediate basin, recently pierced,
under the Severn. The lower limestone shales are 500 ft. thick in the
Bristol area and only 165 in the forest, richly fossiliferous and
famous for their bone bed. The great marine series known as the
Mountain Limestone, forming the walls of the grand gorges of the Wye
and Avon, is over 2000 ft. thick in the latter district, but only 480
in the former, where it yields the brown hematite in pockets so
largely worked for iron even from Roman times. It is much used too for
lime and road metal. Above this comes the Millstone Grit, well seen at
Brandon hill, where it is 1000 ft. in thickness, though but 455 in the
forest. On this rest the Coal Measures, consisting in the Bristol
field of two great series, the lower 2000 ft. thick with 36 seams, the
upper 3000 ft. with 22 seams, 9 of which reach 2 ft. in thickness.
These two series are separated by over 1700 ft. of hard sandstone
(Pennant Grit), containing only 5 coal-seams. In the Forest coal-field
the whole series is not 3000 ft. thick, with but 15 seams. At Durdham
Down a dolomitic conglomerate, of the age known as Keuper or Upper
Trias, rests unconformably on the edges of the Palaeozoic rocks, and
is evidently a shore deposit, yielding dinosaurian remains. Above the
Keuper clays come the Penarth beds, of which classical sections occur
at Westbury, Aust, &c. The series consists of grey marls, black paper
shales containing much pyrites and a celebrated bone bed, the Cotham
landscape marble, and the White Lias limestone, yielding _Ostrea
Liassica_ and _Cardium Rhaeticum_. The district of Over Severn is
mainly of Keuper marls. The whole vale of Gloucester is occupied by
the next formation, the Lias, a warm sea deposit of clays and clayey
limestones, characterized by ammonites, belemnites and gigantic
saurians. At its base is the insect-bearing limestone bed. The
pastures producing Gloucester cheese are on the clays of the Lower
Lias. The more calcareous Middle Lias or marlstone forms hillocks
flanking the Oolite escarpment of the Cotteswolds, as at
Wotton-under-Edge and Churchdown. The Cotteswolds consist of the great
limestone series of the Lower Oolite. At the base is a transition
series of sands, 30 to 40 ft. thick, well developed at Nailsworth and
Frocester. Leckhampton hill is a typical section of the Lower Oolite,
where the sands are capped by 40 ft. of a remarkable pea grit. Above
this are 147 ft. of freestone, 7 ft. of oolite marl, 34 ft. of upper
freestone and 38 ft. of ragstone. The Painswick stone belongs to lower
freestone. Resting on the Inferior Oolite, and dipping with it to
S.E., is the "fuller's earth," a rubbly limestone about 100 ft. thick,
throwing out many of the springs which form the head waters of the
Thames. Next comes the Great or Bath Oolite, at the base of which are
the Stonesfield "slate" beds, quarried for roofing, paling, &c., at
Sevenhampton and elsewhere. From the Great Oolite Minchinhampton stone
is obtained, and at its top is about 40 ft. of flaggy Oolite with
bands of clay known as the Forest Marble. Ripple marks are abundant on
the flags; in fact all the Oolites seem to have been near shore or in
shallow water, much of the limestone being merely comminuted coral.
The highest bed of the Lower Oolite is the Cornbrash, about 40 ft. of
rubble, productive in corn, forming a narrow belt from Siddington to
Fairford. Near the latter town and Lechlade is a small tract of blue
Oxford Clay of the Middle Oolite. The county has no higher Secondary
or Tertiary rocks; but the Quaternary series is represented by much
northern drift gravel in the vale and Over Severn, by accumulations of
Oolitic detritus, including post-Glacial extinct mammalian remains on
the flanks of the Cotteswolds, and by submerged forests extending from
Sharpness to Gloucester.

