Chapter XVIII: Part 18

A considerable modification has been effected in the implements of the game. The tendency of the modern wooden clubs is to be short in the head as compared with the clubs of, say, 1880 or 1885. The advantage claimed (probably with justice) for this shape is that it masses the weight behind the point on which the ball is struck. Better material in the wood of the club is a consequence of the increased demand for these articles and the increased competition among their makers. Whereas under the old conditions a few workers at the few greens then in existence were enough to supply the golfing wants, now there is a very large industry in golf club and ball making, which not only employs workers in the local club-makers' shops all the kingdom over, but is an important branch of the commerce of the stores and of the big athletic outfitters, both in Great Britain and in the United States. By far the largest modification in the game since the change to gutta-percha balls from balls of leather-covering stuffed with feathers, is due to the American invention of the india-rubber cased balls. Practically it is as an American invention that it is still regarded, although the British law courts decided, after a lengthy trial (1905), that there had been "prior users" of the principle of the balls' manufacture, and therefore that the patent of Mr Haskell, by whose name the first balls of the kind were called, was not good. It is singular to remark that in the first introduction of the gutta-percha balls, superseding the leather and feather compositions, they also were called by the name of their first maker, "Gourlay." The general mode of manufacture of the rubber-cored ball, which is now everywhere in use, is interiorly, a hard core of gutta-percha or some other such substance; round this is wound, by machinery, india-rubber thread or strips at a high tension, and over all is an outer coat of gutta-percha. Some makers have tried to dispense with the kernel of hard substance, or to substitute for it kernels of some fluid or gelatinous substance, but in general the above is a sufficient, though rough, description of the mode of making all these balls. Their superiority over the solid gutta-percha lies in their superior resiliency. The effect is that they go much more lightly off the club. It is not so much in the tee-shots that this superiority is observed, as in the second shots, when the ball is lying badly; balls of the rubber-cored kind, with their greater liveliness, are more easy to raise in the air from a lie of this kind. They also go remarkably well off the iron clubs, and thus make the game easier by placing the player within an iron shot of the hole at a distance at which he would have to use a wooden club if he were playing with a solid gutta-percha ball. They also tend to make the game more easy by the fact that if they are at all mis-hit they go much better than a gutta-percha ball similarly inaccurately struck. As a slight set-off against these qualities, the ball, because of the greater liveliness, is not quite so good for the short game as the solid ball; but on the whole its advantages distinctly overbalance its disadvantages.

When these balls were first put on the market they were sold at two shillings each and even, when the supply was quite unequal to the demand, at a greater deal higher price, rising to as much as a guinea a ball. But the normal price, until about a year after the decision in the British courts of law affirming that there was no patent in the balls, was always two shillings for the best quality of ball. Subsequently there was a reduction down to one shilling for the balls made by many of the manufacturing companies, though in 1910 the rise in the price of rubber sent up the cost. The rubber-cored ball does not go out of shape so quickly as the gutta-percha solid ball and does not show other marks of ill-usage with the club so obviously. It has had the effect of making the game a good deal easier for the second- and third-class players, favouring especially those who were short drivers with the old gutta-percha ball. To the best players it has made the least difference, nevertheless those who were best with the old ball are also best with the new; its effect has merely been to bring the second, third and fourth best closer to each other and to the best.

Incidentally, the question of the expense of the game has been touched on in this notice of the new balls. There is no doubt that the balls themselves tend to a greater economy, not only because of their own superior durability but also because, as a consequence of their greater resiliency, they are not nearly so hard on the clubs, and the clubs themselves being perhaps made of better material than used to be given to their manufacture, the total effect is that a man's necessary annual expenditure on them is very small indeed even though he plays pretty constantly. Four or five rounds are not more than the average of golfers will make an india-rubber cored ball last them, so that the outlay on the weapons is very moderate. On the other hand the expenditure of the clubs on their courses has increased and tends to increase. Demands are more insistent than they used to be for a well kept course, for perfectly mown greens, renewed teeing grounds and so on, and probably the modern golfer is a good deal more luxurious in his clubhouse wants than his father used to be. This means a big staff of servants and workers on the green, and to meet this a rather heavy subscription is required. Such a subscription as five guineas added to a ten or fifteen guinea entrance fee is not uncommon, and even this is very moderate compared with the subscriptions to some of the clubs in the United States, where a hundred dollars a year, or twenty pounds of our money, is not unusual. But on the whole golf is a very economical pastime, as compared with almost any other sport or pastime which engages the attention of Britons, and it is a pastime for all the year round, and for all the life of a man or woman.

_Glossary of Technical Terms used in the Game._

_Addressing the Ball._--Putting oneself in position to strike the
ball.

_All Square._--Term used to express that the score stands level,
neither side being a hole up.

_Baff._--To strike the ground with the club when playing, and so loft
the ball unduly.

_Baffy._--A short wooden club, with laid-back face, for lofting shots.

_Bogey._--The number of strokes which a good average player should
take to each hole. This imaginary player is usually known as "Colonel
Bogey," and plays a fine game.

_Brassy._--A wooden club with a brass sole.

_Bulger._--A driver in which the face "bulges" into a convex shape.
The head is shorter than in the older-fashioned driver.

_Bunker._--A sand-pit.

_Bye._--The holes remaining after one side has become more holes up
than remain for play.

_Caddie._--The person who carries the clubs. Diminutive of "cad"; cf.
laddie (from Fr. _cadet_).

_Cleek._--The iron-headed club that is capable of the farthest drive
of any of the clubs with iron heads.

_Cup._--A depression in the ground causing the ball to lie badly.

