Chapter M: O. B. C (3)

II. _Mental Philosophy._--In the sphere of mental philosophy and logic
Hutcheson's contributions are by no means so important or original as
in that of moral philosophy. They are interesting mainly as a link
between Locke and the Scottish school. In the former subject the
influence of Locke is apparent throughout. All the main outlines of
Locke's philosophy seem, at first sight, to be accepted as a matter of
course. Thus, in stating his theory of the moral sense, Hutcheson is
peculiarly careful to repudiate the doctrine of innate ideas (see, for
instance, _Inquiry concerning Moral Good and Evil_, sect. 1 ad fin.,
and sect. 4; and compare _Synopsis Metaphysicae_, pars i. cap. 2). At
the same time he shows more discrimination than does Locke in
distinguishing between the two uses of this expression, and between
the legitimate and illegitimate form of the doctrine (Syn. Metaph.
pars i. cap. 2). All our ideas are, as by Locke, referred to external
or internal sense, or, in other words, to sensation and reflection
(see, for instance, _Syn. Metaph._ pars i. cap. 1; _Logicae Compend._
pars i. cap. 1; _System of Moral Philosophy_, bk. i. ch. 1). It is,
however, a most important modification of Locke's doctrine, and one
which connects Hutcheson's mental philosophy with that of Reid, when
he states that the ideas of extension, figure, motion and rest "are
more properly ideas accompanying the sensations of sight and touch
than the sensations of either of these senses"; that the idea of self
accompanies every thought, and that the ideas of number, duration and
existence accompany every other idea whatsoever (see _Essay on the
Nature and Conduct of the Passions_, sect. i. art. 1; _Syn. Metaph._
pars i. cap. 1, pars ii. cap. 1; Hamilton on Reid, p. 124, note).
Other important points in which Hutcheson follows the lead of Locke
are his depreciation of the importance of the so-called laws of
thought, his distinction between the primary and secondary qualities
of bodies, the position that we cannot know the inmost essences of
things ("intimae rerum naturae sive essentiae"), though they excite
various ideas in us, and the assumption that external things are known
only through the medium of ideas (_Syn. Metaph._ pars i. cap. 1),
though, at the same time, we are assured of the existence of an
external world corresponding to these ideas. Hutcheson attempts to
account for our assurance of the reality of an external world by
referring it to a natural instinct (_Syn. Metaph._ pars i. cap. 1). Of
the correspondence or similitude between our ideas of the primary
qualities of things and the things themselves God alone can be
assigned as the cause. This similitude has been effected by Him
through a law of nature. "Haec prima qualitatum primariarum perceptio,
sive mentis actio quaedam sive passio dicatur, non alia similitudinis
aut convenientiae inter ejusmodi ideas et res ipsas causa assignari
posse videtur, quam ipse Deus, qui certa naturae lege hoc efficit, ut
notiones, quae rebus praesentibus excitantur, sint ipsis similes, aut
saltem earum habitudines, si non veras quantitates, depingant" (pars
ii. cap. 1). Locke does speak of God "annexing" certain ideas to
certain motions of bodies; but nowhere does he propound a theory so
definite as that here propounded by Hutcheson, which reminds us at
least as much of the speculations of Malebranche as of those of Locke.

Amongst the more important points in which Hutcheson diverges from
Locke is his account of the idea of personal identity, which he
appears to have regarded as made known to us directly by
consciousness. The distinction between body and mind, _corpus_ or
_materia_ and _res cogitans_, is more emphatically accentuated by
Hutcheson than by Locke. Generally, he speaks as if we had a direct
consciousness of mind as distinct from body (see, for instance, _Syn.
Metaph._ pars ii. cap. 3), though, in the posthumous work on _Moral
Philosophy_, he expressly states that we know mind as we know body "by
qualities immediately perceived though the substance of both be
unknown" (bk. i. ch. 1). The distinction between perception proper and
sensation proper, which occurs by implication though it is not
explicitly worked out (see Hamilton's _Lectures on Metaphysics_, Lect.
24; Hamilton's edition of _Dugald Stewart's Works_, v. 420), the
imperfection of the ordinary division of the external senses into five
classes, the limitation of consciousness to a special mental faculty
(severely criticized in Sir W. Hamilton's _Lectures on Metaphysics_,
Lect. xii.) and the disposition to refer on disputed questions of
philosophy not so much to formal arguments as to the testimony of
consciousness and our natural instincts are also amongst the points in
which Hutcheson supplemented or departed from the philosophy of Locke.
The last point can hardly fail to suggest the "common-sense
philosophy" of Reid.

Thus, in estimating Hutcheson's position, we find that in particular
questions he stands nearer to Locke, but in the general spirit of his
philosophy he seems to approach more closely to his Scottish
successors.

The short _Compendium of Logic_, which is more original than such
works usually are, is remarkable chiefly for the large
proportion of psychological matter which it contains. In these parts
of the book Hutcheson mainly follows Locke. The technicalities of the
subject are passed lightly over, and the book is readable. It may be
specially noticed that he distinguishes between the mental result and
its verbal expression [idea--term; judgment--proposition], that he
constantly employs the word "idea," and that he defines logical truth
as "convenientia signorum cum rebus significatis" (or "propositionis
convenientia cum rebus ipsis," _Syn. Metaph._ pars i. cap 3), thus
implicitly repudiating a merely formal view of logic.

