Chapter I: Front Matter (1)

Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

ARTICLE ITALY: "The secret societies, such as the Carbonari, the
Adelfi and the Bersaglieri d'America, which flourished in Romagna,
replied to these persecutions by assassinating the more brutal
officials and spies." 'and' amended from 'ans'.

ARTICLE ITALY: "... and on the 30th attempted to capture Rome by
surprise, but was completely defeated by Garibaldi, who might have
driven the French into the sea, had Mazzini allowed him to leave
the city." 'surprise' amended from 'suprise'.

ARTICLE IVORY, SIR JAMES: "... he abandoned all idea of the church,
and in 1786 he became an assistant-teacher of mathematics and
natural philosophy in a newly established academy at Dundee."
'philosophy' amended from 'philosoghy'.

ARTICLE IVORY: "Crucifixes were turned out in enormous numbers,
some of not inconsiderable merit, but, for the most part, they
represent anatomical exercises varying but slightly from a pattern
of which a celebrated one attributed to Faistenberger may be taken
as a type." 'attributed' amended from 'atributed'.

ARTICLE JACKSON, FREDERICK GEORGE: "On his return, he was given the
command of the Jackson-Harmsworth Arctic expedition (1894-1897),
which had for its objective the general exploration of Franz Josef
Land." 'expedition' amended from 'expediton'.

ARTICLE JACKSON, HELEN MARIA: "American poet and novelist, who
wrote under the initials of 'H. H.' (Helen Hunt), was born in
Amherst, Massachusetts, on the 18th of October 1831 ..." 'initials'
amended from 'intials'.

ARTICLE JACOBINS, THE: "The constituency to which the club was
henceforth responsible, and from which it derived its power, was in
fact the peuple bête of Paris; the sans-culottes--decayed lackeys,
cosmopolitan ne'er-do-wells, and starving workpeople--who crowded
its tribunes. " 'wells' amended from 'weels'.

ARTICLE JACOBITE CHURCH: "... and lived there fifteen years.
Justinian during those years imprisoned, deprived or exiled most of
the recalcitrant clergy of Syria, Mesopotamia, Cilicia, Cappadocia,
and the adjacent regions." 'lived' amended from 'livid'.

THE

ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768-1771.
SECOND " " ten " 1777-1784.
THIRD " " eighteen " 1788-1797.
FOURTH " " twenty " 1801-1810.
FIFTH " " twenty " 1815-1817.
SIXTH " " twenty " 1823-1824.
SEVENTH " " twenty-one " 1830-1842.
EIGHTH " " twenty-two " 1853-1860.
NINTH " " twenty-five " 1875-1889.
TENTH " ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902-1903.
ELEVENTH " published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911.

COPYRIGHT

in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention

by

THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

_All rights reserved_

THE

ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XV
ITALY to KYSHTYM

New York

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
342 Madison Avenue

Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
by
The Encyclopædia Britannica Company.

VOLUME XV, SLICE I

Italy to Jacobite Church

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

ITALY JABLONSKI, DANIEL ERNST
ITEM JABORANDI
ITHACA (Greece) JACA
ITHACA (New York, U.S.A.) JACAMAR
ITINERARIUM JAÇANÁ
ITIUS PORTUS JACINI, STEFANO
ITO, HIROBUMI JACK
ITRI JACKAL
ITURBIDE, AUGUSTIN DE JACKDAW
ITZA JACKSON, ANDREW
ITZEHOE JACKSON, CYRIL
IUKA JACKSON, FREDERICK GEORGE
IULUS JACKSON, HELEN MARIA
IVAN JACKSON, MASON
IVANGOROD JACKSON, THOMAS
IVANOVO-VOZNESENSK JACKSON, THOMAS JONATHAN
IVARR, BEINLAUSI JACKSON, WILLIAM
IVIZA JACKSON (Michigan, U.S.A.)
IVORY, SIR JAMES JACKSON (Mississippi, U.S.A.)
IVORY JACKSON (Tennessee, U.S.A.)
IVORY COAST JACKSONVILLE (Florida, U.S.A.)
IVREA JACKSONVILLE (Illinois, U.S.A.)
IVRY-SUR-SEINE JACOB
IVY JACOB, JOHN
IWAKURA, TOMOMI JACOB BEN ASHER
IXION JACOB OF EDESSA
IXTACCIHUATL JACOB OF JÜTERBOGK
IYRCAE JACOB OF SERUGH
IZBARTA JACOBA
IZHEVSK JACOBABAD
IZMAIL JACOBEAN STYLE
IZU-NO-SHICHI-TO JACOBI, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH
J JACOBI, JOHANN GEORG
JA'ALIN JACOBI, KARL GUSTAV JACOB
JABIRU JACOBINS, THE
JABLOCHKOV, PAUL JACOBITE CHURCH

INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,[1] WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

A. A. M.
Arthur Anthony Macdonell, M.A., Ph.D.

Boden Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Oxford. Keeper of
the Indian Institute. Fellow of Balliol College; Fellow of the
British Academy. Author of _A Vedic Grammar_; _A History of
Sanskrit Literature_; _Vedic Mythology_; &c.

Kalidasa.

A. B. D.
Rev. Andrew B. Davidson, D.D.

See the biographical article: DAVIDSON, A. B.

Job (_in part_).

A. C. S.
Algernon Charles Swinburne.

See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, A. C.

Keats (_in part_).

A. D.
Henry Austin Dobson, LL.D.

See the biographical article: DOBSON, H. AUSTIN.

Kauffmann, Angelica.

A. E. S.
Arthur Everett Shipley, M.A., F.R.S., D.Sc.

Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology,
Cambridge University. Joint-editor of the _Cambridge Natural
History_.

Kinorhyncha.

A. F. P.
Albert Frederick Polìard, M.A., F.R.Hist.Soc.

Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow
of All Souls' College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the _Dictionary
of National Biography_, 1893-1901. Lothian Prizeman (Oxford),
1892; Arnold prizeman, 1898. Author of _England under the
Protector Somerset_; _Henry VIII._; _Life of Thomas Cranmer_; &c.

Jewel, John.

A. G.
Major Arthur George Frederick Griffiths (d. 1908).

H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of _The Chronicles of
Newgate_; _Secrets of the Prison House_; &c.

Juvenile Offenders (_in part_).

A. Go.*
Rev. Alexander Gordon, M.A.

Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester.

Joris;
Knipperdollinck.

A. G. D.
Arthur George Doughty, C.M.G., M.A., Litt.D., F.R.S.(Canada),
F.R.Hist.S.

Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of
Canada. Author of _The Cradle of New France_; &c. Joint-editor of
_Documents relating to the Constitutional History of Canada_.

Joly de Lotbinière.

A. H. S.
Rev. Archibald Henry Sayce, Litt.D., LL.D.

See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H.

Kassites.

A. H.-S.
Sir A. Houtum-Schindler. C.I.E.

General in the Persian Army. Author of _Eastern Persian Irak_.

Karun;
Kerman;
Khorasan;
Kishm.