_Dead._--A ball is said to be "dead" when so near the hole that the
putting it in in the next stroke is a "dead" certainty. A ball is said
to "fall dead" when it pitches with hardly any run.

_Divot._--A piece of turf cut out in the act of playing, which, be it
noted, should always be replaced before the player moves on.

_Dormy._--One side is said to be "dormy" when it is as many holes to
the good as remain to be played--so that it cannot be beaten.

_Driver._--The longest driving club, used when the ball lies very well
and a long shot is needed.

_Foozle._--Any very badly missed or bungled stroke.

"_Fore!_"--A cry of warning to people in front.

_Foursome._--A match in which four persons engage, two on each side
playing alternately with the same ball.

_Green._--(a) The links as a whole; (b) the "putting-greens" around
the holes.

_Grip._--(a) The part of the club-shaft which is held in the hands
while playing; (b) the grasp itself--e.g. "a firm grip," "a loose
grip," are common expressions.

_Half-Shot._--A shot played with something less than a full swing.

_Halved._--A hole is "halved" when both sides have played it in the
same number of strokes. A round is "halved" when each side has won and
lost the same number of holes.

_Handicap._--The strokes which a player receives either in match play
or competition.

_Hanging._--Said of a ball that lies on a slope inclining downwards in
regard to the direction in which it is wished to drive.

_Hazard._--A general term for bunker, whin, long grass, roads and all
kinds of bad ground.

_Heel._--To hit the ball on the "heel" of the club, i.e. the part of
the face nearest the shaft, and so send the ball to the right, with
the same result as from a slice.

_Honour._--The privilege (which its holder is not at liberty to
decline) of striking off first from the tee.

_Iron._--An iron-headed club intermediate between the cleek and
lofting mashie. There are driving irons and lofting irons according to
the purposes for which they are intended.

_Lie._--(a) The angle of the club-head with the shaft (e.g. a "flat
lie," "an upright lie"); (b) the position of the ball on the ground
(e.g. "a good lie," "a bad lie").

_Like, The._--The stroke which makes the player's score equal to his
opponent's in course of playing a hole.

_Like-as-we-Lie._--Said when both sides have played the same number of
strokes.

_Line._--The direction in which the hole towards which the player is
progressing lies with reference to the present position of his ball.

_Mashie._--Ah iron club with a short head. The _lofting mashie_ has
the blade much laid back, for playing a short lofting shot. The
_driving mashie_ has the blade less laid back, and is used for longer,
less lofted shots.

_Match-Play._--Play in which the score is reckoned by holes won and
lost.

_Medal-Play._--Play in which the score is reckoned by the total of
strokes taken on the round.

_Niblick._--A short stiff club with a short, laid back, iron head,
used for getting the ball out of a very bad lie.

_Odd, The._--A stroke more than the opponent has played.

_Press._--To strive to hit harder than you can hit with accuracy.

_Pull._--To hit the ball with a pulling movement of the club, so as to
make it curve to the left.

_Putt._--To play the short strokes near the hole (pronounced as in
"but").

_Putter._--The club used for playing the short strokes near the hole.
Some have a wooden head, some an iron head.

_Rub-of-the-Green._--Any chance deflection that the ball receives as
it goes along.

_Run Up._--To send the ball low and close to the ground in approaching
the hole--opposite to lofting it up.

_Scratch Player._--Player who receives no odds in handicap
competitions.

_Slice._--To hit the ball with a cut across it, so that it flies
curving to the right.

_Stance._--(a) The place on which the player has to stand when
playing--e.g. "a bad stance," "a good stance," are common expressions;
(b) the position relative to each other of the player's feet.

_Stymie._--When one ball lies in a straight line between another and
the hole the first is said to "stymie," or "to be a stymie to" the
other--from an old Scottish word given by Jamieson to mean "the
faintest form of anything." The idea probably was, the "stymie" only
left you the "faintest form" of the hole to aim at.

_Tee._--The little mound of sand on which the ball is generally placed
for the first drive to each hole.

_Teeing-Ground._--The place marked as the limit, outside of which it
is not permitted to drive the ball off. This marked-out ground is also
sometimes called "the tee."

_Top._--To hit the ball above the centre, so that it does not rise
much from the ground.

_Up._--A player is said to be "one up," "two up," &c., when he is so
many holes to the good of his opponent.

_Wrist-Shot._--A shot less in length than a half-shot, but longer than
a putt.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature of the game has grown to some
considerable bulk. For many years it was practically comprised in the
fine work by Mr Robert Clark, _Golf: A Royal and Ancient Game_,
together with two handbooks on the game by Mr Chambers and by Mr
Forgan respectively, and the _Golfiana Miscellanea_ of Mr Stewart. A
small book by Mr Horace Hutchinson, named _Hints on Golf_, was very
shortly followed by a much more important work by Sir Walter Simpson,
Bart., called _The Art of Golf_, a title which sufficiently explains
itself. The Badminton Library book on _Golf_ attempted to collect into
one volume the most interesting historical facts known about the game,
with _obiter dicta_ and advice to learners, and, on similar didactic
lines, books have been written by Mr H. C. S. Everard, Mr Garden Smith
and W. Park, the professional player. Mr H. J. Whigham, sometime
amateur champion golfer of the United States, has given us a book
about the game in that country. _The Book of Golf and Golfers_,
compiled, with assistance, by Mr Horace Hutchinson, is in the first
place a picture-gallery of famous golfers in their respective
attitudes of play. Taylor, Vardon and Braid have each contributed a
volume of instruction, and Mr G. W. Beldam has published a book with
admirable photographs of players in action, called _Great Golfers:
their Methods at a Glance_. A work intended for the use of green
committees is among the volumes of the _Country Life_ Library of
Sport. Much interesting lore is contained in the _Golfing Annual_, in
the _Golfer's Year Book_ and in the pages of _Golf_, which has now
become _Golf Illustrated_, a weekly paper devoted to the game. Among
works that have primarily a local interest, but yet contain much of
historical value about the game, may be cited the _Golf Book of East
Lothian_, by the Rev. John Kerr, and the _Chronicle of Blackheath
Golfers_, by Mr W. E. Hughes. (H. G. H.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] From an enactment of James VI. (then James I. of England),
bearing date 1618, we find that a considerable importation of golf
balls at that time took place from Holland, and as thereby "na small
quantitie of gold and silver is transported zierly out of his Hienes'
kingdome of Scoteland" (see letter of His Majesty from Salisbury, the
5th of August 1618), he issues a royal prohibition, at once as a wise
economy of the national moneys, and a protection to native industry
in the article. From this it might almost seem that the game was at
that date still known and practised in Holland.