III. _Aesthetics._--Hutcheson may further be regarded as one of the
earliest modern writers on aesthetics. His speculations on this
subject are contained in the _Inquiry concerning Beauty, Order,
Harmony and Design_, the first of the two treatises published in 1725.
He maintains that we are endowed with a special sense by which we
perceive beauty, harmony and proportion. This is a _reflex_ sense,
because it presupposes the action of the external senses of sight and
hearing. It may be called an internal sense, both in order to
distinguish its perceptions from the mere perceptions of sight and
hearing, and because "in some other affairs, where our external senses
are not much concerned, we discern a sort of beauty, very like in many
respects to that observed in sensible objects, and accompanied with
like pleasure" (_Inquiry, &c._, sect. 1). The latter reason leads him
to call attention to the beauty perceived in universal truths, in the
operations of general causes and in moral principles and actions.
Thus, the analogy between beauty and virtue, which was so favourite a
topic with Shaftesbury, is prominent in the writings of Hutcheson
also. Scattered up and down the treatise there are many important and
interesting observations which our limits prevent us from noticing.
But to the student of mental philosophy it may be specially
interesting to remark that Hutcheson both applies the principle of
association to explain our ideas of beauty and also sets limits to its
application, insisting on there being "a natural power of perception
or sense of beauty in objects, antecedent to all custom, education or
example" (see _Inquiry, &c._, sects. 6, 7; Hamilton's _Lectures on
Metaphysics_, Lect. 44 ad fin.).

Hutcheson's writings naturally gave rise to much controversy. To say
nothing of minor opponents, such as "Philaretus" (Gilbert Burnet,
already alluded to), Dr John Balguy (1686-1748), prebendary of
Salisbury, the author of two tracts on "The Foundation of Moral
Goodness," and Dr John Taylor (1694-1761) of Norwich, a minister of
considerable reputation in his time (author of _An Examination of the
Scheme of Morality advanced by Dr Hutcheson_), the essays appear to
have suggested, by antagonism, at least two works which hold a
permanent place in the literature of English ethics--Butler's
_Dissertation on the Nature of Virtue_, and Richard Price's _Treatise
of Moral Good and Evil_ (1757). In this latter work the author
maintains, in opposition to Hutcheson, that actions are _in
themselves_ right or wrong, that right and wrong are simple ideas
incapable of analysis, and that these ideas are perceived immediately
by the understanding. We thus see that, not only directly but also
through the replies which it called forth, the system of Hutcheson, or
at least the system of Hutcheson combined with that of Shaftesbury,
contributed, in large measure, to the formation and development of
some of the most important of the modern schools of ethics (see
especially art. ETHICS).

AUTHORITIES.--Notices of Hutcheson occur in most histories, both of
general philosophy and of moral philosophy, as, for instance, in pt.
vii. of Adam Smith's _Theory of Moral Sentiments_; Mackintosh's
_Progress of Ethical Philosophy_; Cousin, _Cours d'histoire de la
philosophie morale du XVIII^e siècle_; Whewell's _Lectures on the
History of Moral Philosophy in England_; A. Bain's _Mental and Moral
Science_; Noah Porter's Appendix to the English translation of
Ueberweg's _History of Philosophy_; Sir Leslie Stephen's _History of
English Thought in the Eighteenth Century_, &c. See also Martineau,
_Types of Ethical Theory_ (London, 1902); W. R. Scott, _Francis
Hutcheson_ (Cambridge, 1900); Albee, _History of English
Utilitarianism_ (London, 1902); T. Fowler, _Shaftesbury and Hutcheson_
(London, 1882); J. McCosh, _Scottish Philosophy_ (New York, 1874). Of
Dr Leechman's _Biography_ of Hutcheson we have already spoken. J.
Veitch gives an interesting account of his professorial work in
Glasgow, _Mind_, ii. 209-212. (T. F.; X.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] See _Belfast Magazine_ for August 1813.

HUTCHINSON, ANNE (c. 1600-1643), American religious enthusiast, leader of the "Antinomians" in New England, was born in Lincolnshire, England, about 1600. She was the daughter of a clergyman named Francis Marbury, and, according to tradition, was a cousin of John Dryden. She married William Hutchinson, and in 1634 emigrated to Boston, Massachusetts, as a follower and admirer of the Rev. John Cotton. Her orthodoxy was suspected and for a time she was not admitted to the church, but soon she organized meetings among the Boston women, among whom her exceptional ability and her services as a nurse had given her great influence; and at these meetings she discussed and commented upon recent sermons and gave expression to her own theological views. The meetings became increasingly popular, and were soon attended not only by the women but even by some of the ministers and magistrates, including Governor Henry Vane. At these meetings she asserted that she, Cotton and her brother-in-law, the Rev. John Wheelwright--whom she was trying to make second "teacher" in the Boston church--were under a "covenant of grace," that they had a special inspiration, a "peculiar indwelling of the Holy Ghost," whereas the Rev. John Wilson, the pastor of the Boston church, and the other ministers of the colony were under a "covenant of works." Anne Hutchinson was, in fact, voicing a protest against the legalism of the Massachusetts Puritans, and was also striking at the authority of the clergy in an intensely theocratic community. In such a community a theological controversy inevitably was carried into secular politics, and the entire colony was divided into factions. Mrs Hutchinson was supported by Governor Vane, Cotton, Wheelwright and the great majority of the Boston church; opposed to her were Deputy-Governor John Winthrop, Wilson and all of the country magistrates and churches. At a general fast, held late in January 1637, Wheelwright preached a sermon which was taken as a criticism of Wilson and his friends. The strength of the parties was tested at the General Court of Election of May 1637, when Winthrop defeated Vane for the governorship. Cotton recanted, Vane returned to England in disgust, Wheelwright was tried and banished and the rank and file either followed Cotton in making submission or suffered various minor punishments. Mrs Hutchinson was tried (November 1637) by the General Court chiefly for "traducing the ministers," and was sentenced to banishment; later, in March 1638, she was tried before the Boston church and was formally excommunicated. With William Coddington (d. 1678), John Clarke and others, she established a settlement on the island of Aquidneck (now Rhode Island) in 1638. Four years later, after the death of her husband, she settled on Long Island Sound near what is now New Rochelle, Westchester county, New York, and was killed in an Indian rising in August 1643, an event regarded in Massachusetts as a manifestation of Divine Providence. Anne Hutchinson and her followers were called "Antinomians," probably more as a term of reproach than with any special reference to her doctrinal theories; and the controversy in which she was involved is known as the "Antinomian Controversy."