_Agriculture._--The climate is mild. Between three-quarters and
seven-eighths of the total area is under cultivation, and of this some
four-sevenths is in permanent pasture. Wheat is the chief grain crop.
In the vale the deep rich black and red loamy soil is well adapted for
pasturage, and a moist mild climate favours the growth of grasses and
root crops. The cattle, save on the frontier of Herefordshire, are
mostly shorthorns, of which many are fed for distant markets, and many
reared and kept for dairy purposes. The rich grazing tract of the vale
of Berkeley produces the famous "double Gloucester" cheeses, and the
vale in general has long been celebrated for cheese and butter. The
vale of Gloucester is the chief grain-growing district. Turnips, &c.,
occupy about three-fourths of the green crop acreage, potatoes
occupying only about a twelfth. A feature of the county is its apple
and pear orchards, chiefly for the manufacture of cider and perry,
which are attached to nearly every farm. The Cotteswold district is
comparatively barren except in the valleys, but it has been famous
since the 15th century for the breed of sheep named after it. Oats and
barley are here the chief crops.

_Other Industries._--The manufacture of woollen cloth followed upon
the early success in sheep-farming among the Cotteswolds. This
industry is not confined to the hill country or even to
Gloucestershire itself in the west of England. The description of
cloth principally manufactured is broadcloth, dressed with teazles to
produce a short close nap on the face, and made of all shades of
colour, but chiefly black, blue and scarlet. The principal centre of
the industry lies in and at the foot of the south-western Cotteswolds.
Stroud is the centre for a number of manufacturing villages, and
south-west of this are Wotton-under-Edge, North Nibley and others.
Machinery and tools, paper, furniture, pottery and glass are also
produced. Ironstone, clay, limestone and sandstone are worked, and the
coal-fields in the forest of Dean are important. Of less extent is the
field in the south of the county, N.E. of Bristol. Strontium sulphate
is dug from shallow pits in the red marl of Gloucestershire and
Somersetshire.

_Communications._--Railway communications are provided principally by
the Great Western and Midland companies. Of the Great Western lines,
the main line serves Bristol from London. It divides at Bristol, one
section serving the south-western counties, another South Wales,
crossing beneath the Severn by the Severn Tunnel, 4-1/3 m. in length,
a remarkable engineering work. A more direct route, by this tunnel,
between London and South Wales, is provided by a line from Wootton
Bassett on the main line, running north of Bristol by Badminton and
Chipping Sodbury. Other Great Western lines are that from Swindon on
the main line, by the Stroud valley to Gloucester, crossing the Severn
there, and continuing by the right bank of the river into Wales, with
branches north-west into Herefordshire; the Oxford and Worcester trunk
line, crossing the north-east of the county, connected with Cheltenham
and Gloucester by a branch through the Cotteswolds from Chipping
Norton junction; and the line from Cheltenham by Broadway to
Honeybourne. The west-and-north line of the Midland railway follows
the vale from Bristol by Gloucester and Cheltenham with a branch into
the forest of Dean by Berkeley, crossing the Severn at Sharpness by a
great bridge 1387 yds. in length, with 22 arches. The coal-fields of
the forest of Dean are served by several branch lines. In the north,
Tewkesbury is served by a Midland branch from Ashchurch to Malvern.
The Midland and South-western Junction railway runs east and south
from Cheltenham by Cirencester, affording communication with the south
of England. The East Gloucester line of the Great Western from Oxford
terminates at Fairford. The Thames and Severn canal, rising to a
summit level in the tunnel through the Cotteswolds at Sapperton, is
continued from Wallbridge (Stroud) by the Stroudwater canal, and gives
communication between the two great rivers. The Berkeley Ship Canal
(16-1/2 m.) connects the port of Gloucester with its outport of
Sharpness on Severn.