[2] _Records of the City of Edinburgh_.

[3] _Inventories of Mary Queen of Scots_, preface, p. lxx. (1863).

[4] Anonymous author of MS. in the Harleian Library.

[5] See _History of Leith_, by A. Campbell (1827).

[6] _Local Records of Northumberland_, by John Sykes (Newcastle,
1833).

[7] Robertson's _Historical Notices of Leith_.

GOLIAD, an unincorporated village and the county-seat of Goliad county, Texas, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the San Antonio river, 85 m. S.E. of San Antonio. Pop. (1900) about 1700. It is served by the Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio railway (Southern Pacific System). Situated in the midst of a rich farming and stock-raising country, Goliad has flour mills, cotton gins and cotton-seed oil mills. Here are the interesting ruins of the old Spanish mission of La Bahia, which was removed to this point from the Guadaloupe river in 1747. During the struggle between Mexico and Spain the Mexican leader Bernardo Gutierrez (1778-1814) was besieged here. The name Goliad, probably an anagram of the name of the Mexican patriot Hidalgo (1753-1811), was first used about 1829. On the outbreak of the Texan War of Liberation Goliad was garrisoned by a small force of Mexicans, who surrendered to the Texans in October 1835, and on the 20th of December a preliminary "declaration of independence" was published here, antedating by several months the official Declaration issued at Old Washington, Texas, on the 2nd of March 1836. In 1836, when Santa Anna began his advance against the Texan posts, Goliad was occupied by a force of about 350 Americans under Colonel James W. Fannin (c. 1800-1836), who was overtaken on the Coletta Creek while attempting to carry out orders to withdraw from Goliad and to unite with General Houston; he surrendered after a sharp fight (March 19-20) in which he inflicted a heavy loss on the Mexicans, and was marched back with his force to Goliad, where on the morning of the 27th of March they were shot down by Santa Anna's orders. Goliad was nearly destroyed by a tornado on the 19th of May 1903.

GOLIARD, a name applied to those wandering students (_vagantes_) and clerks in England, France and Germany, during the 12th and 13th centuries, who were better known for their rioting, gambling and intemperance than for their scholarship. The derivation of the word is uncertain. It may come from the Lat. _gula_, gluttony (Wright), but was connected by them with a mythical "Bishop Golias," also called "_archipoeta_" and "_primas_"--especially in Germany--in whose name their satirical poems were mostly written. Many scholars have accepted Budinger's suggestion (_Uber einige Reste der Vagantenpoesie in Osterreich_, Vienna, 1854) that the title of Golias goes back to the letter of St Bernard to Innocent II., in which he referred to Abelard as Goliath, thus connecting the goliards with the keen-witted student adherents of that great medieval critic. Giesebrecht and others, however, support the derivation of goliard from _gailliard_, a gay fellow, leaving "Golias" as the imaginary "patron" of their fraternity.

Spiegel has ingeniously disentangled something of a biography of an _archipoeta_ who flourished mainly in Burgundy and at Salzburg from 1160 to beyond the middle of the 13th century; but the proof of the reality of this individual is not convincing. It is doubtful, too, if the jocular references to the rules of the "gild" of goliards should be taken too seriously, though their aping of the "orders" of the church, especially their contrasting them with the mendicants, was too bold for church synods. Their satires were almost uniformly directed against the church, attacking even the pope. In 1227 the council of Treves forbade priests to permit the goliards to take part in chanting the service. In 1229 they played a conspicuous part in the disturbances at the university of Paris, in connexion with the intrigues of the papal legate. During the century which followed they formed a subject for the deliberations of several church councils, notably in 1289 when it was ordered that "no clerks shall be jongleurs, goliards or buffoons," and in 1300 (at Cologne) when they were forbidden to preach or engage in the indulgence traffic. This legislation was only effective when the "privileges of clergy" were withdrawn from the goliards. Those historians who regard the middle ages as completely dominated by ascetic ideals, regard the goliard movement as a protest against the spirit of the time. But it is rather indicative of the wide diversity in temperament among those who crowded to the universities in the 13th century, and who found in the privileges of the clerk some advantage and attraction in the student life. The goliard poems are as truly "medieval" as the monastic life which they despised; they merely voice another section of humanity. Yet their criticism was most keenly pointed, and marks a distinct step in the criticism of abuses in the church.