See C. F. Adams, _Antinomianism in the Colony of Massachusetts Bay_,
vol. xiv. of the Prince Society Publications (Boston, 1894); and
_Three Episodes of Massachusetts History_ (Boston and New York, 1896).

HUTCHINSON, JOHN (1615-1664), Puritan soldier, son of Sir Thomas Hutchinson of Owthorpe, Nottinghamshire, and of Margaret, daughter of Sir John Byron of Newstead, was baptized on the 18th of September 1615. He was educated at Nottingham and Lincoln schools and at Peterhouse, Cambridge, and in 1637 he entered Lincoln's Inn. On the outbreak of the great Rebellion he took the side of the Parliament, and was made in 1643 governor of Nottingham Castle, which he defended against external attacks and internal divisions, till the triumph of the parliamentary cause. He was chosen member for Nottinghamshire in March 1646, took the side of the Independents, opposed the offers of the king at Newport, and signed the death-warrant. Though a member at first of the council of state, he disapproved of the subsequent political conduct of Cromwell and took no further part in politics during the lifetime of the protector. He resumed his seat in the recalled Long Parliament in May 1659, and followed Monk in opposing Lambert, believing that the former intended to maintain the commonwealth. He was returned to the Convention Parliament for Nottingham but expelled on the 9th of June 1660, and while not excepted from the Act of Indemnity was declared incapable of holding public office. In October 1663, however, he was arrested upon suspicion of being concerned in the Yorkshire plot, and after a rigorous confinement in the Tower of London, of which he published an account (reprinted in the Harleian _Miscellany_, vol. iii.), and in Sandown Castle, Kent, he died on the 11th of September 1664. His career draws its chief interest from the _Life_ by his wife, Lucy, daughter of Sir Allen Apsley, written after the death of her husband but not published till 1806 (since often reprinted), a work not only valuable for the picture which it gives of the man and of the time in which he lived, but for the simple beauty of its style, and the naïveté with which the writer records her sentiments and opinions, and details the incidents of her private life.

See the edition of Lucy Hutchinson's _Memoirs of the Life of Colonel
Hutchinson_ by C. H. Firth (1885); _Brit. Mus. Add. MSS._ 25,901 (a
fragment of the Life), also _Add. MSS._ 19, 333, 36,247 f. 51; _Notes
and Queries_, 7, ser. iii. 25, viii. 422; _Monk's Contemporaries_, by
Guizot.

HUTCHINSON, JOHN (1674-1737), English theological writer, was born at Spennithorne, Yorkshire, in 1674. He served as steward in several families of position, latterly in that of the duke of Somerset, who ultimately obtained for him the post of riding purveyor to the master of the horse, a sinecure worth about £200 a year. In 1700 he became acquainted with Dr John Woodward (1665-1728) physician to the duke and author of a work entitled _The Natural History of the Earth_, to whom he entrusted a large number of fossils of his own collecting, along with a mass of manuscript notes, for arrangement and publication. A misunderstanding as to the manner in which these should be dealt with was the immediate occasion of the publication by Hutchinson in 1724 of _Moses's Principia_, part i., in which Woodward's _Natural History_ was bitterly ridiculed, his conduct with regard to the mineralogical specimens not obscurely characterized, and a refutation of the Newtonian doctrine of gravitation seriously attempted. It was followed by part ii. in 1727, and by various other works, including _Moses's Sine Principio_, 1730; _The Confusion of Tongues and Trinity of the Gentiles_, 1731; _Power Essential and Mechanical, or what power belongs to God and what to his creatures, in which the design of Sir I. Newton and Dr Samuel Clarke is laid open_, 1732; _Glory or Gravity_, 1733; _The Religion of Satan, or Antichrist Delineated_, 1736. He taught that the Bible contained the elements not only of true religion but also of all rational philosophy. He held that the Hebrew must be read without points, and his interpretation rested largely on fanciful symbolism. Bishop George Home of Norwich was during some of his earlier years an avowed Hutchinsonian; and William Jones of Nayland continued to be so to the end of his life.

A complete edition of his publications, edited by Robert Spearman and
Julius Bate, appeared in 1748 (12 vols.); an _Abstract_ of these
followed in 1753; and a _Supplement_, with _Life_ by Spearman
prefixed, in 1765.

HUTCHINSON, SIR JONATHAN (1828- ), English surgeon and pathologist, was born on the 23rd of July 1828 at Selby, Yorkshire, his parents belonging to the Society of Friends. He entered St Bartholomew's Hospital, became a member of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1850 (F.R.C.S. 1862), and rapidly gained reputation as a skilful operator and a scientific inquirer. He was president of the Hunterian Society in 1869 and 1870, professor of surgery and pathology at the College of Surgeons from 1877 to 1882, president of the Pathological Society, 1879-1880, of the Ophthalmological Society, 1883, of the Neurological Society, 1887, of the Medical Society, 1890, and of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical in 1894-1896. In 1889 he was president of the Royal College of Surgeons. He was a member of two Royal Commissions, that of 1881 to inquire into the provision for smallpox and fever cases in the London hospitals, and that of 1889-1896 on vaccination and leprosy. He also acted as honorary secretary to the Sydenham Society. His activity in the cause of scientific surgery and in advancing the study of the natural sciences was unwearying. His lectures on neuro-pathogenesis, gout, leprosy, diseases of the tongue, &c., were full of original observation; but his principal work was connected with the study of syphilis, on which he became the first living authority. He was the founder of the London Polyclinic or Postgraduate School of Medicine; and both in his native town of Selby and at Haslemere, Surrey, he started (about 1890) educational museums for popular instruction in natural history. He published several volumes on his own subjects, was editor of the quarterly _Archives of Surgery_, and was given the Hon. LL.D. degree by both Glasgow and Cambridge. After his retirement from active consultative work he continued to take great interest in the question of leprosy, asserting the existence of a definite connexion between this disease and the eating of salted fish. He received a knighthood in 1908.