_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is
795,709 acres, with a population in 1891 of 599,947 and in 1901 of
634,729. The area of the administrative county is 805,482 acres. The
county contains 28 hundreds. The municipal boroughs are--Bristol, a
city and county borough (pop. 328,945); Cheltenham (49,439);
Gloucester, a city and county borough (47,955); Tewkesbury (5419). The
other urban districts are--Awre (1096), Charlton Kings (3806),
Circenester (7536), Coleford (2541), Kingswood, on the eastern
outskirts of Bristol (11,961), Nailsworth (3028), Newnham (1184),
Stow-on-the-Wold (1386), Stroud (9153), Tetbury (1989),
Westbury-on-Severn (1866). The number of small ancient market towns is
large, especially in the southern part of the vale, on the outskirts
of the forest, and among the foot hills of the wolds. Those in the
forest district are mostly connected with the coal trade, such as
Lydney (3559), besides Awre and Coleford; and, to the north, besides
Newnham, Cinderford and Mitcheldean. South from Stroud there are
Minchinhampton (3737) and Nailsworth; near the south-eastern boundary
Tetbury and Marshfield; Stonehouse (2183), Dursley (2372),
Wotton-under-Edge (2992) and Chipping Sodbury along the western line
of the hills; and between them and the Severn, Berkeley and Thornbury
(2594). Among the uplands of the Cotteswolds there are no towns, and
villages are few, but in the east of the county, in the upper Thames
basin, there are, besides Cirencester, Fairford on the Coln and
Lechlade, close to the head of the navigation on the Thames itself.
Far up in the Lech valley, remote from railway communication, is
Northleach, once a great posting station on the Oxford and Cheltenham
road. In the north-east are Stow-on-the-Wold, standing high, and
Moreton-in-the-Marsh near the headwaters of the Evenlode. In a
northern prolongation of the county, almost detached, is Chipping
Campden. Winchcomb (2699) lies 6 m. N.E. of Cheltenham. In the
north-west, Newent (2485) is the only considerable town.
Gloucestershire is in the Oxford circuit, and assizes are held at
Gloucester. It has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into
24 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Bristol, Gloucester and
Tewkesbury have separate commissions of the peace and courts of
quarter sessions. There are 359 civil parishes. Gloucestershire is
principally in the diocese of Gloucester, but part is in that of
Bristol, and small parts in those of Worcester and Oxford. There are
408 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the
county. There are five parliamentary divisions, namely, Tewkesbury or
northern, Cirencester or eastern, Stroud or mid, Thornbury or
southern, and Forest of Dean, each returning one member. The county
also includes the boroughs of Gloucester and Cheltenham, each
returning one member; and the greater part of the borough of Bristol,
which returns four members.

_History._--The English conquest of the Severn valley began in 577 with the victory of Ceawlin at Deorham, followed by the capture of Cirencester, Gloucester and Bath. The Hwiccas who occupied the district were a West Saxon tribe, but their territory had become a dependency of Mercia in the 7th century, and was not brought under West Saxon dominion until the 9th century. No important settlements were made by the Danes in the district. Gloucestershire probably originated as a shire in the 10th century, and is mentioned by name in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 1016. Towards the close of the 11th century the boundaries were readjusted to include Winchcomb, hitherto a county by itself, and at the same time the forest district between the Wye and the Severn was added to Gloucestershire. The divisions of the county for a long time remained very unsettled, and the thirty-nine hundreds mentioned in the Domesday Survey and the thirty-one hundreds of the Hundred Rolls of 1274 differ very widely in name and extent both from each other and from the twenty-eight hundreds of the present day.

Gloucestershire formed part of Harold's earldom at the time of the Norman invasion, but it offered slight resistance to the Conqueror. In the wars of Stephen's reign the cause of the empress Maud was supported by Robert of Gloucester who had rebuilt the castle at Bristol, and the castles at Gloucester and Cirencester were also garrisoned on her behalf. In the barons' war of the reign of Henry III. Gloucester was garrisoned for Simon de Montfort, but was captured by Prince Edward in 1265, in which year de Montfort was slain at Evesham. Bristol and Gloucester actively supported the Yorkist cause during the Wars of the Roses. In the religious struggles of the 16th century Gloucester showed strong Protestant sympathy, and in the reign of Mary Bishop Hooper was sent to Gloucester to be burnt as a warning to the county, while the same Puritan leanings induced the county to support the Parliamentary cause in the civil war of the 17th century. In 1643 Bristol and Cirencester were captured by the Royalists, but the latter was recovered in the same year and Bristol in 1645. Gloucester was garrisoned for the parliament throughout the struggle.

