Chapter III: Front Matter (3)

The population of the different parts of Italy differs in character and dialect; and there is little community of sentiment between them. The modes of life and standards of comfort and morality in north Italy and in Calabria are widely different; the former being far in front of the latter. Much, however, is effected towards unification, by compulsory military service, it being the principle that no man shall serve within the military district to which he belongs. In almost all parts the idea of personal loyalty (e.g. between master and servant) retains an almost feudal strength. The inhabitants of the north--the Piedmontese, Lombards and Genoese especially--have suffered less than those of the rest of the peninsula from foreign domination and from the admixture of inferior racial elements, and the cold winter climate prevents the heat of summer from being enervating. They, and also the inhabitants of central Italy, are more industrious than the inhabitants of the southern provinces, who have by no means recovered from centuries of misgovernment and oppression, and are naturally more hot-blooded and excitable, but less stable, capable of organization or trustworthy. The southerners are apathetic except when roused, and socialist doctrines find their chief adherents in the north. The Sicilians and Sardinians have something of Spanish dignity, but the former are one of the most mixed and the latter probably one of the purest races of the Italian kingdom. Physical characteristics differ widely; but as a whole the Italian is somewhat short of stature, with dark or black hair and eyes, often good looking. Both sexes reach maturity early. Mortality is decreasing, but if we may judge from the physical conditions of the recruits the physique of the nation shows little or no improvement. Much of this lack of progress is attributed to the heavy manual (especially agricultural) work undertaken by women and children. The women especially age rapidly, largely owing to this cause (E. Nathan, _Vent' anni di vita italiana attraverso all' annuario_, 169 sqq.).

_Births, Marriages, Deaths._--Birth and marriage rates vary
considerably, being highest in the centre and south (Umbria, the
Marches, Apulia, Abruzzi and Molise, and Calabria) and lowest in the
north (Piedmont, Liguria and Venetia), and in Sardinia. The death-rate
is highest in Apulia, in the Abruzzi and Molise, and in Sardinia, and
lowest in the north, especially in Venetia and Piedmont.

Taking the statistics for the whole kingdom, the annual marriage-rate
for the years 1876-1880 was 7.53 per 1000; in 1881-1885 it rose to
8.06; in 1886-1890 it was 7.77; in 1891-1895 it was 7.41, and in
1896-1900 it had gone down to 7.14 (a figure largely produced by the
abnormally low rate of 6.88 in 1898), and in 1902 was 7.23. Divorce is
forbidden by the Roman Catholic Church, and only 839 judicial
separations were obtained from the courts in 1902, more than half of
the demands made having been abandoned. Of the whole population in
1901, 57.5% were unmarried, 36.0% married, and 6.5% widowers or
widows. The illegitimate births show a decrease, having been 6.95 per
100 births in 1872 and 5.72 in 1902, with a rise, however, in the
intermediate period as high as 7.76 in 1883. The birth-rate shows a
corresponding decrease from 38.10 per 1000 in 1881 to 33.29 in 1902.
The male births have since 1872 been about 3% (3.14 in 1872-1875 and
2.72 in 1896-1900) in excess of the female births, which is rather
more than compensated for by the greater male mortality, the excess
being 2.64 in 1872-1875 and having increased to 4.08 in 1896-1900.
(The calculations are made in both cases on the total of births and
deaths of both sexes.) The result is that, while in 1871 there was an
excess of 143,370 males over females in the total population, in 1881
the excess was only 71,138, and in 1901 there were 169,684 more
females than males. The death-rate (excluding still-born children)
was, in 1872, 30.78 per 1000, and has since steadily decreased--less
rapidly between 1886-1890 than during other years; in 1902 it was only
22.15 and in 1899 was as low as 21.89. The excess of births over
deaths shows considerable variations--owing to a very low birth-rate,
it was only 3.12 per 1000 in 1880, but has averaged 11.05 per 1000
from 1896 to 1900, reaching 11.98 in 1899 and 11.14 in 1902. For the
four years 1899-1902 24.66% died under the age of one year, 9.41
between one and two years. The average expectation of life at birth
for the same period was 52 years and 11 months, 62 years and 2 months
at the age of three years, 52 years at the age of fifteen, 44 years at
the age of twenty-four, 30 years at the age of forty; while the
average period of life, which was 35 years 3 months per individual in
1882, was 43 years per individual in 1901. This shows a considerable
improvement, largely, but not entirely, in the diminution of infant
mortality; the expectation of life at birth in 1882, it is true, was
only 33 years and 6 months, and at three years of age 56 years 1
month; but the increase, both in the expectation of life and in its
average duration, goes all through the different ages.

_Occupations._--In the census of 1901 the population over nine years
of age (both male and female) was divided as follows as regards the
main professions:--

+---------------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | Total. | Males. | Females. |
+---------------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Agricultural (including hunting | | | |
| and fishing) | 9,666,467 | 6,466,165 | 3,200,302 |
| Industrial | 4,505,736 | 3,017,393 | 1,488,343 |
| Commerce and transport | | | |
| (public and private services) | 1,003,888 | 885,070 | 118,818 |
| Domestic service, &c. | 574,855 | 171,875 | 402,980 |
| Professional classes, | | | |
| administration, &c. | 1,304,347 | 855,217 | 449,130 |
| Defence | 204,012 | 204,012 | .. |
| Religion | 129,893 | 89,329 | 40,564 |
+---------------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

_Emigration._--The movement of emigration may be divided into two
currents, temporary and permanent--the former going chiefly towards
neighbouring European countries and to North Africa, and consisting of
manual labourers, the latter towards trans-oceanic countries,
principally Brazil, Argentina and the United States. These emigrants
remain abroad for several years, even when they do not definitively
establish themselves there. They are composed principally of peasants,
unskilled workmen and other manual labourers. There was a tendency
towards increased emigration during the last quarter of the 19th
century. The principal causes are the growth of population, and the
over-supply of and low rates of remuneration for manual labour in
various Italian provinces. Emigration has, however, recently assumed
such proportions as to lead to scarcity of labour and rise of wages in
Italy itself. Italians form about half of the total emigrants to
America.