Along with these satires went many poems in praise of wine and riotous living. A remarkable collection of them, now at Munich, from the monastery at Benedictbeuren in Bavaria, was published by Schmeller (3rd ed., 1895) under the title _Carmina Burana_. Many of these, which form the main part of song-books of German students to-day, have been delicately translated by John Addington Symonds in a small volume, _Wine, Women and Song_ (1884). As Symonds has said, they form a prelude to the Renaissance. The poems of "Bishop Golias" were later attributed to Walter Mapes, and have been published by Thomas Wright in _The Latin Poems commonly attributed to Walter Mapes_ (London, 1841).

The word "goliard" itself outlived these turbulent bands which had given it birth, and passed over into French and English literature of the 14th century in the general meaning of jongleur or minstrel, quite apart from any clerical association. It is thus used in _Piers Plowman_, where, however, the _goliard_ still rhymes in Latin, and in Chaucer.

See, besides the works quoted above, M. Haezner, _Goliardendichtung
und die Satire im 13ten Jahrhundert in England_ (Leipzig, 1905);
Spiegel, _Die Vaganten und ihr "Orden"_ (Spires, 1892); Hubatsch, _Die
lateinischen Vagantenlieder des Mittelalters_ (Gorlitz, 1870); and the
article in _La grande Encyclopedie_. All of these have bibliographical
apparatus. (J. T. S.*)

GOLIATH, the name of the giant by slaying whom David achieved renown (1 Sam. xvii.). The Philistines had come up to make war against Saul and, as the rival camps lay opposite each other, this warrior came forth day by day to challenge to single combat. Only David ventured to respond, and armed with a sling and pebbles he overcame Goliath. The Philistines, seeing their champion killed, lost heart and were easily put to flight. The giant's arms were placed in the sanctuary, and it was his famous sword which David took with him in his flight from Saul (1 Sam. xxi. 1-9). From another passage we learn that Goliath of Gath, "the shaft of whose spear was like a weaver's beam," was slain by a certain Elhanan of Bethlehem in one of David's conflicts with the Philistines (2 Sam. xxi. 18-22)--the parallel 1 Chron. xx. 5, avoids the contradiction by reading the "brother of Goliath." But this old popular story has probably preserved the more original tradition, and if Elhanan is the son of Dodo in the list of David's mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 9, 24), the resemblance between the two names may have led to the transference. The narratives of David's early life point to some exploit by means of which he gained the favour of Saul, Jonathan and Israel, but the absence of all reference to his achievement in the subsequent chapters (1 Sam. xxi. 11, xxix. 5) is evidence of the relatively late origin of a tradition which in course of time became one of the best-known incidents in David's life (Ps. cxliv., LXX. title, the apocryphal Ps. cli., Ecclus. xlvii. 4).

See DAVID; SAMUEL (BOOKS) and especially Cheyne, _Aids and Devout
Study of Criticism_, pp. 80 sqq., 125 sqq. In the old Egyptian romance
of _Sinuhit_ (ascribed to about 2000 B.C.), the story of the slaying
of the Bedouin hero has several points of resemblance with that of
David and Goliath. See L. B. Paton, _Hist. of Syr. and Pal._, p. 60;
A. Jeremias, _Das A. T. im Lichte d. alten Orients_, 2nd ed. pp. 299,
491; A. R. S. Kennedy, _Century Bible: Samuel_, p. 122, argues that
David's Philistine adversary was originally nameless, in 1 Sam. xvii.
he is named only in v. 4.

GOLITSUIN, BORIS ALEKSYEEVICH (1654-1714), Russian statesman, came of a princely family, claiming descent from Prince Gedimin of Lithuania. Earlier members of the family were Mikhail (d. c. 1552), a famous soldier, and his great-grandson Vasily Vasilevich (d. 1619), who was sent as ambassador to Poland to offer the Russian crown to Prince Ladislaus. Boris became court chamberlain in 1676. He was the young tsar Peter's chief supporter when, in 1689, Peter resisted the usurpations of his elder sister Sophia, and the head of the loyal council which assembled at the Troitsa monastery during the crisis of the struggle. Golitsuin it was who suggested taking refuge in that strong fortress and won over the boyars of the opposite party. In 1690 he was created a boyar and shared with Lev Naruishkin, Peter's uncle, the conduct of home affairs. After the death of the tsaritsa Natalia, Peter's mother, in 1694, his influence increased still further. He accompanied Peter to the White Sea (1694-1695); took part in the Azov campaign (1695); and was one of the triumvirate who ruled Russia during Peter's first foreign tour (1697-1698). The Astrakhan rebellion (1706), which affected all the districts under his government, shook Peter's confidence in him, and seriously impaired his position. In 1707 he was superseded in the Volgan provinces by Andrei Matvyeev. A year before his death he entered a monastery. Golitsuin was a typical representative of Russian society of the end of the 17th century in its transition from barbarism to civilization. In many respects he was far in advance of his age. He was highly educated, spoke Latin with graceful fluency, frequented the society of scholars and had his children carefully educated according to the best European models. Yet this eminent, this superior personage was an habitual drunkard, an uncouth savage who intruded upon the hospitality of wealthy foreigners, and was not ashamed to seize upon any dish he took a fancy to, and send it home to his wife. It was his reckless drunkenness which ultimately ruined him in the estimation of Peter the Great, despite his previous inestimable services.

See S. Solovev, _History of Russia_ (Rus.), vol. xiv. (Moscow, 1858);
R. N. Bain, _The First Romanovs_ (London, 1905). (R. N. B.)