A. H. Sm.
Arthur Hamilton Smith, M.A., F.S.A.

Keeper of the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the
British Museum. Member of the Imperial German Archaeological
Institute. Author of _Catalogue of Greek Sculpture in the British
Museum_; &c.

Jewelry.

A. M. C.
Agnes Mary Clerke.

See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M.

Kepler.

A. Ml.
Alfred Ogle Maskell, F.S.A.

Superintendent of the Picture Galleries, Indian and Colonial
Exhibition, 1887. Cantor Lecturer, 1906. Founder and first editor
of the _Downside Review_. Author of _Ivories_; &c.

Ivory.

A. N.
Alfred Newton, F.R.S.

See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED.

Jabiru;
Jacamar;
Jaçana;
Jackdaw;
Jay;
Kakapo;
Kestrel;
Killdeer;
King-Bird;
Kingfisher;
Kinglet;
Kite;
Kiwi;
Knot.

A. T. I.
Alexander Taylor Innés, M.A., LL.D.

Scotch advocate. Author of _John Knox_; _Law of Creeds in
Scotland_; _Studies in Scottish History_; &c.

Knox, John.

A. W. H.*
Arthur William Holland.

Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of
Gray's Inn, 1900.

Jacobites.

A. W. W.
Adolphus William Ward, LL.D., D.Litt.

See the biographical article: WARD, A. W.

Jonson, Ben.

B. F. S. B.-P.
Major Baden F. S. Baden-Powell, F.R.A.S., F.R.Met.S.

Inventor of man-lifting kites. Formerly President of Aeronautical
Society. Author of _Ballooning as a Sport_; _War in Practice_; &c.

Kite-flying (_in part_).

B. W. B.
Rev. Benjamin Wisner Bacon, A.M., D.D., Litt.D., LL.D.

Professor of New Testament Criticism and Exegesis in Yale
University. Formerly Director of American School of Archaeology,
Jerusalem. Author of _The Fourth Gospel in Research and Debate_;
_The Founding of the Church_; &c.

James, Epistle of;
Jude, The General Epistle of.

C. D. G.
Rev. Christian David Ginsburg, LL.D.

See the biographical article: GINSBURG, C. D.

Kabbalah (_in part_).

C. El.
Sir Charles Norton Edgcumbe Eliot, K.C.M.G., C.B., M.A., LL.D.,
D.C.L.

Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of
Trinity College, Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and
Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa Protectorate; Agent
and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German East
Africa, 1900-1904.

Kashgar (_in part_);
Khazars (_in part_);
Khiva (_in part_).

C. E. D. B.
C. E. D. Black.

Formerly Clerk for Geographical Records, India Office, London.

Kashgar (_in part_).

C. H. Ha.
Carlton Huntley Hayes, A.M., Ph.D.

Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York
City. Member of the American Historical Association.

John XXI.;
Julius II.

C. H. T.*
Crawford Howell Toy.

See the biographical article: TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL.

Job (_in part_).

C. J. J.
Charles Jasper Joly, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (1864-1906).

Royal Astronomer of Ireland, and Andrews Professor of Astronomy in
the University of Dublin, 1897-1906. Fellow of Trinity College,
Dublin. Secretary of the Royal Irish Academy.

Kaleidoscope.

C. J. L.
Sir Charles James Lyall, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D. (Edin.).

Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office. Fellow of
King's College, London. Secretary to Government of India in Home
Department, 1889-1894. Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces,
India, 1895-1898. Author of _Translations of Ancient Arabic
Poetry_; &c.

Kabir.

C. L. K.
Charles Lethbridge Kingsford, M.A., F.R.Hist.Soc., F.S.A.

Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of _Life of
Henry V._ Editor of _Chronicles of London_, and Stow's _Survev of
London_.

Kempe.

C. Mi.
Chedomille Mijatovich.

Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's,
1895-1900, and 1902-1903.

Karageorge;
Karajich.

C. M. W.
Sir Charles Moore Watson, K.C.M.G., C.B.

Colonel, Royal Engineers. Deputy-Inspector-General of
Fortifications, 1896-1902. Served under General Gordon in the
Sudan, 1874-1875.

Jerusalem (_in part_).

C. R. B.
Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S.

Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham.
Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer
in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889.
Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of _Henry the Navigator_;
_The Dawn of Modern Geography_, &c.

Jordanus.

C. S. C.
Caspar Stanley Clark.

Assistant in Indian Section, Victoria and Albert Museum, South
Kensington.

Kashi (_in part_).

C. We.
Cecil Weatherly.

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law,
Inner Temple.

Knighthood: _Orders of_.

C. W. W.
Sir Charles William Wilson, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907).

Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American
Boundary Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the
Servian Boundary Commission. Director-General of the Ordnance
Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General of Military Education,
1895-1898. Author of _From Korti to Khartoum_; _Life of Lord
Clive_; &c.

Jerusalem (_in part_);
Jordan (_in part_);
Kurdistan (_in part_).

D. G. H.
David George Hogarth, M.A.

Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen
College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at
Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905;
Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900.
Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.

Jebell;
Jordan (_in part_);
Karamania;
Kharput;
Konia.

D. H.
David Hannay.

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of _Short
History of the Royal Navy, 1217-1688_; _Life of Emilio Castelar_;
&c.

Junius;
Kanaris;
Keith, Viscount;
Keppel, Viscount.

E. B.
Edward Breck, M.A., Ph.D.

Formerly Foreign Correspondent of the _New York Herald_ and the
_New York Times_. Author of _Fencing_; _Wilderness Pets_;
_Sporting in Nova Scotia_; &c.

Kite-flying (_in part_).

E. Br.
Ernest Barker, M.A.

Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, St John's College, Oxford.
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895.

Jordanes (_in part_).

E. F. S.
Edward Fairbrother Strange.

Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington.
Member of Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art
subjects; Joint-editor of Bell's "Cathedral" Series.

Japan: _Art_ (_in part_);
Korin, Ogata;
Kyosai, Sho-Fu.

E. G.
Edmund Gosse, LL.D.

See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND.

Jacobsen, Jens Peter;
Kalewala;
Kyd, Thomas.

E. Gr.
Ernest Arthur Gardner, M.A.

See the biographical article: _Gardner, Percy_.

Ithaca.

E. He.
Edward Heawood, M.A.

Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Librarian of the Royal
Geographical Society, London.

Kenya;
Kilimanjaro.

E. H. B.
Sir Edward Herbert Bunbury, Bart., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895).

M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of _A History of
Ancient Geography_; &c.

Italy: _Geography_ (_in part_).

E. H. M.
Ellis Hovell Minns, M.A.

University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and
Assistant Librarian at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly
Fellow of Pembroke College.

Iyrcae;
Kashubes.

Ed. M.
Eduard Meyer, Ph.D., D.Litt. (Oxon.), LL.D.

Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author
of _Geschichte des Alterthums_; _Geschichte des alten Aegyptens_;
_Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstämme_.

Kavadh.