+-------+----------------------------+----------------------------+
| | Temporary Emigration. | Permanent Emigration. |
| +--------------+-------------+--------------+-------------+
| Year. | Total No. of | Per every | Total No. of | Per every |
| | Emigrants. | 100,000 of | Emigrants. | 100,000 of |
| | | Population. | | Population. |
+-------+--------------+-------------+--------------+-------------+
| 1881 | 94,225 | 333 | 41,607 | 147 |
| 1891 | 118,111 | 389 | 175,520 | 578 |
| 1901 | 281,668 | 865 | 251,577 | 772 |
+-------+--------------+-------------+--------------+-------------+

The increased figures may, to a minor extent, be due to better
registration, in consequence of the law of 1901.

From the next table will be seen the direction of emigration in the
years specified:--

+------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
| | 1900. | 1901. | 1902. | 1903. | 1904. | 1905. |
+------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
| Europe | 181,047 | 244,298 | 236,066 | 215,943 | 209,942 | 266,982 |
| N. Africa | 5,417 | 9,499 | 11,771 | 9,452 | 14,709 | 11,910 |
| U.S. and Canada | 89,400 | 124,636 | 196,723 | 200,383 | 173,537 | 322,627 |
| Mexico (Central | | | | | | |
| America) | 2,069 | 997 | 766 | 1,311 | 1,828 | 2,044 |
| South America | 74,168 | 152,543 | 85,097 | 78,699 | 74,209 | 111,943 |
| Asia and Oceania | 691 | 1,272 | 1,086 | 2,168 | 2,966 | 2,715 |
| +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
| Total | 352,792 | 533,245 | 531,509 | 507,956 | 477,191 | 718,221 |
+------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

The figures for 1905 show that the total of 718,221 emigrants was made
up, as regards numbers, mainly by individuals from Venetia, Sicily,
Campania, Piedmont, Calabria and the Abruzzi; while the percentage was
highest in Calabria (4.44), the Abruzzi, Venetia, Basilicata, the
Marches, Sicily (2.86), Campania, Piedmont (2.02). Tuscany gives 1.20,
Latium 1.14%, Apulia only 1.02, while Sardinia with 0.34% occupies an
exceptional position. The figure for Sicily, which was 106,000 in
1905, reached 127,000 in 1906 (3.5%), and of these about
three-fourths would be adults; in the meantime, however, the
population increases so fast that even in 1905 there was a net
increase in Sicily of 20,000 souls; so that in three years 220,000
workers were replaced by 320,000 infants.

The phenomenon of emigration in Sicily cannot altogether be explained
by low wages, which have risen, though prices have done the same. It
has been defined as apparently "a kind of collective madness."

_Agriculture._--Accurate statistics with regard to the area occupied in different forms of cultivation are difficult to obtain, both on account of their varied and piecemeal character and from the lack of a complete cadastral survey. A complete survey was ordered by the law of the 1st of March 1886, but many years must elapse before its completion. The law, however, enabled provinces most heavily burdened by land tax to accelerate their portion of the survey, and to profit by the re-assessment of the tax on the new basis. An idea of the effects of the survey may be gathered from the fact that the assessments in the four provinces of Mantua, Ancona, Cremona and Milan, which formerly amounted to a total of £1,454,696, are now £2,788,080, an increase of 91%. Of the total area of Italy, 70,793,000 acres, 71% are classed as "productive." The unproductive area comprises 16% of the total area (this includes 4% occupied by lagoons or marshes, and 1.75% of the total area susceptible of _bonificazione_ or improvement by drainage. Between 1882 and 1902 over £4,000,000 was spent on this by the government). The uncultivated area is 13%. This includes 3.50% of the total susceptible of cultivation.

The cultivated area may be divided into five agrarian regions or
zones, named after the variety of tree culture which flourishes in
them. (1) Proceeding from south to north, the first zone is that of
the _agrumi_ (oranges, lemons and similar fruits). It comprises a
great part of Sicily. In Sardinia it extends along the southern and
western coasts. It predominates along the Ligurian Riviera from
Bordighera to Spezia, and on the Adriatic, near San Benedetto del
Tronto and Gargano, and, crossing the Italian shore of the Ionian Sea,
prevails in some regions of Calabria, and terminates around the gulfs
of Salerno, Sorrento and Naples. (2) The region of _olives_ comprises
the internal Sicilian valleys and part of the mountain slopes; in
Sardinia, the valleys near the coast on the S.E., S.W. and N.W.; on
the mainland it extends from Liguria and from the southern extremities
of the Romagna to Cape Santa Maria di Leuca in Apulia, and to Cape
Spartivento in Calabria. Some districts of the olive region are near
the lakes of upper Italy and in Venetia, and the territories of
Verona, Vicenza, Treviso and Friuli. (3) The vine region begins on the
sunny slopes of the Alpine spurs and in those Alpine valleys open
towards the south, extending over the plains of Lombardy and Emilia.
In Sardinia it covers the mountain slopes to a considerable height,
and in Sicily covers the sides of the Madonie range, reaching a level
above 3000 ft. on the southern slope of Etna. The Calabrian Alps, the
less rocky sides of the Apulian Murgie and the whole length of the
Apennines are covered at different heights, according to their
situation. The hills of Tuscany, and of Monferrato in Piedmont,
produce the most celebrated Italian vintages. (4) The region of
_chestnuts_ extends from the valleys to the high plateaus of the Alps,
along the northern slopes of the Apennines in Liguria, Modena,
Tuscany, Romagna, Umbria, the Marches and along the southern Apennines
to the Calabrian and Sicilian ranges, as well as to the mountains of
Sardinia. (5) The wooded region covers the Alps and Apennines above
the chestnut level. The woods consist chiefly of pine and hazel upon
the Apennines, and upon the Calabrian, Sicilian and Sardinian
mountains of oak, ilex, hornbeam and similar trees.