HUTCHINSON, THOMAS (1711-1780), the last royal governor of the province of Massachusetts, son of a wealthy merchant of Boston, Mass., was born there on the 9th of September 1711. He graduated at Harvard in 1727, then became an apprentice in his father's counting-room, and for several years devoted himself to business. In 1737 he began his public career as a member of the Boston Board of Selectmen, and a few weeks later he was elected to the General Court of Massachusetts Bay, of which he was a member until 1740 and again from 1742 to 1749, serving as speaker in 1747, 1748 and 1749. He consistently contended for a sound financial system, and vigorously opposed the operations of the "Land Bank" and the issue of pernicious bills of credit. In 1748 he carried through the General Court a bill providing for the cancellation and redemption of the outstanding paper currency. Hutchinson went to England in 1740 as the representative of Massachusetts in a boundary dispute with New Hampshire. He was a member of the Massachusetts Council from 1749 to 1756, was appointed judge of probate in 1752 and was chief justice of the superior court of the province from 1761 to 1769, was lieutenant-governor from 1758 to 1771, acting as governor in the latter two years, and from 1771 to 1774 was governor. In 1754 he was a delegate from Massachusetts to the Albany Convention, and, with Franklin, was a member of the committee appointed to draw up a plan of union. Though he recognized the legality of the Stamp Act of 1765, he considered the measure inexpedient and impolitic and urged its repeal, but his attitude was misunderstood; he was considered by many to have instigated the passage of the Act, and in August 1765 a mob sacked his Boston residence and destroyed many valuable manuscripts and documents. He was acting governor at the time of the "Boston Massacre" in 1770, and was virtually forced by the citizens of Boston, under the leadership of Samuel Adams, to order the removal of the British troops from the town. Throughout the pre-Revolutionary disturbances in Massachusetts he was the representative of the British ministry, and though he disapproved of some of the ministerial measures he felt impelled to enforce them and necessarily incurred the hostility of the Whig or Patriot element. In 1774, upon the appointment of General Thomas Gage as military governor he went to England, and acted as an adviser to George III. and the British ministry on American affairs, uniformly counselling moderation. He died at Brompton, now part of London, on the 3rd of June 1780.

He wrote _A Brief Statement of the Claim of the Colonies_ (1764); a
_Collection of Original Papers relative to the History of
Massachusetts Bay_ (1769), reprinted as _The Hutchinson Papers_ by the
Prince Society in 1865; and a judicious, accurate and very valuable
_History of the Province of Massachusetts Bay_ (vol. i., 1764, vol.
ii., 1767, and vol. iii., 1828). His _Diary and Letters, with an
Account of his Administration_, was published at Boston in 1884-1886.

See James K. Hosmer's _Life of Thomas Hutchinson_ (Boston, 1896), and
a biographical chapter in John Fiske's _Essays Historical and
Literary_ (New York, 1902). For an estimate of Hutchinson as an
historian, see M. C. Tyler's _Literary History of the American
Revolution_ (New York, 1897).

HUTCHINSON, a city and the county-seat of Reno county, Kansas, U.S.A., in the broad bottom-land on the N. side of the Arkansas river. Pop. (1900) 9379, of whom 414 were foreign-born and 442 negroes; (1910 census) 16,364. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Missouri Pacific and the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railways. The principal public buildings are the Federal building and the county court house. The city has a public library, and an industrial reformatory is maintained here by the state. Hutchinson is situated in a stock-raising, fruit-growing and farming region (the principal products of which are wheat, Indian corn and fodder), with which it has a considerable wholesale trade. An enormous deposit of rock salt underlies the city and its vicinity, and Hutchinson's principal industry is the manufacture (by the open-pan and grainer processes) and the shipping of salt; the city has one of the largest salt plants in the world. Among the other manufactures are flour, creamery products, soda-ash, straw-board, planing-mill products and packed meats. Natural gas is largely used as a factory fuel. The city's factory product was valued at $2,031,048 in 1905, an increase of 31.8% since 1900. Hutchinson was chartered as a city In 1871.

HUTTEN, PHILIPP VON (c. 1511-1546), German knight, was a relative of Ulrich von Hutten and passed some of his early years at the court of the emperor Charles V. Later he joined the band of adventurers which under Georg Hohermuth, or George of Spires, sailed to Venezuela, or Venosala as Hutten calls it, with the object of conquering and exploiting this land in the interests of the Augsburg family of Welser. The party landed at Coro in February 1535 and Hutten accompanied Hohermuth on his long and toilsome expedition into the interior in search of treasure. After the death of Hohermuth in December 1540 he became captain-general of Venezuela. Soon after this event he vanished into the interior, returning after five years of wandering to find that a Spaniard, Juan de Caravazil, or Caravajil, had been appointed governor in his absence. With his travelling companion, Bartholomew Welser the younger, he was seized by Caravazil in April 1546 and the two were afterwards put to death.

Hutten left some letters, and also a narrative of the earlier part of
his adventures, this _Zeitung aus India Junkher Philipps von Hutten_
being published in 1785.