E. O.*
Edmund Owen, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.

Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the
Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street; late Examiner in Surgery
in the Universities of Cambridge, Durham and London. Author of _A
Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students_.

Joints: _Diseases and Injuries_;
Kidney Diseases (_in part_).

E. Tn.
Rev. Ethelred Luke Taunton (d. 1907).

Author of _The English Black Monks of St Benedict_; _History of
the Jesuits in England_.

Jesuits (_in part_).

F. By.
Captain Frank Brinkley, R.N.

Foreign Adviser to Nippon Yusen Kaisha, Tokyo. Correspondent of
_The Times_ in Japan. Editor of the Japan Mail. Formerly Professor
of Mathematics at Imperial Engineering College, Tokyo. Author of
_Japan_; &c.

Japan.

F. C. C.
Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare, M.A., D.Th. (Giessen).

Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University
College, Oxford. Author of The _Ancient Armenian Texts of
Aristotle_; _Myth, Magic and Morals_; &c.

Jacobite Church.

F. G. M. B.
Frederick George Meeson Beck, M.A.

Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge.

Kent, Kingdom of.

F. G. P.
Frederick Gymer Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.Anthrop.Inst.

Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
Lecturer on Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School
of Medicine for Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal
College of Surgeons.

Joints: _Anatomy_.

F. L. L.
Lady Lugard.

See the biographical article: LUGARD, SIR F. J. D.

Kano;
Katagum.

F. LI. G.
Francis Llewellyn Griffith, M.A., Ph.D. (Leipzig), F.S.A.

Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the
Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt
Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial German Archaeological
Institute.

Karnak.

F. R. C.
Frank R. Cana.

Author of _South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union_.

Kharga.

Fr. Sy.
Friedrich Sciiwally.

Professor of Semitic Philology in the University of Giessen.

Koran (_in part_).

F. S. P,
Francis Samuel Philbrick, A.M., Ph.D.

Formerly Teaching Fellow of Nebraska State University, and Scholar
and Fellow of Harvard University. Member of American Historical
Association.

Jefferson, Thomas.

F. v. H.
Baron Friedrich von Hügel.

Member of Cambridge Philological Society; Member of Hellenic
Society. Author of _The Mystical Element of Religion_; &c.

John: _The Apostle_;
John, Gospel of St.

F. W. R.*
Frederick William Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S.

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London,
1879-1902. President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.

Jade;
Jargoon;
Jasper;
Kaolin.

G. A. Gr.
George Abraham Grierson, C.I.E., Ph.D., D.Litt.

Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of the
Linguistic Survey of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal
Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of the Royal Asiatic
Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of _The
Languages of India_; &c.

Kashmiri.

G. E.
Rev. George Edmundson, M.A., F.R.Hist.S.

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's
Lecturer, 1909. Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign
Member, Netherlands Association of Literature.

Jacoba.

G. F. Mo.
Rev. George Foot Moore.

See the biographical article: MOORE, GEORGE FOOT.

Jehovah.

G. G. Co.
George Gordon Coulton, M.A.

Birkbeck Lecturer in Ecclesiastical History, Trinity College,
Cambridge. Author of _Medieval Studies_; _Chaucer and his
England_; _From St Francis to Dante_; &c.

Knighthood and Chivalry.

G. H. Bo.
Rev. George Herbert Box, M.A.

Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formerly Hebrew Master, Merchant
Taylors' School, London. Lecturer in Faculty of Theology,
University of Oxford, 1908-1909. Author of _Translation of Book of
Isaiah_; &c.

John the Baptist;
Joseph (_New Testament_);
Jubilee, Year of (_in part_).

G. K.
Gustav Krüger.

Professor of Church History in the University of Giessen. Author
of _Das Papsttum_; &c.

Justin Martyr.

G. Mi.
Rev. George Milligan, D.D.

Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism in the University of
Glasgow. Author of _The Theology of the Epistle to the Hebrews_;
_Lectures from the Greek Papyri_; &c.

James (_New Testament_);
Judas Iscariot.

G. Sa.
George Saintsbury, LL.D., D.C.L.

See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, G. E. B.

Joinville.

G. S. L.
George Somes Layard.

Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Author of _Charles Keene_;
_Shirley Brooks_; &c.

Keene, Charles S.

G. S. R.
Sir George Scott Robertson, K.C.S.I., D.C.L., M.P.

Formerly British Agent in Gilgit. Author of _The Kafirs of the
Hindu Kush_; _Chitral: the Story of a Minor Siege_. M.P. Central
Division, Bradford.

Kafiristan.

G. W. T.
Rev. Griffithes Wheeler Thatcher, M.A., B.D.

Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew
and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.

Jahiz;
Jarir Ibn 'Atiyya ul-Khatfl;
Jauhari;
Jawaliqì;
Jurjani;
Khalil Ibn Ahmad;
Khansa;
Kindi;
Kumait Ibn Zaid.

H. A. W.
Hugh Alexander Webster.

Formerly Librarian of University of Edinburgh. Editor of the
_Scottish Geographical Magazine_.

Java (_in part_).

H. Ch.
Hugh Chisholm, M.A.

Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the
11th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_; Co-editor of the
10th edition.

Joan of Arc (_in part_).

H. Cl.
Sir Hugh Charles Clifford, K.C.M.G.

Colonial Secretary, Ceylon. Fellow of the Royal Colonial
Institute. Formerly Resident, Pahang. Colonial Secretary, Trinidad
and Tobago, 1903-1907. Author of _Studies in Brown Humanity_;
_Further India_; &c. Joint-author of _A Dictionary of the Malay
Language_.

Johor.

H. C. H.
Horace Carter Hovey, A.M., D.D.

Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
Geological Society of America, National Geographic Society and
Société de Spéléologie (France). Author of _Celebrated American
Caverns_; _Handbook of Mammoth Cave of Kentucky_, &c.

Jacobs Cavern.

H. C. R.
Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson, Bart.

See the biographical article: RAWLINSON, SIR H. C.

Kurdistan (_in part_).

H. De.
Hippolyte Delehaye, S.J.

Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications:
_Analecta Bollandiana_ and _Acta sanctorum_.

Januarius, St;
Kilian, St.

H. M. C.
Hector Munro Chadwick, M.A.

Librarian and Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge. Reader in
Scandinavian, Cambridge University. Author of _Studies on
Anglo-Saxon Institutions_.

Jutes.

H. M. R.
Hugh Munro Ross.

Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of _The
Times Engineering Supplement_. Author of _British Railways_.

Kelvin, Lord (_in part_).

H. M. V.
Herbert M. Vaughan, F.S.A.

Keble College, Oxford. Author of _The Last of the Royal Stuarts_;
_The Medici Popes_; _The Last Stuart Queen_.

James: _the Pretender_;
King's Evil.

H. W. C. D.
Henry William Carless Davis, M.A.

Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls'
College, Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of _England under the Normans
and Angevins_; _Charlemagne_.

John, King of England;
John of Hexham.

H. W. S.
H. Wickham Steed.

Correspondent of _The Times_ at Vienna. Correspondent of _The
Times_ at Rome, 1897-1902.