GOLITSUIN, DMITRY MIKHAILOVICH (1665-1737), Russian statesman, was sent in 1697 to Italy to learn "military affairs"; in 1704 he was appointed to the command of an auxiliary corps in Poland against Charles XII.; from 1711 to 1718 he was governor of Byelogorod. In 1718 he was appointed president of the newly erected _Kammer Kollegium_ and a senator. In May 1723 he was implicated in the disgrace of the vice-chancellor Shafirov and was deprived of all his offices and dignities, which he only recovered through the mediation of the empress Catherine I. After the death of Peter the Great, Golitsuin became the recognized head of the old Conservative party which had never forgiven Peter for putting away Eudoxia and marrying the plebeian Martha Skavronskaya. But the reformers, as represented by Alexander Menshikov and Peter Tolstoi, prevailed; and Golitsuin remained in the background till the fall of Menshikov, 1727. During the last years of Peter II. (1728-1730), Golitsuin was the most prominent statesman in Russia and his high aristocratic theories had full play. On the death of Peter II. he conceived the idea of limiting the autocracy by subordinating it to the authority of the supreme privy council, of which he was president. He drew up a form of constitution which Anne of Courland, the newly elected Russian empress, was forced to sign at Mittau before being permitted to proceed to St Petersburg. Anne lost no time in repudiating this constitution, and never forgave its authors. Golitsuin was left in peace, however, and lived for the most part in retirement, till 1736, when he was arrested on suspicion of being concerned in the conspiracy of his son-in-law Prince Constantine Cantimir. This, however, was a mere pretext, it was for his anti-monarchical sentiments that he was really prosecuted. A court, largely composed of his antagonists, condemned him to death, but the empress reduced the sentence to lifelong imprisonment in Schlusselburg and confiscation of all his estates. He died in his prison on the 14th of April 1737, after three months of confinement.

See R. N. Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_ (London, 1897).
(R. N. B.)

GOLITSUIN, VASILY VASILEVICH (1643-1714), Russian statesman, spent his early days at the court of Tsar Alexius where he gradually rose to the rank of boyar. In 1676 he was sent to the Ukraine to keep in order the Crimean Tatars and took part in the Chigirin campaign. Personal experience of the inconveniences and dangers of the prevailing system of preferment, the so-called _myestnichestvo_, or rank priority, which had paralysed the Russian armies for centuries, induced him to propose its abolition, which was accomplished by Tsar Theodore III. (1678). The May revolution of 1682 placed Golitsuin at the head of the _Posolsky Prikaz_, or ministry of foreign affairs, and during the regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the Great, whose lover he became, he was the principal minister of state (1682-1689) and "keeper of the great seal," a title bestowed upon only two Russians before him, Athonasy Orduin-Nashchokin and Artamon Matvyeev. In home affairs his influence was insignificant, but his foreign policy was distinguished by the peace with Poland in 1683, whereby Russia at last recovered Kiev. By the terms of the same treaty, he acceded to the grand league against the Porte, but his two expeditions against the Crimea (1687 and 1689), "the First Crimean War," were unsuccessful and made him extremely unpopular. Only with the utmost difficulty could Sophia get the young tsar Peter to decorate the defeated commander-in-chief as if he had returned a victor. In the civil war between Sophia and Peter (August-September 1689), Golitsuin half-heartedly supported his mistress and shared her ruin. His life was spared owing to the supplications of his cousin Boris, but he was deprived of his boyardom, his estates were confiscated and he was banished successively to Kargopol, Mezen and Kologora, where he died on the 21st of April 1714. Golitsuin was unusually well educated. He understood German and Greek as well as his mother-tongue, and could express himself fluently in Latin. He was a great friend of foreigners, who generally alluded to him as "the great Golitsuin."

His brother MIKHAIL (1674-1730) was a celebrated soldier, who is best known for his governorship of Finland (1714-1721), where his admirable qualities earned the remembrance of the people whom he had conquered. And Mikhail's son Alexander (1718-1783) was a diplomat and soldier, who rose to be field-marshal and governor of St Petersburg.

See R. N. Bain, _The First Romanovs_ (London, 1905); A. Bruckner,
_Furst Golizin_ (Leipzig, 1887); S. Solovev, _History of Russia_
(Rus.), vols. xiii.-xiv. (Moscow, 1858, &c.). (R. N. B.)

GOLIUS or (GOHL), JACOBUS (1596-1667), Dutch Orientalist, was born at the Hague in 1596, and studied at the university of Leiden, where in Arabic and other Eastern languages he was the most distinguished pupil of Erpenius. In 1622 he accompanied the Dutch embassy to Morocco, and on his return he was chosen to succeed Erpenius (1624). In the following year he set out on a Syrian and Arabian tour from which he did not return until 1629. The remainder of his life was spent at Leiden where he held the chair of mathematics as well as that of Arabic. He died on the 28th of September 1667.

His most important work is the _Lexicon Arabico-Latinum_, fol.,
Leiden, 1653, which, based on the _Sihah_ of Al-Jauhari, was only
superseded by the corresponding work of Freytag. Among his earlier
publications may be mentioned editions of various Arabic texts
(_Proverbia quaedam Alis, imperatoris Muslemici, et Carmen
Tograipoetae doctissimi, necnon dissertatio quaedam Aben Synae_, 1629;
and _Ahmedis Arabsiadae vitae et rerum gestarum Timuri, qui vulgo
Tamer, lanes dicitur, historia_, 1636). In 1656 he published a new
edition, with considerable additions, of the _Grammatica Arabica_ of
Erpenius. After his death, there was found among his papers a
_Dictionarium Persico-Latinum_ which was published, with additions, by
Edmund Castell in his _Lexicon heptaglotton_ (1669). Golius also
edited, translated and annotated the astronomical treatise of Alfragan
(_Muhammedis, filii Ketiri Ferganensis, qui vulgo Alfraganus dicitur,
elementa astronomica Arabice et Latine_, 1669).