HUTTEN, ULRICH VON (1488-1523), was born on the 21st of April 1488, at the castle of Steckelberg, near Fulda, in Hesse. Like Erasmus or Pirckheimer, he was one of those men who form the bridge between Humanists and Reformers. He lived with both, sympathized with both, though he died before the Reformation had time fully to develop. His life may be divided into four parts:--his youth and cloister-life (1488-1504); his wanderings in pursuit of knowledge (1504-1515); his strife with Ulrich of Württemberg (1515-1519); and his connexion with the Reformation (1519-1523). Each of these periods had its own special antagonism, which coloured Hutten's career: in the first, his horror of dull monastic routine; in the second, the ill-treatment he met with at Greifswald; in the third, the crime of Duke Ulrich; in the fourth, his disgust with Rome and with Erasmus. He was the eldest son of a poor and not undistinguished knightly family. As he was mean of stature and sickly his father destined him for the cloister, and he was sent to the Benedictine house at Fulda; the thirst for learning there seized on him, and in 1505 he fled from the monastic life, and won his freedom with the sacrifice of his worldly prospects, and at the cost of incurring his father's undying anger. From the Fulda cloister he went first to Cologne, next to Erfurt, and then to Frankfort-on-Oder on the opening in 1506 of the new university of that town. For a time he was in Leipzig, and in 1508 we find him a shipwrecked beggar on the Pomeranian coast. In 1509 the university of Greifswald welcomed him, but here too those who at first received him kindly became his foes; the sensitive ill-regulated youth, who took the liberties of genius, wearied his burgher patrons; they could not brook the poet's airs and vanity, and ill-timed assertions of his higher rank. Wherefore he left Greifswald, and as he went was robbed of clothes and books, his only baggage, by the servants of his late friends; in the dead of winter, half starved, frozen, penniless, he reached Rostock. Here again the Humanists received him gladly, and under their protection he wrote against his Greifswald patrons, thus beginning the long list of his satires and fierce attacks on personal or public foes. Rostock could not hold him long; he wandered on to Wittenberg and Leipzig, and thence to Vienna, where he hoped to win the emperor Maximilian's favour by an elaborate national poem on the war with Venice. But neither Maximilian nor the university of Vienna would lift a hand for him, and he passed into Italy, where, at Pavia, he sojourned throughout 1511 and part of 1512. In the latter year his studies were interrupted by war; in the siege of Pavia by papal troops and Swiss, he was plundered by both sides, and escaped, sick and penniless, to Bologna; on his recovery he even took service as a private soldier in the emperor's army.

This dark period lasted no long time; in 1514 he was again in Germany, where, thanks to his poetic gifts and the friendship of Eitelwolf von Stein (d. 1515), he won the favour of the elector of Mainz, Archbishop Albert of Brandenburg. Here high dreams of a learned career rose on him; Mainz should be made the metropolis of a grand Humanist movement, the centre of good style and literary form. But the murder in 1515 of his relative Hans von Hutten by Ulrich, duke of Württemberg, changed the whole course of his life; satire, chief refuge of the weak, became Hutten's weapon; with one hand he took his part in the famous _Epistolae obscurorum virorum_, and with the other launched scathing letters, eloquent Ciceronian orations, or biting satires against the duke. Though the emperor was too lazy and indifferent to smite a great prince, he took Hutten under his protection and bestowed on him the honour of a laureate crown in 1517. Hutten, who had meanwhile revisited Italy, again attached himself to the electoral court at Mainz; and he was there when in 1518 his friend Pirckheimer wrote, urging him to abandon the court and dedicate himself to letters. We have the poet's long reply, in an epistle on his "way of life," an amusing mixture of earnestness and vanity, self-satisfaction and satire; he tells his friend that his career is just begun, that he has had twelve years of wandering, and will now enjoy himself a while in patriotic literary work; that he has by no means deserted the humaner studies, but carries with him a little library of standard books. Pirckheimer in his burgher life may have ease and even luxury; he, a knight of the empire, how can he condescend to obscurity? He must abide where he can shine.

In 1519 he issued in one volume his attacks on Duke Ulrich, and then, drawing sword, took part in the private war which overthrew that prince; in this affair he became intimate with Franz von Sickingen, the champion of the knightly order (Ritterstand). Hutten now warmly and openly espoused the Lutheran cause, but he was at the same time mixed up in the attempt of the "Ritterstand" to assert itself as the militia of the empire against the independence of the German princes. Soon after this time he discovered at Fulda a copy of the manifesto of the emperor Henry IV. against Hildebrand, and published it with comments as an attack on the papal claims over Germany. He hoped thereby to interest the new emperor Charles V., and the higher orders in the empire, in behalf of German liberties; but the appeal failed. What Luther had achieved by speaking to cities and common folk in homely phrase, because he touched heart and conscience, that the far finer weapons of Hutten failed to effect, because he tried to touch the more cultivated sympathies and dormant patriotism of princes and bishops, nobles and knights. And so he at once gained an undying name in the republic of letters and ruined his own career. He showed that the artificial verse-making of the Humanists could be connected with the new outburst of genuine German poetry. The Minnesinger was gone; the new national singer, a Luther or a Hans Sachs, was heralded by the stirring lines of Hutten's pen. These have in them a splendid natural swing and ring, strong and patriotic, though unfortunately addressed to knight and landsknecht rather than to the German people.