Between these regions of tree culture lie zones of different
herbaceous culture, cereals, vegetables and textile plants. The style
of cultivation varies according to the nature of the ground, terraces
supported by stone walls being much used in mountainous districts.
Cereal cultivation occupies the foremost place in area and quantity
though it has been on the decline since 1903, still representing,
however, an advance on previous years. Wheat is the most important
crop and is widely distributed. In 1905 12,734,491 acres, or about 18%
of the total area, produced 151,696,571 bushels of wheat, a yield of
only 12 bushels per acre. The importation has, however, enormously
increased since 1882--from 164,600 to 1,126,368 tons; while the extent
of land devoted to corn cultivation has slightly decreased. Next in
importance to wheat comes maize, occupying about 7% of the total area
of the country, and cultivated almost everywhere as an alternative
crop. The production of maize in 1905 reached about 96,250,000
bushels, a slight increase on the average. The production of maize is,
however, insufficient, and 208,719 tons were imported in 1902--about
double the amount imported in 1882.

Rice is cultivated in low-lying, moist lands, where spring and summer
temperatures are high. The Po valley and the valleys of Emilia and the
Romagna are best adapted for rice, but the area is diminishing on
account of the competition of foreign rice and of the impoverishment
of the soil by too intense cultivation. The area is about 0.5% of the
total of Italy. The area under rye is about 0.5% of the total, of
which about two-thirds lie in the Alpine and about one-third in the
Apennine zone. The barley zone is geographically extensive but
embraces not more than 1% of the total area, of which half is situated
in Sardinia and Sicily. Oats, cultivated in the Roman and Tuscan
maremma and in Apulia, are used almost exclusively for horses and
cattle. The area of oats cultivation is 1.5% of the total area. The
other cereals, millet and _panico sorgo_ (_Panicum italicum_), have
lost much of their importance in consequence of the introduction of
maize and rice. Millet, however, is still cultivated in the north of
Italy, and is used as bread for agricultural labourers, and as forage
when mixed with buckwheat (_Sorghum saccaratum_). The manufacture of
macaroni and similar foodstuff is a characteristic Italian industry.
It is extensively distributed, but especially flourishes in the
Neapolitan provinces. The exportation of "corn-flour pastes" sank,
however, from 7100 tons to 350 between 1882 and 1902.

The cultivation of green forage is extensive and is divided into the
categories of temporary and perennial. The temporary includes vetches,
pulse, lupine, clover and trifolium; and the perennial,
meadow-trefoil, lupinella, sulla (_Hedysarum coronarium_), lucerne and
darnel. The natural grass meadows are extensive, and hay is grown all
over the country, but especially in the Po valley. Pasture occupies
about 30% of the total area of the country, of which Alpine pastures
occupy 1.25%. Seed-bearing vegetables are comparatively scarce. The
principal are: white beans, largely consumed by the working classes;
lentils, much less cultivated than beans; and green peas, largely
consumed in Italy, and exported as a spring vegetable. Chick-pease are
extensively cultivated in the southern provinces. Horse beans are
grown, especially in the south and in the larger islands; lupines are
also grown for fodder.

Among tuberous vegetables the potato comes first. The area occupied is
about 0.7% of the whole of the country. Turnips are grown principally
in the central provinces as an alternative crop to wheat. They yield
as much as 12 tons per acre. Beetroot (_Beta vulgaris_) is used as
fodder, and yields about 10 tons per acre. Sugar beet is extensively
grown to supply the sugar factories. In 1898-1899 there were only four
sugar factories, with an output of 5972 tons; in 1905 there were
thirty-three, with an output of 93,916 tons.

Market gardening is carried on both near towns and villages, where
products find ready sale, and along the great railways, on account of
transport facilities. Rome is an exception to the former rule and
imports garden produce largely from the neighbourhood of Naples and
from Sardinia.

Among the chief industrial plants is tobacco, which grows wherever
suitable soil exists. Since tobacco is a government monopoly, its
cultivation is subject to official concessions and prescriptions.
Experiments hitherto made show that the cultivation of Oriental
tobacco may profitably be extended in Italy. The yield for 1901 was
5528 tons, but a large increase took place subsequently, eleven
million new plants having been added in southern Italy in 1905.

The chief textile plants are hemp, flax and cotton. Hemp is largely
cultivated in the provinces of Turin, Ferrara, Bologna, Forlì, Ascoli
Piceno and Caserta. Bologna hemp is specially valued. Flax covers
about 160,000 acres, with a product, in fibre, amounting to about
20,000 tons. Cotton (_Gossypium herbaceum_), which at the beginning of
the 19th century, at the time of the Continental blockade, and again
during the American War of Secession, was largely cultivated, is now
grown only in parts of Sicily and in a few southern provinces. Sumach,
liquorice and madder are also grown in the south.

The vine is cultivated throughout the length and breadth of Italy, but
while in some of the districts of the south and centre it occupies
from 10 to 20% of the cultivated area, in some of the northern
provinces, such as Sondrio, Belluno, Grosseto, &c., the average is
only about 1 or 2%. The methods of cultivation are varied; but the
planting of the vines by themselves in long rows of insignificant
bushes is the exception. In Lombardy, Emilia, Romagna, Tuscany, the
Marches, Umbria and the southern provinces, they are trained to trees
which are either left in their natural state or subjected to pruning
and pollarding. In Campania the vines are allowed to climb freely to
the tops of the poplars. In the rest of Italy the elm and the maple
are the trees mainly employed as supports. Artificial props of several
kinds--wires, cane work, trellis work, &c.--are also in use in many
districts (in the neighbourhood of Rome canes are almost exclusively
employed), and in some the plant is permitted to trail along the
ground. The vintage takes place, according to locality and climate,
from the beginning of September to the beginning of November. The vine
has been attacked by the _Oidium Tuckeri_, the _Phylloxera vastatrix_
and the _Peronospora viticola_, which in rapid succession wrought
great havoc in Italian vineyards. American vines, are, however, immune
and have been largely adopted. The production of wine in the vintage
of 1907, which was extraordinarily abundant all over the country, was
estimated at 1232 million gallons (56 million hectolitres), the
average for 1901-1903 being some 352 million gallons less; of this the
probable home consumption was estimated at rather over half, while a
considerable amount remained over from 1906. The exportation in 1902
only reached about 45 million gallons (and even that is double the
average), while an equally abundant vintage in France and Spain
rendered the exportation of the balance of 1907 impossible, and fiscal
regulations rendered the distillation of the superfluous amount
difficult. The quality, too, owing to bad weather at the time of
vintage, was not good; Italian wine, indeed, never is sufficiently
good to compete with the best wines of other countries, especially
France (though there is more opening for Italian wines of the Bordeaux
and Burgundy type); nor will many kinds of it stand keeping, partly
owing to their natural qualities and partly to the insufficient care
devoted to their preparation. There has been some improvement,
however, while some of the heavier white wines, noticeably the Marsala
of Sicily, have excellent keeping qualities. The area cultivated as
vineyards has increased enormously, from about 4,940,000 acres to
9,880,000 acres, or about 14% of the total area of the country.
Over-production seems thus to be a considerable danger, and
improvement of quality is rather to be sought after. This has been
encouraged by government prizes since 1904.