Italy: _History_ (_F._).

H. Y.
Sir Henry Yule, K.C.S.I., C.B.

See the biographical article: YULE, SIR HENRY.

Kublai Khan.

I. A.
Israel Abrahams, M.A.

Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of
Cambridge Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of
England. Author of _A Short History of Jewish Literature_; _Jewish
Life in the Middle Ages_; _Judaism_; &c.

Jacob ben Asher;
Jellinek;
Jews: _Dispersion to Modern Times_;
Joel;
Johanan Ben Zaceia;
Josippon;
Kalisch, Marcus;
Krochmal.

I. L. B.
Isabella L. Bishop.

See the biographical article: BISHOP, ISABELLA.

Korea (_in part_).

J. A. H
John Allen Howe.

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London.
Author of _The Geology of Building Stones_.

Joints (_Geology_);
Jurassic;
Keuper;
Kimeridgian.

J. A. R.
Very Rev. Joseph Armitage Robinson, D.D.

Dean of Westminster. Fellow of the British Academy. Hon. Fellow of
Christ's College, Cambridge, and Norrisian Professor of Divinity
in the University. Author of _Some Thoughts on the Incarnation_;
&c.

Jesus Christ.

J. A. S.
John Addington Symonds, LL.D.

See the biographical article, SYMONDS, JOHN ADDINGTON.

Italy: _History_ (C.).

J. Br.
Right Hon. James Bryce, D.C.L., D.Litt.

See the biographical article: BRYCE, JAMES.

Justinian I.

J. Bt.
James Bartlett.

Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities,
&c., at King's College, London. Member of Society of Architects.
Member of Institute of Junior Engineers.

Joinery.

J. B. A.
Joseph Beavington Atkinson.

Formerly art-critic of the _Saturday Review_. Author of _An Art
Tour in the Northern Capitals of Europe_; _Schools of Modern Art
in Germany_.

Kaulbach.

J. F.-K.
James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, Litt.D., F.R.Hist.S.

Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool
University. Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow
of the British Academy. Member of the Royal Spanish Academy.
Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of _A
History of Spanish Literature_; &c.

Juan Manuel, Don.

J. G. C. A.
John George Clark Anderson, M.A.

Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of
Lincoln College; Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1896. Conington Prizeman,
1893.

Kastamuni.

J. G. Sc.
Sir James George Scott, K.C.I.E.

Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author
of _Burma_; _The Upper Burma Gazetteer_.

Karen;
Karen-Ni;
Keng Tung.

J. Hn.
Justus Hashagen, Ph.D.

Privatdozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn.
Author of _Das Rheinland unter die französische Herrschaft_.

John, King of Saxony.

J. H. A. H.
John Henry Arthur Hart, M.A.

Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College,
Cambridge.

Jews: _Greek Domination_;
Josephus.

J. H. F.
John Henry Freese, M.A.

Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.

Janus;
Julian (_in part_).

J. H. R.
John Horace Round, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.).

Author of _Feudal England_; _Studies in Peerage and Family
History_, _Peerage and Pedigree_.

Knight-Service.

J. Hl. R.
John Holland Rose, M.A., Litt.D.

Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local
Lectures Syndicate. Author of _Life of Napoleon I._; _Napoleonic
Studies_; _The Development of the European Nations_; _The Life of
Pitt_; &c.

Italy: _History_ (D.);
Josephine;
Junot.

J. Ja.
Joseph Jacobs, Litt.D.

Professor of English Literature in the Jewish Theological
Seminary, New York. Formerly President of the Jewish Historical
Society of England. Corresponding Member of the Royal Academy of
History, Madrid. Author of _Jews of Angevin England_; _Studies in
Biblical Archaeology_, &c.

Jew, The Wandering.

J. J. L,*
Rev. John James Lias, M.A.

Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in
Divinity and Lady Margaret Preacher, University of Cambridge.

Ketteler, Baron von.

J. Mt.
James Moffatt, M.A., D.D.

Jowett Lecturer, London, 1907. Author of _Historical New
Testament_; &c.

John, Epistles of.

J. N. K.
John Neville Keynes, M.A., D.Sc.

Registrary of the University of Cambridge. University Lecturer in
Moral Science. Secretary to the Local Examinations and Lectures
Syndicate. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. Author of _Studies
and Exercises in Formal Logic_; &c.

Jevons, William Stanley.

J. P. P.
John Percival Postgate, M.A., Litt.D.

Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of
Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor
of the _Classical Quarterly_. Editor-in-Chief of the _Corpus
Poetarum Latinorum_; &c.

Juvenal (_in part_).

J. P. Pe.
Rev. John Punnett Peters, Ph.D., D.D.

Canon Residentiary, P.E. Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor
of Hebrew in the University of Pennsylvania. Director of the
University Expedition to Babylonia, 1888-1895. Author of _Nippur,
or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates_.

Kerbela;
Kerkuk;
Khorsabad.

J. R. B.
John Rose Bradford, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.C.P., F.R.S.

Physician to University College Hospital. Professor of Materia
Medica and Therapeutics, University College, London. Secretary of
the Royal Society. Formerly Member of Senate, University of
London.

Kidney Diseases (_in part_)

J. T. Be.
John Thomas Bealby.

Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the
_Scottish Geographical Magazine_. Translator of Sven Hedin's
_Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet_; &c.

Kalmuck;
Kaluga;
Kamchatka;
Kara-Kum;
Kars;
Kazañ;
Kerch;
Khingan;
Khiva;
Khokand;
Khotan;
Kiev;
Kronstadt;
Kubañ;
Kuen-Lun;
Kursk;
Kutais.

J. T. S.*
James Thomson Shotwell, Ph.D.

Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.

Joan of Arc (_in part_).

J. V.*
Jules Viard.

Archivist at the National Archives, Paris. Officer of Public
Instruction. Author of _La France sous Philippe VI. de Valois_;
&c.

Jacquerie, The.

J. W. He.
James Wycliffe Headlam, M.A.

Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education.
Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek
and Ancient History at Queen's College, London. Author of
_Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire_; &c.

Kossuth.

K.
Baron Dairoku Kikuchi, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D.

President of the Imperial University of Kyoto. President of
Imperial Academy of Japan. Emeritus Professor, Imperial
University, Tokio. Author of _Japanese Education_; &c.

Japan: _The Claim of Japan_.

K. S.
Kathleen Schlesinger.

Editor of the _Portfolio of Musical Archaeology_. Author of _The
Instruments of the Orchestra_; &c.

Jew's Harp;
Kettledrum;
Keyboard.

L.
Count Lützow, Litt.D. (Oxon.), D.Ph. (Prague), F.R.G.S.

Chamberlain of H.M. the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia. Hon.
Member of the Royal Society of Literature. Member of the Bohemian
Academy, &c. Author of _Bohemia, a Historical Sketch_; _The
Historians of Bohemia_ (Ilchester Lecture, Oxford, 1904); _The
Life and Times of John Hus_; &c.

Jerome of Prague.