The poet's high dream of a knightly national regeneration had a rude awakening. The attack on the papacy, and Luther's vast and sudden popularity, frightened Elector Albert, who dismissed Hutten from his court. Hoping for imperial favour, he betook himself to Charles V.; but that young prince would have none of him. So he returned to his friends, and they rejoiced greatly to see him still alive; for Pope Leo X. had ordered him to be arrested and sent to Rome, and assassins dogged his steps. He now attached himself more closely to Franz von Sickingen and the knightly movement. This also came to a disastrous end in the capture of the Ebernberg, and Sickingen's death; the higher nobles had triumphed; the archbishops avenged themselves on Lutheranism as interpreted by the knightly order. With Sickingen Hutten also finally fell. He fled to Basel, where Erasmus refused to see him, both for fear of his loathsome diseases, and also because the beggared knight was sure to borrow money from him. A paper war consequently broke out between the two Humanists, which embittered Hutten's last days, and stained the memory of Erasmus. From Basel Ulrich dragged himself to Mülhausen; and when the vengeance of Erasmus drove him thence, he went to Zurich. There the large heart of Zwingli welcomed him; he helped him with money, and found him a quiet refuge with the pastor of the little isle of Ufnau on the Zurich lake. There the frail and worn-out poet, writing swift satire to the end, died at the end of August or beginning of September 1523 at the age of thirty-five. He left behind him some debts due to compassionate friends; he did not even own a single book, and all his goods amounted to the clothes on his back, a bundle of letters, and that valiant pen which had fought so many a sharp battle, and had won for the poor knight-errant a sure place in the annals of literature.

Ulrich von Hutten is one of those men of genius at whom propriety is shocked, and whom the mean-spirited avoid. Yet through his short and buffeted life he was befriended, with wonderful charity and patience, by the chief leaders of the Humanist movement. For, in spite of his irritable vanity, his immoral life and habits, his odious diseases, his painful restlessness, Hutten had much in him that strong men could love. He passionately loved the truth, and was ever open to all good influences. He was a patriot, whose soul soared to ideal schemes and a grand utopian restoration of his country. In spite of all, his was a frank and noble nature; his faults chiefly the faults of genius ill-controlled, and of a life cast in the eventful changes of an age of novelty. A swarm of writings issued from his pen; at first the smooth elegance of his Latin prose and verse seemed strangely to miss his real character; he was the Cicero and Ovid of Germany before he became its Lucian.

His chief works were his _Ars versificandi_ (1511); the _Nemo_ (1518);
a work on the _Morbus Gallicus_ (1519); the volume of Steckelberg
complaints against Duke Ulrich (including his four _Ciceronian
Orations_, his Letters and the _Phalarismus_) also in 1519; the
_Vadismus_ (1520); and the controversy with Erasmus at the end of his
life. Besides these were many admirable poems in Latin and German. It
is not known with certainty how far Hutten was the parent of the
celebrated _Epistolae obscurorum virorum_, that famous satire on
monastic ignorance as represented by the theologians of Cologne with
which the friends of Reuchlin defended him. At first the
cloister-world, not discerning its irony, welcomed the work as a
defence of their position; though their eyes were soon opened by the
favour with which the learned world received it. The _Epistolae_ were
eagerly bought up; the first part (41 letters) appeared at the end of
1515; early in 1516 there was a second edition; later in 1516 a third,
with an appendix of seven letters; in 1517 appeared the second part
(62 letters), to which a fresh appendix of eight letters was subjoined
soon after. In 1909 the Latin text of the _Epistolae_ with an English
translation was published by F. G. Stokes. Hutten, in a letter
addressed to Robert Crocus, denied that he was the author of the book,
but there is no doubt as to his connexion with it. Erasmus was of
opinion that there were three authors, of whom Crotus Rubianus was the
originator of the idea, and Hutten a chief contributor. D. F. Strauss,
who dedicates to the subject a chapter of his admirable work on
Hutten, concludes that he had no share in the first part, but that his
hand is clearly visible in the second part, which he attributes in the
main to him. To him is due the more serious and severe tone of that
bitter portion of the satire. See W. Brecht, _Die Verfasser der
Epistolae obscurorum virorum_ (1904).

For a complete catalogue of the writings of Hutten, see E. Böcking's
_Index Bibliographicus Huttenianus_ (1858). Böcking is also the editor
of the complete edition of Hutten's works (7 vols., 1859-1862). A
selection of Hutten's German writings, edited by G. Balke, appeared in
1891. Cp. S. Szamatolski, _Huttens deutsche Schriften_ (1891). The
best biography (though it is also somewhat of a political pamphlet) is
that of D. F. Strauss (_Ulrich von Hutten_, 1857; 4th ed., 1878;
English translation by G. Sturge, 1874), with which may be compared
the older monographs by A. Wagenseil (1823), A. Bürck (1846) and J.
Zeller (Paris, 1849). See also J. Deckert, _Ulrich von Huttens Leben
und Wirken. Eine historische Skizze_ (1901). (G. W. K.)

HUTTER, LEONHARD (1563-1616), German Lutheran theologian, was born at Nellingen near Ulm in January 1563. From 1581 he studied at the universities of Strassburg, Leipzig, Heidelberg and Jena. In 1594 he began to give theological lectures at Jena, and in 1596 accepted a call as professor of theology at Wittenberg, where he died on the 23rd of October 1616. Hutter was a stern champion of Lutheran orthodoxy, as set down in the confessions and embodied in his own _Compendium locorum theologicorum_ (1610; reprinted 1863), being so faithful to his master as to win the title of "Luther redonatus."

In reply to Rudolf Hospinian's _Concordia discors_ (1607), he wrote a
work, rich in historical material but one-sided in its apologetics,
_Concordia concors_ (1614), defending the formula of Concord, which he
regarded as inspired. His _Irenicum vere christianum_ is directed
against David Pareus (1548-1622), professor primarius at Heidelberg,
who in _Irenicum sive de unione et synodo Evangelicorum_ (1614) had
pleaded for a reconciliation of Lutheranism and Calvinism; his
_Calvinista aulopoliticus_ (1610) was written against the "damnable
Calvinism" which was becoming prevalent in Holstein and Brandenburg.
Another work, based on the formula of Concord, was entitled _Loci
communes theologici_.