Next to cereals and the vine the most important object of cultivation
is the olive. In Sicily and the provinces of Reggio, Catanzaro,
Cosenza and Lecce this tree flourishes without shelter; as far north
as Rome, Aquila and Teramo it requires only the slightest protection;
in the rest of the peninsula it runs the risk of damage by frost every
ten years or so. The proportion of ground under olives is from 20 to
36% at Porto Maurizio, and in Reggio, Lecce, Bari, Chieti and Leghorn
it averages from 10 to 19%. Throughout Piedmont, Lombardy, Venetia and
the greater part of Emilia, the tree is of little importance. In the
olive there is great variety of kinds, and the methods of cultivation
differ greatly in different districts; in Bari, Chieti and Lecce, for
instance, there are regular woods of nothing but olive-trees, while in
middle Italy there are olive-orchards with the interspaces occupied by
crops of various kinds. The Tuscan oils from Lucca, Calci and Buti are
considered the best in the world; those of Bari, Umbria and western
Liguria rank next. The wood of the olive is also used for the
manufacture of small articles. The olive-growing area occupies about
3.5% of the total area of the country, and the crop in 1905 produced
about 75,000,000 gallons of oil. The falling off of the crop,
especially in 1899, was due to bad seasons and to insects, notably the
_Cycloconium oleoginum_, and the _Dacus oleae_, or oil-fly, which have
ravaged the olive-yards, and it is noticeable that lately good and bad
seasons seem to alternate; between 1900 and 1905 the crops were
alternately one half of, and equal to, that of the latter year. With
the development of agricultural knowledge, notable improvements have
been effected in the manufacture of oil. The steam mills give the best
results. The export trade, however, is decreasing considerably, while
the home consumption is increasing. In 1901, 1985 imperial tuns of oil
were shipped from Gallipoli for abroad--two-thirds to the United
Kingdom, one-third to Russia--and 666 to Italian ports; while in 1904
the figures were reversed, 1633 tuns going to Italian ports, and only
945 tuns to foreign ports. The other principal port of shipping is
Gioia Tauro, 30 m. N.N.E. of Reggio Calabria. A certain amount of
linseed-oil is made in Lombardy, Sicily, Apulia and Calabria; colza in
Piedmont, Lombardy, Venetia and Emilia; and castor-oil in Venetia and
Sicily. The product is principally used for industrial purposes, and
partly in the preparation of food, but the amount is decreasing.

The cultivation of oranges, lemons and their congeners (collectively
designated in Italian by the term _agrumi_) is of comparatively modern
date, the introduction of the _Citrus Bigaradia_ being probably due to
the Arabs. Sicily is the chief centre of cultivation--the area
occupied by lemon and orange orchards in the province of Palermo alone
having increased from 11,525 acres in 1854 to 54,340 in 1874. Reggio
Calabria, Catanzaro, Cosenza, Lecce, Salerno, Naples and Caserta are
the continental provinces which come next after Sicily. In Sardinia
the cultivation is extensive, but receives little attention. Both
crude and concentrated lime-juice is exported, and essential oils are
extracted from the rind of the _agrumi_, more particularly from that
of the lemon and the bergamot. In northern and central Italy, except
in the province of Brescia, the _agrumi_ are almost non-existent. The
trees are planted on irrigated soil and the fruit gathered between
November and August. Considerable trade is done in _agro di limone_ or
lemon extract, which forms the basis of citric acid. Extraction is
extensively carried on in the provinces of Messina and Palermo.

Among other fruit trees, apple-trees have special importance. Almonds
are widely cultivated in Sicily, Sardinia and the southern provinces;
walnut trees throughout the peninsula, their wood being more important
than their fruit; hazel nuts, figs, prickly pears (used in the south
and the islands for hedges, their fruit being a minor consideration),
peaches, pears, locust beans and pistachio nuts are among the other
fruits. The mulberry-tree (_Morus alba_), whose leaves serve as food
for silkworms, is cultivated in every region, considerable progress
having been made in its cultivation and in the rearing of silkworms
since 1850. Silkworm-rearing establishments of importance now exist
in the Marches, Umbria, in the Abruzzi, Tuscany, Piedmont and Venetia.
The chief silk-producing provinces are Lombardy, Venetia and Piedmont.
During the period 1900-1904 the average annual production of silk
cocoons was 53,500 tons, and of silk 5200 tons.