GOLLNOW, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania, on the right bank of the Ihna, 14 m. N.N.E. of Stettin, with which it has communication by rail and steamer. Pop. (1905) 8539. It possesses two Evangelical churches, a synagogue and some small manufactures. Gollnow was founded in 1190, and was raised to the rank of a town in 1268. It was for a time a Hanse town, and came into the possession of Prussia in 1720, having belonged to Sweden since 1648.

GOLOSH, or GALOSH (from the Fr. _galoche_, Low Lat. _calopedes_, a wooden shoe or clog; an adaptation of the Gr. [Greek: kalopodion], a diminutive formed of [Greek: kalon], wood, and [Greek: pous], foot), originally a wooden shoe or patten, or merely a wooden sole fastened to the foot by a strap or cord. In the middle ages "galosh" was a general term for a boot or shoe, particularly one with a wooden sole. In modern usage, it is an outer shoe worn in bad weather to protect the inner one, and keep the feet dry. Goloshes are now almost universally made of rubber, and in the United States they are known as "rubbers" simply, the word golosh being rarely if ever used. In the bootmakers' trade, a "golosh" is the piece of leather, of a make stronger than, or different from that of the "uppers," which runs around the bottom part of a boot or shoe, just above the sole.

GOLOVIN, FEDOR ALEKSYEEVICH, COUNT (d. 1706), Russian statesman, learnt, like so many of his countrymen in later times, the business of a ruler in the Far East. During the regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the Great, he was sent to the Amur to defend the new Muscovite fortress of Albazin against the Chinese. In 1689 he concluded with the Celestial empire the treaty of Nerchinsk, by which the line of the Amur, as far as its tributary the Gorbitsa, was retroceded to China because of the impossibility of seriously defending it. In Peter's grand embassy to the West in 1697 Golovin occupied the second place immediately after Lefort. It was his chief duty to hire foreign sailors and obtain everything necessary for the construction and complete equipment of a fleet. On Lefort's death, in March 1699, he succeeded him as admiral-general. The same year he was created the first Russian count, and was also the first to be decorated with the newly-instituted Russian order of St Andrew. The conduct of foreign affairs was at the same time entrusted to him, and from 1699 to his death he was "the premier minister of the tsar." Golovin's first achievement as foreign minister was to supplement the treaty of Carlowitz, by which peace with Turkey had only been secured for three years, by concluding with the Porte a new treaty at Constantinople (June 13, 1700), by which the term of the peace was extended to thirty years and, besides other concessions, the Azov district and a strip of territory extending thence to Kuban were ceded to Russia. He also controlled, with consummate ability, the operations of the brand-new Russian diplomatists at the various foreign courts. His superiority over all his Muscovite contemporaries was due to the fact that he was already a statesman, in the modern sense, while they were still learning the elements of statesmanship. His death was an irreparable loss to the tsar, who wrote upon the despatch announcing it, the words "Peter filled with grief."

See R. N. Bain, _The First Romanovs_ (London, 1905). (R. N. B.)

GOLOVKIN, GAVRIIL IVANOVICH, COUNT (1660-1734), Russian statesman, was attached (1677), while still a lad, to the court of the tsarevitch Peter, afterwards Peter the Great, with whose mother Natalia he was connected, and vigilantly guarded him during the disquieting period of the regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the Great (1682-1689). He accompanied the young tsar abroad on his first foreign tour, and worked by his side in the dockyards of Saardam. In 1706 he succeeded Golovin in the direction of foreign affairs, and was created the first Russian grand-chancellor on the field of Poltava (1709). Golovkin held this office for twenty-five years. In the reign of Catherine I. he became a member of the supreme privy council which had the chief conduct of affairs during this and the succeeding reigns. The empress also entrusted him with her last will whereby she appointed the young Peter II. her successor and Golovkin one of his guardians. On the death of Peter II. in 1730 he declared openly in favour of Anne, duchess of Courland, in opposition to the aristocratic Dolgorukis and Golitsuins, and his determined attitude on behalf of autocracy was the chief cause of the failure of the proposed constitution, which would have converted Russia into a limited monarchy. Under Anne he was a member of the first cabinet formed in Russia, but had less influence in affairs than Ostermann and Munnich. In 1707 he was created a count of the Holy Roman empire, and in 1710 a count of the Russian empire. He was one of the wealthiest, and at the same time one of the stingiest, magnates of his day. His ignorance of any language but his own made his intercourse with foreign ministers very inconvenient.

See R. N. Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_ (London, 1897).
(R. N. B.)

GOLOVNIN, VASILY MIKHAILOVICH (1776-1831), Russian vice-admiral, was born on the 20th of April 1776 in the village of Gulynki in the province of Ryazan, and received his education at the Cronstadt naval school. From 1801 to 1806 he served as a volunteer in the English navy. In 1807 he was commissioned by the Russian government to survey the coasts of Kamchatka and of Russian America, including also the Kurile Islands. Golovnin sailed round the Cape of Good Hope, and on the 5th of October 1809, arrived in Kamchatka. In 1810, whilst attempting to survey the coast of the island of Kunashiri, he was seized by the Japanese, and was retained by them as a prisoner, until the 13th of October 1813, when he was liberated, and in the following year he returned to St Petersburg. Soon after this the government planned another expedition, which had for its object the circumnavigation of the globe by a Russian ship, and Golovnin was appointed to the command. He started from St Petersburg on the 7th of September 1817, sailed round Cape Horn, and arrived in Kamchatka in the following May. He returned to Europe by way of the Cape of Good Hope, and landed at St Petersburg on the 17th of September 1819. He died on the 12th of July 1831.