L. F. V.-H.
Leveson Francis Vernon-Harcourt, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. (1839-1907).

Formerly Professor of Civil Engineering at University College,
London. Author of _Rivers and Canals_; _Harbours and Docks_;
_Civil Engineering as applied in Construction_; &c.

Jetty.

L. J. S.
Leonard James Spencer, M.A.

Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum.
Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness
Scholar. Editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_.

Jarosite.

L. C.
Rev. Lewis Campbell, D.C.L., LL.D.

See the biographical article: CAMPBELL, LEWIS.

Jowett.

L. D.*
Louis Duchesne.

See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O.

John XIX.;
Julius I.

L. V.*
Luigi Villari.

Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). Formerly Newspaper
Correspondent in east of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New
Orleans, 1906; Philadelphia, 1907; Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910.
Author of _Italian Life in Town and Country_; _Fire and Sword in
the Caucasus_; &c.

Italy: _History_ (E. _and_ G.).

M.
Lord Macaulay.

See the biographical article: MACAULAY, BARON.

Johnson, Samuel.

M. Br.
Margaret Bryant.

Keats (_in part_).

M. F.
Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

See the biographical article: FOSTER, SIR M.

Kölliker.

M. M. Bh.
Sir Mancherjee Merwanjee Bhownaggree.

Fellow of Bombay University. M.P. for N.E. Bethnal Green,
1895-1906. Author of _History of the Constitution of the East
India Company_; &c.

Jeejeebhoy.

M. O. B. C.
Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, M.A.

Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek
at Birmingham University, 1905-1908.

Justin II.

M. P.*
Leon Jacques Maxime Prinet.

Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of
the Institute of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences).

Joinville (_Family_);
Joyeuse;
Juge, Boffille de.

N. M.
Norman McLean, M.A.

Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew
Lecturer, Christ's College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger
_Cambridge Septuagint_.

Jacob of Edessa;
Jacob of Serugh;
Joshua the Stylite.

N. V.
Joseph Marie Noel Valois.

Member of Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, Paris.
Honorary Archivist at the Archives Nationales. Formerly President
of the Société de l'Histoire de France and the Société de l'École
de Chartes. Author of _La France et le grand schisme d'Occident_;
&c.

John XXIII.

O. H.*
Otto Hehner, F.I.C., F.C.S.

Public Analyst. Formerly President of Society of Public Analysts.
Vice-President of Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and
Ireland. Author of works on butter analysis; _Alcohol Tables_; &c.

Jams and Jellies.

O. J. R. H.
Osbert John Radcliffe Howarth, M.A.

Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1901. Assistant
Secretary of the British Association.

Java (_in part_);
Korea (_in part_).

P. A.
Paul Daniel Alphandéry.

Professor of the History of Dogma, École pratique des Hautes
Études, Sorbonne, Paris. Author of _Les Idées morales chez les
hétérodoxes latines au début du XIII^e siècle_.

Joachim of Floris;
John XXII.

P. A. A.
Philip A. Ashworth, M.A., Doc.Juris.

New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Translator of H. R. von
Gneist's _History of the English Constitution_.

Jhering.

P. A. K.
Prince Peter Alexeivitch Kropotkin.

See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, P. A.

Kalmuck;
Kaluga;
Kamchatka;
Kara-Kum;
Kazañ;
Kerch;
Khingan;
Khokand;
Kiev;
Kronstadt;
Kubañ;
Kuen-Lun;
Kursk;
Kutais.

P. Gi.
Peter Giles, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D.

Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and
University Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of
the Cambridge Philological Society. Author of _Manual of
Comparative Philology_.

J.
K.

P. G. T.
Peter Guthrie Tait.

See the biographical article: TAIT, PETER GUTHRIE.

Knot.

P. La.
Philip Lake, M.A., F.G.S.

Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge
University. Formerly of the Geological Survey of India. Author of
_Monograph of British Cambrian Trilobites_. Translator and Editor
of Kayser's _Comparative Geology_.

Japan: _Geology_.

P. L. G.
Philip Lyttelton Gell, M.A.

Sometime Scholar of Balliol College, Oxford. Secretary to the
Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1884-1897. Fellow of King's College,
London.

Khazars (_in part_).

P. Vi.
Paul Vinogradoff, D.C.L., LL.D.

See the biographical article: VLNOGRADOFF, PAUL.

Jurisprudence, Comparative.

R. A.*
Robert Anchel.

Archivist to the Département de l'Eure.

Kersaint.

R. Ad.
Robert Adamson, LL.D.

See the biographical article: ADAMSON, ROBERT.

Kant (_in part_).

R. A. S. M.
Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister, M.A., F.S.A.

St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the
Palestine Exploration Fund.

Joppa;
Kerak.

R. A. W.
Robert Alexander Wahab, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E.

Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden
Boundary Delimitation, and Superintendent, Survey of India. Served
with Tirah Expeditionary Force, 1897-1898; Anglo-Russian Boundary
Commission, Pamirs, 1895; &c.

Kuwet.

R. F. L.
Rev. Richard Frederick Littledale, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.
(1833-1890).

Author of _Religious Communities of Women in the Early Church_;
_Catholic Ritual in the Church of England_; _Why Ritualists do not
become Roman Catholics_.

Jesuits (_in part_).

R. G.
Richard Garnett, LL.D.

See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD.

Krazewski.

R. H. C.
Rev. Robert Henry Charles, M.A., D.D., D.Litt. (Oxon.).

Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford and
Fellow of Merton College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly
Senior Moderator of Trinity College, Dublin. Author and Editor of
_Book of Enoch_; _Book of Jubilees_; _Assumption of Moses_;
_Ascension of Isaiah_; _Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs_; &c.

Jeremy, Epistle of;
Jubilees, Book of;
Judith, The Book of.

R. I. P.
Reginald Innes Pocock, F.Z.S.

Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London.

King-Crab.

R. J. M.
Ronald John McNeill, M.A.

Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the
_St James's Gazette_, London.

Jeffreys, 1st Baron;
Keith: _Family_.

R. K. D.
Sir Robert Kennaway Douglas.

Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British
Museum, and Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author
of _The Language and Literature of China_; &c.

Jenghiz Khan;
Julien.

R. L.*
Richard Lydekker, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.

Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882.
Author of _Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the
British Museum_; _The Deer of all Lands_; _The Game Animals of
Africa_; &c.

Jerboa;
Kangaroo (_in part_).

R. N. B.
Robert Nisbet Bain (d. 1909).

Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of
_Scandinavia, the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden,
1513-1900_; _The First Romanovs, 1613-1725_; _Slavonic Europe, the
Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796_; &c.

Ivan I.-VI.;
Jellaehieh;
John III.: _Sobieski_;
Juel, Jens;
Juel, Neils;
Kármán;
Kemeny, Baron;
Kisfaludy;
Kollontaj;
Koniecpolski;
Kosciuszko;
Kurakin, Prince.

R. Po.
René Poupardin, D. Ès L.

Secretary of the École des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. Author of _Le Royaume de Provence
sous les Carolingiens_; _Recueil des chartes de Saint-Germain_;
&c.