On the subdivision of the Mercian diocese in 680 the greater part of modern Gloucestershire was included in the diocese of Worcester, and shortly after the Conquest constituted the archdeaconry of Gloucester, which in 1290 comprised the deaneries of Campden, Stow, Cirencester, Fairford, Winchcombe, Stonehouse, Hawkesbury, Bitton, Bristol, Dursley and Gloucester. The district west of the Severn, with the exception of a few parishes in the deaneries of Ross and Staunton, constituted the deanery of the forest within the archdeaconry and diocese of Hereford. In 1535 the deanery of Bitton had been absorbed in that of Hawkesbury. In 1541 the diocese of Gloucester was created, its boundaries being identical with those of the county. On the erection of Bristol to a see in 1542 the deanery of Bristol was transferred from Gloucester to that diocese. In 1836 the sees of Gloucester and Bristol were united; the archdeaconry of Bristol was created out of the deaneries of Bristol, Cirencester, Fairford and Hawkesbury; and the deanery of the forest was transferred to the archdeaconry of Gloucester. In 1882 the archdeaconry of Cirencester was constituted to include the deaneries of Campden, Stow, Northleach north and south, Fairford and Cirencester. In 1897 the diocese of Bristol was recreated, and included the deaneries of Bristol, Stapleton and Bitton.

After the Conquest very extensive lands and privileges in the county were acquired by the church, the abbey of Cirencester alone holding seven hundreds at fee-farm, and the estates of the principal lay-tenants were for the most part outlying parcels of baronies having their "caput" in other counties. The large estates held by William Fitz Osbern, earl of Hereford, escheated to the crown on the rebellion of his son Earl Roger in 1074-1075. The Berkeleys have held lands in Gloucestershire from the time of the Domesday Survey, and the families of Basset, Tracy, Clifton, Dennis and Poyntz have figured prominently in the annals of the county. Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, and Richard of Cornwall claimed extensive lands and privileges in the shire in the 13th century, and Simon de Montfort owned Minsterworth and Rodley.

Bristol was made a county in 1425, and in 1483 Richard III. created Gloucester an independent county, adding to it the hundreds of Dudston and King's Barton. The latter were reunited to Gloucestershire in 1673, but the cities of Bristol and Gloucester continued to rank as independent counties, with separate jurisdiction, county rate and assizes. The chief officer of the forest of Dean was the warden, who was generally also constable of St Briavel Castle. The first justice-seat for the forest was held at Gloucester Castle in 1282, the last in 1635. The hundred of the duchy of Lancaster is within the jurisdiction of the duchy of Lancaster for certain purposes.

The physical characteristics of the three natural divisions of Gloucestershire have given rise in each to a special industry, as already indicated. The forest district, until the development of the Sussex mines in the 16th century, was the chief iron-producing area of the kingdom, the mines having been worked in Roman times, while the abundance of timber gave rise to numerous tanneries and to an important ship-building trade. The hill district, besides fostering agricultural pursuits, gradually absorbed the woollen trade from the big towns, which now devoted themselves almost entirely to foreign commerce. Silk-weaving was introduced in the 17th century, and was especially prosperous in the Stroud valley. The abundance of clay and building-stone in the county gave rise to considerable manufactures of brick, tiles and pottery. Numerous minor industries sprang up in the 17th and 18th centuries, such as flax-growing and the manufacture of pins, buttons, lace, stockings, rope and sailcloth.

Gloucestershire was first represented in parliament in 1290, when it returned two members. Bristol and Gloucester acquired representation in 1295, Cirencester in 1572 and Tewkesbury in 1620. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned four members in two divisions; Bristol, Gloucester, Cirencester, Stroud and Tewkesbury returned two members each, and Cheltenham returned one member. The act of 1868 reduced the representation of Cirencester and Tewkesbury to one member each.