The great variety in physical and social conditions throughout the
peninsula gives corresponding variety to the methods of agriculture.
In the rotation of crops there is an amazing diversity--shifts of two
years, three years, four years, six years, and in many cases whatever
order strikes the fancy of the farmer. The fields of Tuscany for the
most part bear wheat one year and maize the next, in perpetual
interchanges, relieved to some extent by green crops. A similar method
prevails in the Abruzzi, and in the provinces of Salerno, Benevento
and Avellino. In Lombardy a six-year shift is common: either wheat,
clover, maize, rice, rice, rice (the last year manured with lupines)
or maize, wheat followed by clover, clover, clover ploughed in, and
rice, rice and rice manured with lupines. The Emilian region is one
where regular rotations are best observed--a common shift being grain,
maize, clover, beans and vetches, &c., grain, which has the
disadvantage of the grain crops succeeding each other. In the province
of Naples, Caserta, &c., the method of fallows is widely adopted, the
ground often being left in this state for fifteen or twenty years; and
in some parts of Sicily there is a regular interchange of fallow and
crop year by year. The following scheme indicates a common Sicilian
method of a type which has many varieties: fallow, grain, grain,
pasture, pasture--other two divisions of the area following the same
order, but beginning respectively with the two years of grain and the
two of pasture.

Woods and forests.

Woods and forests play an important part, especially in regard to the
consistency of the soil and to the character of the watercourses. The
chestnut is of great value for its wood and its fruit, an article of
popular consumption. Good timber is furnished by the oak and beech,
and pine and fir forests of the Alps and Apennines. Notwithstanding
the efforts of the government to unify and co-ordinate the forest laws
previously existing in the various states, deforestation has continued
in many regions. This has been due to speculation, to the unrestricted
pasturage of goats, to the rights which many communes have over the
forests, and to some extent to excessive taxation, which led the
proprietors to cut and sell the trees and then abandon the ground to
the Treasury. The results are--a lack of water-supply and of
water-power, the streams becoming mere torrents for a short period and
perfectly dry for the rest of the year; lack of a sufficient supply of
timber; the denudation of the soil on the hills, and, where the
valleys below have insufficient drainage, the formation of swamps. If
the available water-power of Italy, already very considerable, be
harnessed, converted into electric power (which is already being done
in some districts), and further increased by reafforestation, the
effect upon the industries of Italy will be incalculable, and the
importation of coal will be very materially diminished. The area of
forest is about 14.3% of the total, and of the chestnut-woods 1.5
more; and its products in 1886 were valued at £3,520,000 (not
including chestnuts). A quantity of it is really brushwood, used for
the manufacture of charcoal and for fuel, coal being little used
except for manufacturing purposes. Forest nurseries have also been
founded.

Live stock.

According to an approximate calculation the number of head of live
stock in Italy in 1890 was 16,620,000, thus divided:--horses, 720,000;
asses, 1,000,000; mules, 300,000; cattle, 5,000,000; sheep, 6,000,000;
goats, 1,800,000; swine, 1,800,000.

The breed of cattle most widely distributed is that known as the
Podolian, usually with white or grey coat and enormous horns. Of the
numerous sub-varieties, the finest is said to be that of the Val di
Chiana, where the animals are stall-fed all the year round; next is
ranked the so-called Valle Tiberina type. Wilder varieties roam in
vast herds over the Tuscan and Roman _maremmas_, and the corresponding
districts in Apulia and other regions. In the Alpine districts there
is a stock distinct from the Podolian, generally called _razza
montanina_. These animals are much smaller in stature and more regular
in form than the Podolians; they are mainly kept for dairy purposes.
Another stock, with no close allies nearer than the south of France,
is found in the plain of Racconigi and Carmagnola; the mouse-coloured
Swiss breed occurs in the neighbourhood of Milan: the Tirolese breed
stretches south to Padua and Modena; and a red-coated breed named of
Reggio or Friuli is familiar both in what were the duchies of Parma
and Modena, and in the provinces of Udine and Treviso. In Sicily the
so-called Modica race is of note; and in Sardinia there is a distinct
stock which seldom exceeds the weight of 700 lb. Buffaloes are kept in
several districts, more particularly of southern Italy.

Enormous flocks are possessed by professional sheep-farmers, who
pasture them in the mountains in the summer, and bring them down to
the plains in the winter. At Saluzzo in Piedmont there is a stock with
hanging ears, arched face and tall stature, kept for its dairy
qualities; and in the Biellese the merino breed is maintained by some
of the larger proprietors. In the upper valleys of the Alps there are
many local varieties, one of which at Ossola is like the Scottish
blackface. Liguria is not much adapted for sheep-farming on a large
scale; but a number of small flocks come down to the plain of Tuscany
in the winter. With the exception of a few sub-Alpine districts near
Bergamo and Brescia, the great Lombard plain is decidedly unpastoral.
The Bergamo sheep is the largest breed in the country; that of Cadore
and Belluno approaches it in size. In the Venetian districts the
farmers often have small stationary flocks. Throughout the Roman
province, and Umbria, Apulia, the Abruzzi, Basilicata and Calabria, is
found in its full development a remarkable system of pastoral
migration with the change of seasons which has been in existence from
the most ancient times, and has attracted attention as much by its
picturesqueness as by its industrial importance (see APULIA). Merino
sheep have been acclimatized in the Abruzzi, Capitanata and
Basilicata. The number of sheep, however, is on the decrease.
Similarly, the number of goats, which are reared only in hilly
regions, is decreasing, especially on account of the existing forest
laws, as they are the chief enemies of young plantations.
Horse-breeding is on the increase. The state helps to improve the
breeds by placing choice stallions at the disposal of private breeders
at a low tariff. The exportation is, however, unimportant, while the
importation is largely on the increase, 46,463 horses having been
imported in 1902. Cattle-breeding varies with the different regions.
In upper Italy cattle are principally reared in pens and stalls; in
central Italy cattle are allowed to run half wild, the stall system
being little practised; in the south and in the islands cattle are
kept in the open air, few shelters being provided. The erection of
shelters, however, is encouraged by the state. Swine are extensively
reared in many provinces. Fowls are kept on all farms and, though
methods are still antiquated, trade in fowls and eggs is rapidly
increasing.

In 1905 Italy exported 32,786 and imported 17,766 head of cattle;
exported 33,574 and imported 6551 sheep; exported 95,995 and imported
1604 swine. The former two show a very large decrease and the latter a
large increase on the export figures for 1882. The export of
agricultural products shows a large increase.