John, Duke of Burgundy.

R. P. S.
R. Phené Spiers, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.

Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy,
London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and
Fellow of King's College, London. Corresponding Member of the
Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's _History of
Architecture_. Author of _Architecture: East and West_; &c.

Jacobean Style.

R. S. C.
Robert Seymour Conway, M.A., D.Litt. (Cantab.).

Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University
of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin in University College,
Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.
Author of _The Italic Dialects_.

Italy: _History_ (A.).

S. A. C.
Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A.

Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and
Caius College, Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund.
Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908.
Author of _Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions_; _The Laws of Moses
and the Code of Hammurabi_; _Critical Notes on Old Testament
History_; _Religion of Ancient Palestine_; &c.

Jacob;
Jehoiakim;
Jehoram;
Jehoshaphat;
Jehu;
Jephthah;
Jerahmeel;
Jeroboam;
Jews: _Old Testament History_;
Jezebel;
Joab;
Joash;
Joseph: _Old Testament_;
Joshua;
Josiah;
Judah;
Judges, Book of;
Kabbalah (_in part_);
Kenites;
Kings, Books of.

St. C.
Viscount St Cyres.

See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, 1ST EARL OF.

Jansen;
Jansenism.

S. N.
Simon Newcomb, D.Sc., D.C.L.

See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON.

Jupiter: _Satellites_.

T. As.
Thomas Ashby, M.A., D.Litt. (Oxon.).

Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly
Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington
Prizeman, 1906. Member of the Imperial German Archaeological
Institute.

Italy: _Geography and Statistics_; _History_ (B.);
Ivrea.

T. A. I.
Thomas Allan Ingram, M.A., LL.D.

Trinity College, Dublin.

Juvenile Offenders (_in part_).

T. A. J.
Thomas Athol Joyce, M.A.

Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Hon. Sec.,
Royal Anthropological Institute.

Kavirondo.

T. F. C.
Theodore Freylinghuysen Collier, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown,
Mass., U.S.A.

Julius III.

T. H.
Thomas Hodgkin, D.C.L., LL.D.

See the biographical article: HODGKIN, T.

Jordanes (_in part_).

T. H. H.*
Sir Thomas Hungerford Holdich, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.G.S.

Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent Frontier Surveys,
India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M.
Commissioner for the Perso-Beluc Boundary, 1896. Author of _The
Indian Borderland_; _The Gates of India_; &c.

Kabul;
Kalat;
Kandahar;
Kashmir;
Khyber Pass;
Kunar;
Kushk.

T. K.
Thomas Kirkup, M.A., LL.D.

Author of _An Inquiry into Socialism_; _Primer of Socialism_; &c.

Julian (_in part_).

T. K. C.
Rev. Thomas Kelly Cheyne, D.D.

See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K.

Jeremiah;
Joel (_in part_);
Jonah.

Th. N.
Theodor Nöldeke, Ph.D.

See the biographical article: NÖLDEKE, THEODOR.

Koran (_in part_).

T. Se.
Thomas Seccombe, M.A.

Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and
Birkbeck Colleges, University of London. Stanhope Prizeman,
Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of _Dictionary of National
Biography_, 1891-1901. Author of _The Age of Johnson_.
Joint-author of _Bookman History of English Literature_; &c.

Johnson, Samuel.

T. Wo.
Thomas Woodhouse.

Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical
College, Dundee.

Jute.

T. W. R. D.
Thomas William Rhys Davids, LL.D., Ph.D.

Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester. Professor of Pali
and Buddhist Literature, University College, London, 1882-1904.
President of the Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy.
Secretary and Librarian of Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-1902.
Author of _Buddhism_; _Sacred Books of the Buddhists_; _Early
Buddhism_; _Buddhist India_; _Dialogues of the Buddha_; &c.

Jains;
Jataka;
Kanishka.

W. An.
William Anderson, F.R.C.S

Formerly Chairman of Council of the Japan Society. Author of _The
Pictorial Arts of Japan_; _Japanese Wood Engravings_; _Catalogue
of Chinese and Japanese Pictures in the British Museum_; &c.

Japan: _Art_ (_in part_).

W. A. B. C.
Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G.S., Ph.D.
(Bern).

Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History,
St David's. College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of _Guide to
Switzerland_; _The Alps in Nature and in History_, &c. Editor of
_The Alpine Journal_, 1880-1889.

Jenatsch, Georg;
Jungfrau;
Jura.

W. A. P.
Walter Alison Phillips, M.A.

Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St
John's College, Oxford. Author of _Modern Europe_; &c.

Jacobins;
King;
Kriemhild;
Krüdener, Baroness von.

W. B.*
William Burton, M.A., F.C.S.

Chairman, Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great
Britain. Author of _English Stoneware and Earthenware_; &c.

Kashi (_in part_).

W. Ba.
William Bacher, Ph.D.

Professor of Biblical Studies at the Rabbinical Seminary,
Buda-Pest.

Jonah, Rabbi;
Kimhi.

W. Be.
Sir Walter Besant.

See the biographical article: BESANT, SIR WALTER.

Jefferies.

W. F. C.
William Feilden Craies, M.A.

Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law at King's
College, London. Editor of Archbold's _Criminal Pleading_, 23rd
ed.

Jury.

W. F. D.
William Frederick Denning, F.R.A.S.

Gold Medal, R.A.S. President, Liverpool Astronomical Society,
1877-1878. Corresponding Fellow of Royal Astronomical Society of
Canada; &c. Author of _Telescopic Work for Starlight Evenings_;
_The Great Meteoric Shower_; &c.

Jupiter.

W. G.
William Garnett, M.A., D.C.L.

Educational Adviser to the London County Council. Formerly Fellow
and Lecturer of St John's College, Cambridge. Principal and
Professor of Mathematics, Durham College of Science,
Newcastle-on-Tyne. Author of _Elementary Dynamics_; &c.

Kelvin, Lord.

W. G. S.
William Graham Sumner.

See the biographical article: SUMNER, WILLIAM GRAHAM.

Jackson, Andrew.

W. H. Be.
William Henry Bennett, M.A., D.D., D.Litt.(Cantab.).

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges,
London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer
in Hebrew at Firth College, Sheffield. Author of _Religion of the
Post-Exilic Prophets_; &c.

Japheth.

W. H. Di.
William Henry Dines, F.R.S.

Director of Upper Air Investigation for the English Meteorological
Office.

Kite-flying (_in part_).

W. H. F.
Sir William H. Flower, LL.D.

See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H.

Kangaroo (_in part_).

W. L. F.
Walter Lynwood Fleming, A.M., Ph.D.

Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Author of
_Documentary History of Reconstruction_; &c.

Knights of the Golden Circle;
Ku Klux Klan.

W. L.-W.
Sir William Lee-Warner, M.A., K.C.S.I.

Member of Council of India. Formerly Secretary in the Political
and Secret Department of the India Office. Author of _Life of the
Marquis of Dalhousie_; _Memoirs of Field-Marshal Sir Henry Wylie
Norman_; &c.