HUTTON, CHARLES (1737-1823), English mathematician, was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne on the 14th of August 1737. He was educated in a school at Jesmond, kept by Mr Ivison, a clergyman of the church of England. There is reason to believe, on the evidence of two pay-bills, that for a short time in 1755 and 1756 Hutton worked in Old Long Benton colliery; at any rate, on Ivison's promotion to a living, Hutton succeeded to the Jesmond school, whence, in consequence of increasing pupils, he removed to Stote's Hall. While he taught during the day at Stote's Hall, he studied mathematics in the evening at a school in Newcastle. In 1760 he married, and began tuition on a larger scale in Newcastle, where he had among his pupils John Scott, afterwards Lord Eldon, chancellor of England. In 1764 he published his first work, _The Schoolmaster's Guide, or a Complete System of Practical Arithmetic_, which in 1770 was followed by his _Treatise on Mensuration both in Theory and Practice_. In 1772 appeared a tract on _The Principles of Bridges_, suggested by the destruction of Newcastle bridge by a high flood on the 17th of November 1771. In 1773 he was appointed professor of mathematics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and in the following year he was elected F.R.S. and reported on Nevil Maskelyne's determination of the mean density and mass of the earth from measurements taken in 1774-1776 at Mount Schiehallion in Perthshire. This account appeared in the _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1778, was afterwards reprinted in the second volume of his _Tracts on Mathematical and Philosophical Subjects_, and procured for Hutton the degree of LL.D. from the university of Edinburgh. He was elected foreign secretary to the Royal Society in 1779, but his resignation in 1783 was brought about by the president Sir Joseph Banks, whose behaviour to the mathematical section of the society was somewhat high-handed (see Kippis's _Observations on the late Contests in the Royal Society_, London, 1784). After his _Tables of the Products and Powers of Numbers_, 1781, and his _Mathematical Tables_, 1785, he issued, for the use of the Royal Military Academy, in 1787 _Elements of Conic Sections_, and in 1798 his _Course of Mathematics_. His _Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary_, a valuable contribution to scientific biography, was published in 1795 (2nd ed., 1815), and the four volumes of _Recreations in Mathematics and Natural Philosophy_, mostly a translation from the French, in 1803. One of the most laborious of his works was the abridgment, in conjunction with G. Shaw and R. Pearson, of the _Philosophical Transactions_. This undertaking, the mathematical and scientific parts of which fell to Hutton's share, was completed in 1809, and filled eighteen volumes quarto. His name first appears in the _Ladies' Diary_ (a poetical and mathematical almanac which was begun in 1704, and lasted till 1871) in 1764; ten years later he was appointed editor of the almanac, a post which he retained till 1817. Previously he had begun a small periodical, _Miscellanea Mathematica_, which extended only to thirteen numbers; subsequently he published in five volumes _The Diarian Miscellany_, which contained large extracts from the _Diary_. He resigned his professorship in 1807, and died on the 27th of January 1823.

See John Bruce, _Charles Hutton_ (Newcastle, 1823).

HUTTON, JAMES (1726-1797), Scottish geologist, was born in Edinburgh on the 3rd of June 1726. Educated at the high school and university of his native city, he acquired while a student a passionate love of scientific inquiry. He was apprenticed to a lawyer, but his employer advised that a more congenial profession should be chosen for him. The young apprentice chose medicine as being nearest akin to his favourite pursuit of chemistry. He studied for three years at Edinburgh, and completed his medical education in Paris, returning by the Low Countries, and taking his degree of doctor of medicine at Leiden in 1749. Finding, however, that there seemed hardly any opening for him, he abandoned the medical profession, and, having inherited a small property in Berwickshire from his father, resolved to devote himself to agriculture. He then went to Norfolk to learn the practical work of farming, and subsequently travelled in Holland, Belgium and the north of France. During these years he began to study the surface of the earth, gradually shaping in his mind the problem to which he afterwards devoted his energies. In the summer of 1754 he established himself on his own farm in Berwickshire, where he resided for fourteen years, and where he introduced the most improved forms of husbandry. As the farm was brought into excellent order, and as its management, becoming more easy, grew less interesting, he was induced to let it, and establish himself for the rest of his life in Edinburgh. This took place about the year 1768. He was unmarried, and from this period until his death in 1797 he lived with his three sisters. Surrounded by congenial literary and scientific friends he devoted himself to research.

At that time geology in any proper sense of the term did not exist. Mineralogy, however, had made considerable progress. But Hutton had conceived larger ideas than were entertained by the mineralogists of his day. He desired to trace back the origin of the various minerals and rocks, and thus to arrive at some clear understanding of the history of the earth. For many years he continued to study the subject. At last, in the spring of the year 1785, he communicated his views to the recently established Royal Society of Edinburgh in a paper entitled _Theory of the Earth, or an Investigation of the Laws Observable in the Composition, Dissolution and Restoration of Land upon the Globe_. In this remarkable work the doctrine is expounded that geology is not cosmogony, but must confine itself to the study of the materials of the earth; that everywhere evidence may be seen that the present rocks of the earth's surface have been in great part formed out of the waste of older rocks; that these materials having been laid down under the sea were there consolidated under great pressure, and were subsequently disrupted and upheaved by the expansive power of subterranean heat; that during these convulsions veins and masses of molten rock were injected into the rents of the dislocated strata; that every portion of the upraised land, as soon as exposed to the atmosphere, is subject to decay; and that this decay must tend to advance until the whole of the land has been worn away and laid down on the sea-floor, whence future upheavals will once more raise the consolidated sediments into new land. In some of these broad and bold generalizations Hutton was anticipated by the Italian geologists; but to him belongs the credit of having first perceived their mutual relations, and combined them in a luminous coherent theory based upon observation.