The north of Italy has long been known for its great dairy districts.
Parmesan cheese, otherwise called Lodigiano (from Lodi) or _grana_,
was presented to King Louis XII. as early as 1509. Parmesan is not
confined to the province from which it derives its name; it is
manufactured in all that part of Emilia in the neighbourhood of the
Po, and in the provinces of Brescia, Bergamo, Pavia, Novara and
Alessandria. Gorgonzola, which takes its name from a town in the
province, has become general throughout the whole of Lombardy, in the
eastern parts of the "ancient provinces," and in the province of
Cuneo. The cheese known as the _cacio-cavallo_ is produced in regions
extending from 37° to 43° N. lat. Gruyère, extensively manufactured in
Switzerland and France, is also produced in Italy in the Alpine
regions and in Sicily. With the exception of Parmesan, Gorgonzola, La
Fontina and Gruyère, most of the Italian cheese is consumed in the
locality of its production. Co-operative dairy farms are numerous in
north Italy, and though only about half as many as in 1889 (114 in
1902) are better organized. Modern methods have been introduced.

Drainage, &c.

The drainage of marshes and marshy lands has considerably extended. A
law passed on the 22nd of March 1900 gave a special impulse to this
form of enterprise by fixing the ratio of expenditure incumbent
respectively upon the State, the provinces, the communes, and the
owners or other private individuals directly interested.

Agrarian economics.

The Italian Federation of Agrarian Unions has greatly contributed to
agricultural progress. Government travelling teachers of agriculture,
and fixed schools of viticulture, also do good work. Some unions
annually purchase large quantities of merchandise for their members,
especially chemical manures. The importation of machinery amounted to
over 5000 tons in 1901.

Income from land has diminished on the whole. The chief diminution has
taken place in the south in regard to oranges and lemons, cereals and
(for some provinces) vines. Since 1895, however, the heavy import corn
duty has caused a slight rise in the income from corn lands. The
principal reasons for the general decrease are the fall in prices
through foreign competition and the closing of certain markets, the
diseases of plants and the increased outlay required to combat them,
and the growth of State and local taxation. One of the great evils of
Italian agricultural taxation is its lack of elasticity and of
adaptation to local conditions. Taxes are not sufficiently
proportioned to what the land may reasonably be expected to produce,
nor sufficient allowance made for the exceptional conditions of a
southern climate, in which a few hours' bad weather may destroy a
whole crop. The Italian agriculturist has come to look (and often in
vain) for action on a large scale from the state, for irrigation,
drainage of uncultivated low-lying land, which may be made fertile,
river regulation, &c.; while to the small proprietor the state often
appears only as a hard and inconsiderate tax-gatherer.

The relations between owners and tillers of the soil are still
regulated by the ancient forms of agrarian contract, which have
remained almost untouched by social and political changes. The
possibility of reforming these contracts in some parts of the kingdom
has been studied, in the hope of bringing them into closer harmony
with the needs of rational cultivation and the exigencies of social
justice.

Peasant proprietorship is most common in Lombardy and Piedmont, but it
is also found elsewhere. Large farms are found in certain of the more
open districts; but in Italy generally, and especially in Sardinia,
the land is very much subdivided. The following forms of contract are
most usual in the several regions: In Piedmont the _mezzadria_
(_métayage_), the _terzieria_, the _colonia parziaria_, the _boaria_,
the _schiavenza_ and the _affitto_, or lease, are most usual. Under
_mezzadria_ the contract generally lasts three years. Products are
usually divided in equal proportions between the owner and the tiller.
The owner pays the taxes, defrays the cost of preparing the ground,
and provides the necessary implements. Stock usually belongs to the
owner, and, even if kept on the half-and-half system, is usually
bought by him. The peasant, or _mezzadro_, provides labour. Under
_terzieria_ the owner furnishes stock, implements and seed, and the
tiller retains only one-third of the principal products. In the
_colonia parziaria_ the peasant executes all the agricultural work, in
return for which he is housed rent-free, and receives one-sixth of the
corn, one-third of the maize and has a small money wage. This contract
is usually renewed from year to year. The _boaria_ is widely diffused
in its two forms of _cascina fatta_ and _paghe_. In the former case a
peasant family undertakes all the necessary work in return for payment
in money or kind, which varies according to the crop; in the latter
the money wages and the payment in kind are fixed beforehand.
_Schiavenza_, either simple or with a share in the crops, is a form of
contract similar to the _boaria_, but applied principally to large
holdings. The wages are lower than under the _boaria_. In the
_affitto_, or lease, the proprietor furnishes seed and the implements.
Rent varies according to the quality of the soil.

In Lombardy, besides the _mezzadria_, the lease is common, but the
_terzieria_ is rare. The lessee, or farmer, tills the soil at his own
risk; usually he provides live stock, implements and capital, and has
no right to compensation for ordinary improvements, nor for
extraordinary improvements effected without the landlord's consent. He
is obliged to give a guarantee for the fulfilment of his engagements.
In some places he pays an annual tribute in grapes, corn and other
produce. In some of the Lombard _mezzadria_ contracts taxes are paid
by the cultivator.

In Venetia it is more common than elsewhere in Italy for owners to
till their own soil. The prevalent forms of contract are the
_mezzadria_ and the lease. In Liguria, also, _mezzadria_ and lease are
the chief forms of contract.

In Emilia both _mezzadria_ and lease tenure are widely diffused in the
provinces of Ferrara, Reggio and Parma; but other special forms of
contract exist, known as the _famiglio da spesa_, _boaria_,
_braccianti obbligati_ and _braccianti disobbligati_. In the _famiglio
da spesa_ the tiller receives a small wage and a proportion of certain
products. The _boaria_ is of two kinds. If the tiller receives as much
as 45 lire per month, supplemented by other wages in kind, it is said
to be _boaria a salario_; if the principal part of his remuneration is
in kind, his contract is called _boaria a spesa_.