Jung Bahadur, Sir.

W. M. R.
William Michael Rossetti.

See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE G.

Kneller.

W. M. Ra.
Sir William Mitchell Ramsay, LL.D., D.C.L.

See the biographical article, RAMSAY, SIR W. M.

Jupiter (_in part_).

W. P. J.
William Price James.

Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. High Bailiff, Cardiff County
Court. Author of _Romantic Professions_; &c.

Kipling, Rudyard.

W. R. S.
William Robertson Smith, LL.D.

See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON.

Joel (_in part_);
Jubilee, Year of (_in part_).

W. W. F.*
William Warde Fowler, M.A.

Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-rector, 1881-1904. Gifford
Lecturer, Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of _The City-State of
the Greeks and Romans_; _The Roman Festivals of the Republican
Period_; &c.

Juno;
Jupiter (_in part_).

W. W. R.*
William Walker Rockwell, Lic.Theol.

Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary,
New York.

Jerusalem, Synod of.

W. Y. S.
William Young Sellar, LL.D.

See the biographical article: SELLAR, W. Y.

Juvenal (_in part_).

PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES

Ivy. Jumping. Kansas. Ketones.
Jamaica. Juniper. Kent. Kildare.
Janissaries. Jurisprudence. Kentucky. Kilkenny.
Jaundice. Kaffirs. Kerry. Know Nothing Party.
Ju-Jutsu.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in
the final volume.

ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XV

ITALY (_Italia_), the name[1] applied both in ancient and in modern times to the great peninsula that projects from the mass of central Europe far to the south into the Mediterranean Sea, where the island of Sicily may be considered as a continuation of the continental promontory. The portion of the Mediterranean commonly termed the Tyrrhenian Sea forms its limit on the W. and S., and the Adriatic on the E.; while to the N., where it joins the main continent of Europe, it is separated from the adjacent regions by the mighty barrier of the Alps, which sweeps round in a vast semicircle from the head of the Adriatic to the shores of Nice and Monaco.

Boundaries.

_Topography._--The land thus circumscribed extends between the parallels of 46° 40´ and 36° 38´ N., and between 6° 30´ and 18° 30´ E. Its greatest length in a straight line along the mainland is from N.W. to S.E., in which direction it measures 708 m. in a direct line from the frontier near Courmayeur to Cape Sta Maria di Leuca, south of Otranto, but the great mountain peninsula of Calabria extends about two degrees farther south to Cape Spartivento in lat. 37° 55´. Its breadth is, owing to its configuration, very irregular. The northern portion, measured from the Alps at the Monte Viso to the mouth of the Po, has a breadth of about 270 m., while the maximum breadth, from the Rocca Chiardonnet near Susa to a peak in the valley of the Isonzo, is 354 m. But the peninsula of Italy, which forms the largest portion of the country, nowhere exceeds 150 m. in breadth, while it does not generally measure more than 100 m. across. Its southern extremity, Calabria, forms a complete peninsula, being united to the mass of Lucania or the Basilicata by an isthmus only 35 m. in width, while that between the gulfs of Sta Eufemia and Squillace, which connects the two portions of the province, does not exceed 20 m. The area of the kingdom of Italy, exclusive of the large islands, is computed at 91,277 sq. m. Though the Alps form throughout the northern boundary of Italy, the exact limits at the extremities of the Alpine chain are not clearly marked. Ancient geographers appear to have generally regarded the remarkable headland which descends from the Maritime Alps to the sea between Nice and Monaco as the limit of Italy in that direction, and in a purely geographical point of view it is probably the best point that could be selected. But Augustus, who was the first to give to Italy a definite political organization, carried the frontier to the river Varus or Var, a few miles west of Nice, and this river continued in modern times to be generally recognized as the boundary between France and Italy. But in 1860 the annexation of Nice and the adjoining territory to France brought the political frontier farther east, to a point between Mentone and Ventimiglia which constitutes no natural limit.

Towards the north-east, the point where the Julian Alps approach close to the seashore (just at the sources of the little stream known in ancient times as the Timavus) would seem to constitute the best natural limit. But by Augustus the frontier was carried farther east so as to include Tergeste (Trieste), and the little river Formio (Risano) was in the first instance chosen as the limit, but this was subsequently transferred to the river Arsia (the Arsa), which flows into the Gulf of Quarnero, so as to include almost all Istria; and the circumstance that the coast of Istria was throughout the middle ages held by the republic of Venice tended to perpetuate this arrangement, so that Istria was generally regarded as belonging to Italy, though certainly not forming any natural portion of that country. Present Italian aspirations are similarly directed.

The only other part of the northern frontier of Italy where the boundary is not clearly marked by nature is Tirol or the valley of the Adige. Here the main chain of the Alps (as marked by the watershed) recedes so far to the north that it has never constituted the frontier. In ancient times the upper valleys of the Adige and its tributaries were inhabited by Raetian tribes and included in the province of Raetia; and the line of demarcation between that province and Italy was purely arbitrary, as it remains to this day. Tridentum or Trent was in the time of Pliny included in the tenth region of Italy or Venetia, but he tells us that the inhabitants were a Raetian tribe. At the present day the frontier between Austria and the kingdom of Italy crosses the Adige about 30 m. below Trent--that city and its territory, which previous to the treaty of Lunéville in 1801 was governed by sovereign archbishops, subject only to the German emperors, being now included in the Austrian empire.

While the Alps thus constitute the northern boundary of Italy, its configuration and internal geography are determined almost entirely by the great chain of the Apennines, which branches off from the Maritime Alps between Nice and Genoa, and, after stretching in an unbroken line from the Gulf of Genoa to the Adriatic, turns more to the south, and is continued throughout Central and Southern Italy, of which it forms as it were the backbone, until it ends in the southernmost extremity of Calabria at Cape Spartivento. The great spur or promontory projecting towards the east to Brindisi and Otranto has no direct connexion with the central chain.

One chief result of the manner in which the Apennines traverse Italy from the Mediterranean to the Adriatic is the marked division between Northern Italy, including the region north of the Apennines and extending thence to the foot of the Alps, and the central and more southerly portions of the peninsula. No such line of separation exists farther south, and the terms Central and Southern Italy, though in general use among geographers and convenient for descriptive purposes, do not correspond to any natural divisions.

1. _Northern Italy._--By far the larger portion of Northern Italy is
occupied by the basin of the Po, which comprises the whole of the
broad plain extending from the foot of the Apennines to that of the
Alps, together with the valleys and slopes on both sides of it. From
its source in Monte Viso to its outflow into the Adriatic--a distance
of more than 220 m. in a direct line--the Po receives all the waters
that flow from the Apennines northwards, and all those that descend
from the Alps towards the south, Mincio (the outlet of the Lake of
Garda) inclusive. The next river to the E. is the Adige, which, after
pursuing a parallel course with the Po for a considerable distance,
enters the Adriatic by a separate mouth. Farther to the N. and N.E.
the various rivers of Venetia fall directly into the Gulf of Venice.