It was not merely the earth to which Hutton directed his attention. He had long studied the changes of the atmosphere. The same volume in which his _Theory of the Earth_ appeared contained also a _Theory of Rain_, which was read to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1784. He contended that the amount of moisture which the air can retain in solution increases with augmentation of temperature, and, therefore, that on the mixture of two masses of air of different temperatures a portion of the moisture must be condensed and appear in visible form. He investigated the available data regarding rainfall and climate in different regions of the globe, and came to the conclusion that the rainfall is everywhere regulated by the humidity of the air on the one hand, and the causes which promote mixtures of different aerial currents in the higher atmosphere on the other.

The vigour and versatility of his genius may be understood from the variety of works which, during his thirty years' residence in Edinburgh, he gave to the world. In 1792 he published a quarto volume entitled _Dissertations on different Subjects in Natural Philosophy_, in which he discussed the nature of matter, fluidity, cohesion, light, heat and electricity. Some of these subjects were further illustrated by him in papers read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh. He did not restrain himself within the domain of physics, but boldly marched into that of metaphysics, publishing three quarto volumes with the title _An Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge, and of the Progress of Reason--from Sense to Science and Philosophy_. In this work he developed the idea that the external world, as conceived by us, is the creation of our own minds influenced by impressions from without, that there is no resemblance between our picture of the outer world and the reality, yet that the impressions produced upon our minds, being constant and consistent, become as much realities to us as if they precisely resembled things actually existing, and, therefore, that our moral conduct must remain the same as if our ideas perfectly corresponded to the causes producing them. His closing years were devoted to the extension and republication of his _Theory of the Earth_, of which two volumes appeared in 1795. A third volume, necessary to complete the work, was left by him in manuscript, and is referred to by his biographer John Playfair. A portion of the MS. of this volume, which had been given to the Geological Society of London by Leonard Horner, was published by the Society in 1899, under the editorship of Sir A. Geikie. The rest of the manuscript appears to be lost. Soon afterwards Hutton set to work to collect and systematize his numerous writings on husbandry, which he proposed to publish under the title of _Elements of Agriculture_. He had nearly completed this labour when an incurable disease brought his active career to a close on the 26th of March 1797.

It is by his _Theory of the Earth_ that Hutton will be remembered with
reverence while geology continues to be cultivated. The author's
style, however, being somewhat heavy and obscure, the book did not
attract during his lifetime so much attention as it deserved. Happily
for science Hutton numbered among his friends John Playfair (q.v.),
professor of mathematics in the university of Edinburgh, whose
enthusiasm for the spread of Hutton's doctrine was combined with a
rare gift of graceful and luminous exposition. Five years after
Hutton's death he published a volume, _Illustrations of the Huttonian
Theory of the Earth_, in which he gave an admirable summary of that
theory, with numerous additional illustrations and arguments. This
work is justly regarded as one of the classical contributions to
geological literature. To its influence much of the sound progress of
British geology must be ascribed. In the year 1805 a biographical
account of Hutton, written by Playfair, was published in vol. v. of
the _Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_. (A. Ge.)

HUTTON, RICHARD HOLT (1826-1897), English writer and theologian, son of Joseph Hutton, Unitarian minister at Leeds, was born at Leeds on the 2nd of June 1826. His family removed to London in 1835, and he was educated at University College School and University College, where he began a lifelong friendship with Walter Bagehot, of whose works he afterwards was the editor; he took the degree in 1845, being awarded the gold medal for philosophy. Meanwhile he had also studied for short periods at Heidelberg and Berlin, and in 1847 he entered Manchester New College with the idea of becoming a minister like his father, and studied there under James Martineau. He did not, however, succeed in obtaining a call to any church, and for some little time his future was unsettled. He married in 1851 his cousin, Anne Roscoe, and became joint-editor with J. L. Sanford of the _Inquirer_, the principal Unitarian organ. But his innovations and his unconventional views about stereotyped Unitarian doctrines caused alarm, and in 1853 he resigned. His health had broken down, and he visited the West Indies, where his wife died of yellow fever. In 1855 Hutton and Bagehot became joint-editors of the _National Review_, a new monthly, and conducted it for ten years. During this time Hutton's theological views, influenced largely by Coleridge, and more directly by F. W. Robertson and F. D. Maurice, gradually approached more and more to those of the Church of England, which he ultimately joined. His interest in theology was profound, and he brought to it a spirituality of outlook and an aptitude for metaphysical inquiry and exposition which added a singular attraction to his writings. In 1861 he joined Meredith Townsend as joint-editor and part proprietor of the _Spectator_, then a well-known liberal weekly, which, however, was not remunerative from the business point of view. Hutton took charge of the literary side of the paper, and by degrees his own articles became and remained up to the last one of the best-known features of serious and thoughtful English journalism. The _Spectator_, which gradually became a prosperous property, was his pulpit, in which unwearyingly he gave expression to his views, particularly on literary, religious and philosophical subjects, in opposition to the agnostic and rationalistic opinions then current in intellectual circles, as popularized by Huxley. A man of fearless honesty, quick and catholic sympathies, broad culture, and many friends in intellectual and religious circles, he became one of the most influential journalists of the day, his fine character and conscience earning universal respect and confidence. He was an original member of the Metaphysical Society (1869). He was an anti-vivisectionist, and a member of the royal commission (1875) on that subject. In 1858 he had married Eliza Roscoe, a cousin of his first wife; she died early in 1897, and Hutton's own death followed on the 9th of September of the same year.

Among his other publications may be mentioned _Essays, Theological and
Literary_ (1871; revised 1888), and _Criticisms on Contemporary
Thought and Thinkers_ (1894); and his opinions may be studied
compendiously in the selections from his _Spectator_ articles
published in 1899 under the title of _Aspects of Religious and
Scientific Thought_.