In the Marches, Umbria and Tuscany, _mezzadria_ prevails in its purest
form. Profits and losses, both in regard to produce and stock, are
equally divided. In some places, however, the landlord takes
two-thirds of the olives and the whole of the grapes and the mulberry
leaves. Leasehold exists in the province of Grosseto alone. In Latium
leasehold and farming by landlords prevail, but cases of _mezzadria_
and of "improvement farms" exist. In the _agro Romano_, or zone
immediately around Rome, land is as a rule left for pasturage. It
needs, therefore, merely supervision by guardians and mounted
overseers, or _butteri_, who are housed and receive wages. Large
landlords are usually represented by _ministri_, or factors, who
direct agricultural operations and manage the estates, but the estate
is often let to a middleman, or _mercante di campagna_. Wherever corn
is cultivated, leasehold predominates. Much of the work is done by
companies of peasants, who come down from the mountainous districts
when required, permanent residence not being possible owing to the
malaria. Near Velletri and Frosinone "improvement farms" prevail. A
piece of uncultivated land is made over to a peasant for from 20 to 29
years. Vines and olives are usually planted, the landlord paying the
taxes and receiving one-third of the produce. At the end of the
contract the landlord either cultivates his land himself or leases it,
repaying to the improver part of the expenditure incurred by him. This
repayment sometimes consists of half the estimated value of the
standing crops.

In the Abruzzi and in Apulia leasehold is predominant. Usually leases
last from three to six years. In the provinces of Foggia and Lecce
long leases (up to twenty-nine years) are granted, but in them it is
explicitly declared that they do not imply _enfiteusi_ (perpetual
leasehold), nor any other form of contract equivalent to
co-proprietorship. _Mezzadria_ is rarely resorted to. On some small
holdings, however, it exists with contracts lasting from two to six
years. Special contracts, known as _colonie immovibili_ and _colonie
temporanee_ are applied to the _latifondi_ or huge estates, the owners
of which receive half the produce, except that of the vines,
olive-trees and woods, which he leases separately. "Improvement
contracts" also exist. They consist of long leases, under which the
landlord shares the costs of improvements and builds farm-houses; also
leases of orange and lemon gardens, two-thirds of the produce of which
go to the landlord, while the farmer contributes half the cost of
farming besides the labour. Leasehold, varying from four to six years
for arable land and from six to eighteen years for forest-land,
prevails also in Campania, Basilicata and Calabria. The _estaglio_, or
rent, is often paid in kind, and is equivalent to half the produce of
good land and one-third of the produce of bad land. "Improvement
contracts" are granted for uncultivated bush districts, where one
fourth of the produce goes to the landlord, and for plantations of
fig-trees, olive-trees and vines, half of the produce of which belongs
to the landlord, who at the end of ten years reimburses the tenant for
a part of the improvements effected. Other forms of contract are the
_piccola mezzadria_, or sub-letting by tenants to under-tenants, on
the half-and-half system; _enfiteusi_, or perpetual leases at low
rents--a form which has almost died out; and _mezzadria_ (in the
provinces of Caserta and Benevento).

In Sicily leasehold prevails under special conditions. In pure
leasehold the landlord demands at least six months' rent as guarantee,
and the forfeiture of any fortuitous advantages. Under the _gabella_
lease the contract lasts twenty-nine years, the lessee being obliged
to make improvements, but being sometimes exempted from rent during
the first years. _Inquilinaggio_ is a form of lease by which the
landlord, and sometimes the tenant, makes over to tenant or sub-tenant
the sowing of corn. There are various categories of _inquilinaggio_,
according as rent is paid in money or in kind. Under _mezzadria_ or
_metateria_ the landlord divides the produce with the farmer in
various proportions. The farmer provides all labour. _Latifondi_ farms
are very numerous in Sicily. The landlord lets his land to two or more
persons jointly, who undertake to restore it to him in good condition
with one-third of it "_interrozzito_," that is, fallow, so as to be
cultivated the following year according to triennial rotation. These
lessees are usually speculators, who divide and sub-let the estate.
The sub-tenants in their turn let a part of their land to peasants in
_mezzadria_, thus creating a system disastrous both for agriculture
and the peasants. At harvest-time the produce is placed in the barns
of the lessor, who first deducts 25% as premium, then 16% for
_battiteria_ (the difference between corn before and after winnowing),
then deducts a proportion for rent and subsidies, so that the portion
retained by the actual tiller of the soil is extremely meagre. In bad
years the tiller, moreover, gives up seed corn before beginning
harvest.

In Sardinia landlord-farming and leasehold prevail. In the few cases
of _mezzadria_ the Tuscan system is followed.

_Mines._--The number of mines increased from 589 in 1881 to 1580 in
1902. The output in 1881 was worth about £2,800,000, but by 1895 had
decreased to £1,800,000, chiefly on account of the fall in the price
of sulphur. It afterwards rose, and was worth more than £3,640,000 in
1899, falling again to £3,118,600 in 1902 owing to severe American
competition in sulphur (see SICILY). The chief minerals are sulphur,
in the production of which Italy holds one of the first places, iron,
zinc, lead; these, and, to a smaller extent, copper of an inferior
quality, manganese and antimony, are successfully mined. The bulk of
the sulphur mines are in Sicily, while the majority of the lead and
zinc mines are in Sardinia; much of the lead smelting is done at
Pertusola, near Genoa, the company formed for this purpose having
acquired many of the Sardinian mines. Iron is mainly mined in Elba.
Quicksilver and tin are found (the latter in small quantities) in
Tuscany. Boracic acid is chiefly found near Volterra, where there is
also a little rock salt, but the main supply is obtained by
evaporation. The output of stone from quarries is greatly diminished
(from 12,500,000 tons, worth £1,920,000, in 1890, to 8,000,000 tons,
worth £1,400,000, in 1899), a circumstance probably attributable to
the slackening of building enterprise in many cities, and to the
decrease in the demand for stone for railway, maritime and river
embankment works. The value of the output had, however, by 1902 risen
to £1,600,000, representing a tonnage of about 10,000,000. There is
good travertine below Tivoli and elsewhere in Italy; the finest
granite is found at Baveno. Lava is much used for paving-stones in the
neighbourhood of volcanic districts, where pozzolana (for cement) and
pumice stone are also important. Much of Italy contains Pliocene clay,
which is good for pottery and brickmaking. Mineral springs are very
numerous, and of great variety.