There is no other instance in Europe of a basin of similar extent
equally clearly characterized--the perfectly level character of the
plain being as striking as the boldness with which the lower slopes of
the mountain ranges begin to rise on each side of it. This is most
clearly marked on the side of the Apennines, where the great Aemilian
Way, which has been the high road from the time of the Romans to our
own, preserves an unbroken straight line from Rimini to Piacenza, a
distance of more than 150 m., during which the underfalls of the
mountains continually approach it on the left, without once crossing
the line of road.

The geography of Northern Italy will be best described by following
the course of the Po. That river has its origin as a mountain torrent
descending from two little dark lakes on the north flank of Monte
Viso, at a height of more than 6000 ft. above the sea; and after a
course of less than 20 m. it enters the plain at Saluzzo, between
which and Turin, a distance of only 30 m., it receives three
considerable tributaries--the Chisone on its left bank, bringing down
the waters from the valley of Fenestrelle, and the Varaita and Maira
on the south, contributing those of two valleys of the Alps
immediately south of that of the Po itself. A few miles below Valenza
it is joined by the Tanaro, a large stream, which brings with it the
united waters of the Stura, the Bormida and several minor rivers.

More important are the rivers that descend from the main chain of the
Graian and Pennine Alps and join the Po on its left bank. Of these the
Dora (called for distinction's sake Dora Riparia), which unites with
the greater river just below Turin, has its source in the Mont
Genèvre, and flows past Susa at the foot of the Mont Cenis. Next comes
the Stura, which rises in the glaciers of the Roche Melon; then the
Orca, flowing through the Val di Locana; and then the Dora Baltea, one
of the greatest of all the Alpine tributaries of the Po, which has its
source in the glaciers of Mont Blanc, above Courmayeur, and thence
descends through the Val d'Aosta for about 70 m. till it enters the
plain at Ivrea, and, after flowing about 20 m. more, joins the Po a
few miles below Chivasso. This great valley--one of the most
considerable on the southern side of the Alps--has attracted special
attention, in ancient as well as modern times, from its leading to two
of the most frequented passes across the great mountain chain--the
Great and the Little St Bernard--the former diverging at Aosta, and
crossing the main ridges to the north into the valley of the Rhone,
the other following a more westerly direction into Savoy. Below Aosta
also the Dora Baltea receives several considerable tributaries, which
descend from the glaciers between Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa.

About 25 m. below its confluence with the Dora, the Po receives the
Sesia, also a large river, which has its source above Alagna at the
southern foot of Monte Rosa, and after flowing by Varallo and Vercelli
falls into the Po about 14 m. below the latter city. About 30 m. east
of this confluence--in the course of which the Po makes a great bend
south to Valenza, and then returns again to the northward--it is
joined by the Ticino, a large and rapid river, which brings with it
the outflow of Lago Maggiore and all the waters that flow into it. Of
these the Ticino itself has its source about 10 m. above Airolo at the
foot of the St Gotthard, and after flowing above 36 m. through the Val
Leventina to Bellinzona (where it is joined by the Moësa bringing down
the waters of the Val Misocco) enters the lake through a marshy plain
at Magadino, about 10 m. distant. On the west side of the lake the
Toccia or Tosa descends from the pass of the Gries nearly due south to
Domodossola, where it receives the waters of the Doveria from the
Simplon, and a few miles lower down those of the Val d'Anzasca from
the foot of Monte Rosa, and 12 m. farther has its outlet into the
lake between Baveno and Pallanza. The Lago Maggiore is also the
receptacle of the waters of the Lago di Lugano on the east and the
Lago d'Orta on the west.

The next great affluent of the Po, the Adda, forms the outflow of the
Lake of Como, and has also its sources in the Alps, above Bormio,
whence it flows through the broad and fertile valley of the Valtellina
for more than 65 m. till it enters the lake near Colico. The Adda in
this part of its course has a direction almost due east to west; but
at the point where it reaches the lake, the Liro descends the valley
of S. Giacomo, which runs nearly north and south from the pass of the
Splügen, thus affording one of the most direct lines of communication
across the Alps. The Adda flows out of the lake at its south-eastern
extremity at Lecco, and has thence a course through the plain of above
70 m. till it enters the Po between Piacenza and Cremona. It flows by
Lodi and Pizzighettone, and receives the waters of the Brembo,
descending from the Val Brembana, and the Serio from the Val Seriana
above Bergamo. The Oglio, a more considerable stream than either of
the last two, rises in the Monte Tonale above Edolo, and descends
through the Val Camonica to Lovere, where it expands into a large
lake, called Iseo from the town of that name on its southern shore.
Issuing thence at its south-west extremity, the Oglio has a long and
winding course through the plain before it finally reaches the Po a
few miles above Borgoforte. In this lower part it receives the smaller
streams of the Mella, which flows by Brescia, and the Chiese, which
proceeds from the small Lago d'Idro, between the Lago d'Iseo and that
of Garda.

The last of the great tributaries of the Po is the Mincio, which flows
from the Lago di Garda, and has a course of about 40 m. from
Peschiera, where it issues from the lake at its south-eastern angle,
till it joins the Po. About 12 m. above the confluence it passes under
the walls of Mantua, and expands into a broad lake-like reach so as
entirely to encircle that city. Notwithstanding its extent, the Lago
di Garda is not fed by the snows of the high Alps, nor is the stream
which enters it at its northern extremity (at Riva) commonly known as
the Mincio, though forming the main source of that river, but is
termed the Sarca; it rises at the foot of Monte Tonale.

The Adige, formed by the junction of two streams--the Etsch or Adige
proper and the Eisak, both of which belong to Tirol rather than to
Italy--descends as far as Verona, where it enters the great plain,
with a course from north to south nearly parallel to the rivers last
described, and would seem likely to discharge its waters into those of
the Po, but below Legnago it turns eastward and runs parallel to the
Po for about 40 m., entering the Adriatic by an independent mouth
about 8 m. from the northern outlet of the greater stream. The waters
of the two rivers have, however, been made to communicate by
artificial cuts and canals in more than one place.

The Po itself, which is here a very large stream, with an average
width of 400 to 600 yds., continues to flow with an undivided mass of
waters as far as Sta Maria di Ariano, where it parts into two arms,
known as the Po di Maestra and Po di Goro, and these again are
subdivided into several other branches, forming a delta above 20 m. in
width from north to south. The point of bifurcation, at present about
25 m. from the sea, was formerly much farther inland, more than 10 m.
west of Ferrara, where a small arm of the river, still called the Po
di Ferrara, branches from the main stream. Previous to the year 1154
this channel was the main stream, and the two small branches into
which it subdivides, called the Po di Volano and Po di Primaro, were
in early times the two main outlets of the river. The southernmost of
these, the Po di Primaro, enters the Adriatic about 12 m. north of
Ravenna, so that if these two arms be included, the delta of the Po
extends about 36 m. from south to north. The whole course of the
river, including its windings, is estimated at about 450 m.