Golovnin published several works, of which the following are the most
important:--_Journey to Kamchatka_ (2 vols., 1819); _Journey Round the
World_ (2 vols., 1822); and _Narrative of my Captivity in Japan,
1811-1813_ (2 vols., 1816). The last has been translated into French,
German and English, the English edition being in three volumes (1824).
A complete edition of his works was published at St Petersburg in five
volumes in 1864, with maps and charts, and a biography of the author
by N. Grech.

GOLTZ, BOGUMIL (1801-1870), German humorist and satirist, was born at Warsaw on the 20th of March 1801. After attending the classical schools of Marienwerder and Konigsberg, he learnt farming on an estate near Thorn, and in 1821 entered the university of Breslau as a student of philosophy. But he soon abandoned an academical career, and, after returning for a while to country life, retired to the small town of Gollub, where he devoted himself to literary studies. In 1847 he settled at Thorn, "the home of Copernicus," where he died on the 12th of November 1870. Goltz is best known to literary fame by his _Buch der Kindheit_ (Frankfort, 1847; 4th ed., Berlin, 1877), in which, after the style of Jean Paul, and Adalbert Stifter, but with a more modern realism, he gives a charming and idyllic description of the impressions of his own childhood. Among his other works must be noted _Ein Jugendleben_ (1852); _Der Mensch und die Leute_ (1858); _Zur Charakteristik und Naturgeschichte der Frauen_ (1859); _Zur Geschichte und Charakteristik des deutschen Genius_ (1864), and _Die Weltklugheit und die Lebensweisheit_ (1869).

Goltz's works have not been collected, but a selection will be found
in Reclam's _Universalbibliothek_ (ed. by P. Stein, 1901 and 1906).
See O. Roquette, _Siebzig Jahre_, i. (1894).

GOLTZ, COLMAR, FREIHERR VON DER (1843- ), Prussian soldier and military writer, was born at Bielkenfeld, East Prussia, on the 12th of August 1843, and entered the Prussian infantry in 1861. In 1864 he entered the Berlin Military Academy, but was temporarily withdrawn in 1866 to serve in the Austrian war, in which he was wounded at Trautenau. In 1867 he joined the topographical section of the general staff, and at the beginning of the Franco-German War of 1870-71 was attached to the staff of Prince Frederick Charles. He took part in the battles of Vionville and Gravelotte and in the siege of Metz. After its fall he served under the Red Prince in the campaign of the Loire, including the battles of Orleans and Le Mans. He was appointed in 1871 professor at the military school at Potsdam, and the same year was promoted captain and placed in the historical section of the general staff. It was then he wrote _Die Operationen der II. Armee bis zur Capitulation von Metz_ and _Die Sieben Tage von Le Mans_, both published in 1873. In 1874 he was appointed to the staff of the 6th division, and while so employed wrote _Die Operationen der II. Armee an der Loire and Leon Gambetta und seine Armeen_, published in 1875 and 1877 respectively. The latter was translated into French the same year, and both are impartially written. The views expressed in the latter work led to his being sent back to regimental duty for a time, but it was not long before he returned to the military history section. In 1878 von der Goltz was appointed lecturer in military history at the military academy at Berlin, where he remained for five years and attained the rank of major. He published, in 1883, _Rossbach und Jena_ (new and revised edition, _Von Rossbach bis Jena und Auerstadt_, 1906), _Das Volk in Waffen_ (English translation _The Nation in Arms_), both of which quickly became military classics, and during his residence in Berlin contributed many articles to the military journals. In June 1883 his services were lent to Turkey to reorganize the military establishments of the country. He spent twelve years in this work, the result of which appeared in the Greco-Turkish War of 1897, and he was made a pasha and in 1895 a _mushir_ or field-marshal. On his return to Germany in 1896 he became a lieutenant-general and commander of the 5th division, and in 1898, head of the Engineer and Pioneer Corps and inspector-general of fortifications. In 1900 he was made general of infantry and in 1902 commander of the I. army corps. In 1907 he was made inspector-general of the newly created sixth army inspection established at Berlin, and in 1908 was given the rank of colonel-general (_Generaloberst_).

In addition to the works already named and frequent contributions to
military periodical literature, he wrote _Kriegfuhrung_ (1895, later
edition _Krieg- und Heerfuhrung_, 1901; Eng. trans. _The Conduct of
War_); _Der thessalische Krieg_ (Berlin, 1898); _Ein Ausflug nach
Macedonien_ (1894); _Anatolische Ausfluge_ (1896); a map and
description of the environs of Constantinople; _Von Jena bis Pr.
Eylau_ (1907), a most important historical work, carrying on the story
of _Rossbach und Jena_ to the peace of Tilsit, &c.

GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK (1558-1617), Dutch painter and engraver, was born in 1558 at Mulebrecht, in the duchy of Julich. After studying painting on glass for some years under his father, he was taught the use of the burin by Dirk Volkertsz Coornhert, a Dutch engraver of mediocre attainment, whom he soon surpassed, but who retained his services for his own advantage. He was also employed by Philip Galle to engrave a set of prints of the history of Lucretia. At the age of twenty-one he married a widow somewhat advanced in years, whose money enabled him to establish at Haarlem an independent business; but his unpleasant relations with her so affected his health that he found it advisable in 1590 to make a tour through Germany to Italy, where he acquired an intense admiration for the works of Michelangelo, which led him to surpass that master in the grotesqueness and extravagance of his designs. He returned to Haarlem considerably improved in health, and laboured there at his art till his death, on the 1st of January 1617. Goltzius ought not to be judged chiefly by the works he valued most, his eccentric imitations of Michelangelo. His portraits, though mostly miniatures, are master-pieces of their kind, both on account of their exquisite finish, and as fine studies of individual character. Of his larger heads, the life-size portrait of himself is probably the most striking example. His "master-pieces," so called from their being attempts to imitate the style of the old masters, have perhaps been overpraised. In his command of the burin Goltzius is not surpassed even by Durer; but his technical skill is often unequally aided by higher artistic qualities. Even, however, his eccentricities and extravagances are greatly counterbalanced by the beauty and freedom of his execution. He began painting at the age of forty-two, but none of his works in this branch of art--some of which are in the imperial collection at Vienna--display any special excellences. He also executed a few pieces in chiaroscuro.

His prints amount to more than 300 plates, and are fully described in
Bartsch's _Peintre-graveur_, and Weigel's supplement to the same work.

GOLUCHOWSKI, AGENOR, COUNT (1849- ), Austrian statesman, was born on the 25th of March 1849. His father, descended from an old and noble Polish family, was governor of Galicia. Entering the diplomatic service, the son was in 1872 appointed attache to the Austrian embassy at Berlin, where he became secretary of legation, and thence he was transferred to Paris. After rising to the rank of counsellor of legation, he was in 1887 made minister at Bucharest, where he remained till 1893. In these positions he acquired a great reputation as a firm and skilful diplomatist, and on the retirement of Count Kalnoky in May 1895 was chosen to succeed him as Austro-Hungarian minister for foreign affairs. The appointment of a Pole caused some surprise in view of the importance of Austrian relations with Russia (then rather strained) and Germany, but the choice was justified by events. In his speech of that year to the delegations he declared the maintenance of the Triple Alliance, and in particular the closest intimacy with Germany, to be the keystone of Austrian policy; at the same time he dwelt on the traditional friendship between Austria and Great Britain, and expressed his desire for a good understanding with all the powers. In pursuance of this policy he effected an understanding with Russia, by which neither power was to exert any separate influence in the Balkan peninsula, and thus removed a long-standing cause of friction. This understanding was formally ratified during a visit to St Petersburg on which he accompanied the emperor in April 1897. He took the lead in establishing the European concert during the Armenian troubles of 1896, and again resisted isolated action on the part of any of the great powers during the Cretan troubles and the Greco-Turkish War. In November 1897, when the Austro-Hungarian flag was insulted at Mersina, he threatened to bombard the town if instant reparation were not made, and by his firm attitude greatly enhanced Austrian prestige in the East. In his speech to the delegations in 1898 he dwelt on the necessity of expanding Austria's mercantile marine, and of raising the fleet to a strength which, while not vying with the fleets of the great naval powers, would ensure respect for the Austrian flag wherever her interests needed protection. He also hinted at the necessity for European combination to resist American competition. The understanding with Russia in the matter of the Balkan States temporarily endangered friendly relations with Italy, who thought her interests threatened, until Goluchowski guaranteed in 1898 the existing order. He further encouraged a good understanding with Italy by personal conferences with the Italian foreign minister, Tittoni, in 1904 and 1905. Count Lamsdorff visited Vienna in December 1902, when arrangements were made for concerted action in imposing on the sultan reforms in the government of Macedonia. Further steps were taken after Goluchowski's interview with the tsar at Murzsteg in 1903, and two civil agents representing the countries were appointed for two years to ensure the execution of the promised reforms. This period was extended in 1905, when Goluchowski was the chief mover in forcing the Porte, by an international naval demonstration at Mitylene, to accept financial control by the powers in Macedonia. At the conference assembled at Algeciras to settle the Morocco Question, Austria supported the German position, and after the close of the conferences the emperor William II. telegraphed to Goluchowski: "You have proved yourself a brilliant second on the duelling ground and you may feel certain of like services from me in similar circumstances." This pledge was redeemed in 1908, when Germany's support of Austria in the Balkan crisis proved conclusive. By the Hungarians, however, Goluchowski was hated; he was suspected of having inspired the emperor's opposition to the use of Magyar in the Hungarian army, and was made responsible for the slight offered to the Magyar deputation by Francis Joseph in September 1905. So long as he remained in office there was no hope of arriving at a settlement of a matter which threatened the disruption of the Dual monarchy, and on the 11th of October 1906 he was forced to resign.

GOMAL, or GUMAL, the name of a river of Afghanistan, and of a mountain pass on the Dera Ismail Khan border of the North-West Frontier Province of British India. The Gomal river, one of the most important rivers in Afghanistan, rises in the unexplored regions to the south-east of Ghazni. Its chief tributary is the Zhob. Within the limits of British territory the Gomal forms the boundary between the North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan, and more or less between the Pathan and Baluch races. The Gomal pass is the most important pass on the Indian frontier between the Khyber and the Bolan. It connects Dera Ismail Khan with the Gomal valley in Afghanistan, and has formed for centuries the outlet for the povindah trade. Until the year 1889 this pass was almost unknown to the Anglo-Indian official; but in that year the government of India decided that, in order to maintain the safety of the railway as well as to perfect communication between Quetta and the Punjab, the Zhob valley should, like the Bori valley, be brought under British protection and control, and the Gomal pass should be opened. After the Waziristan expedition of 1894 Wana was occupied by British troops in order to dominate the Gomal and Waziristan; but on the formation of the North-West Frontier Province in 1901 it was decided to replace these troops by the South Waziristan militia, who now secure the safety of the pass.