_Fisheries._--The number of boats and smacks engaged in the fisheries
has considerably increased. In 1881 the total number was 15,914, with
a tonnage of 49,103. In 1902 there were 23,098 boats, manned by
101,720 men, and the total catch was valued at just over half a
million sterling--according to the government figures, which are
certainly below the truth. The value has, however, undoubtedly
diminished, though the number of boats and crews increases. Most of
the fishing boats, properly so called, start from the Adriatic coast,
the coral boats from the western Mediterranean coast, and the sponge
boats from the western Mediterranean and Sicilian coasts. Fishing and
trawling are carried on chiefly off the Italian (especially Ligurian),
Austrian and Tunisian coasts; coral is found principally near Sardinia
and Sicily, and sponges almost exclusively off Sicily and Tunisia in
the neighbourhood of Sfax. For sponge fishing no accurate statistics
are available before 1896; in that year 75 tons of sponges were
secured, but there has been considerable diminution since, only 31
tons being obtained in 1902. A considerable proportion was obtained by
foreign boats. The island of Lampedusa may be considered its centre.
Coral fishing, which fell off between 1889 and 1892 on account of the
temporary closing of the Sciacca coral reefs has greatly decreased
since 1884, when the fisheries produced 643 tons, whereas in 1902 they
only produced 225 tons. The value of the product has, however,
proportionately increased, so that the sum realized was little less,
while less than half the number of men was employed. Sardinian coral
commands from £3 to £4 per kilogramme (2.204 lb.), and is much more
valuable than the Sicilian coral. The Sciacca reefs were again closed
for three winters by a decree of 1904. The fishing is largely carried
on by boats from Torre del Greco, in the Gulf of Naples, where the
best coral beds are now exhausted. In 1879 4000 men were employed; in
1902 only just over 1000. In 1902 there were 48 tunny fisheries,
employing 3006 men, and 5116 tons of fish worth £80,000 were caught.
The main fisheries are in Sardinia, Sicily and Elba. Anchovy and
sardine fishing (the products of which are reckoned among the general
total) are also of considerable importance, especially along the
Ligurian and Tuscan coasts. The lagoon fisheries are also of great
importance, more especially those of Comacchio, the lagoon of
Orbetello and the Mare Piccolo at Taranto &c. The deep-sea fishing
boats in 1902 numbered 1368, with a total tonnage of 16,149; 100 of
these were coral-fishing boats and 111 sponge-fishing boats.

_Industrial Progress._--The industrial progress of Italy has been great since 1880. Many articles formerly imported are now made at home, and some Italian manufactures have begun to compete in foreign markets. Italy has only unimportant lignite and anthracite mines, but water power is abundant and has been largely applied to industry, especially in generating electricity. The electric power required for the tramways and the illumination of Rome is entirely supplied by turbines situated at Tivoli, and this is the case elsewhere, and the harnessing of this water-power is capable of very considerable extension. A sign of industrial development is to be found in the growing number of manufacturing companies, both Italian and foreign.

Mechanical industries.

The chief development has taken place in mechanical industries, though
it has also been marked in metallurgy. Sulphur mining supplies large
industries of sulphur-refining and grinding, in spite of American
competition. Very little pig iron is made, most of the iron ore being
exported, and iron manufactured consists of old iron resmelted. For
steel-making foreign pig iron is chiefly used. The manufacture of
steel rails, carried on first at Terni and afterwards at Savona, began
in Italy in 1886. Tin has been manufactured since 1892. Lead,
antimony, mercury and copper are also produced. The total salt
production in 1902 was 458,497 tons, of which 248,215 were produced in
the government salt factories and the rest in the free salt-works of
Sicily. Great progress has been made in the manufacture of machinery;
locomotives, railway carriages, electric tram-cars, &c., and machinery
of all kinds, are now largely made in Italy itself, especially in the
north and in the neighbourhood of Naples. At Turin the manufacture of
motor-cars has attained great importance and the F.I.A.T. (Fabbrica
Italiana Automobili Torino) factory employs 2000 workmen, while eight
others employ 2780 amongst them.

Textiles.

The textile industries, some of which are of ancient date, are among
those that have most rapidly developed. Handlooms and small spinning
establishments have, in the silk industry, given place to large
establishments with steam looms. The production of raw silk at least
tripled itself between 1875 and 1900, and the value of the silks woven
in Italy, estimated in 1890 to be £2,200,000, is now, on account of
the development of the export trade, calculated to be almost
£4,000,000. Lombardy (especially Como, Milan and Bergamo), Piedmont
and Venetia are the chief silk-producing regions. There are several
public assay offices in Italy for silk; the first in the world was
established in Turin in 1750. The cotton industry has also rapidly
developed. Home products not only supply the Italian market in
increasing degree, but find their way into foreign markets. While
importation of raw cotton increases importations of cotton thread and
of cotton stuffs have rapidly decreased. The value of the annual
produce of the various branches of the cotton industry, which in 1885
was calculated to be £7,200,000, was in 1900, notwithstanding the fall
in prices, about £12,000,000. The industry is chiefly developed in
Lombardy, Piedmont and Liguria; to some extent also in Campania,
Venetia and Tuscany, and to a less extent in Lazio (Rome), Apulia,
Emilia, the Marches, Umbria, the Abruzzi and Sicily. A government
weaving school was established in Naples in 1906. As in the case of
cotton, Italian woollen fabrics are conquering the home market in
increasing degree. The industry centres chiefly in Piedmont (province
of Novara), Venetia (province of Vicenza), Tuscany (Florence),
Lombardy (Brescia), Campania (Caserta), Genoa, Umbria, the Marches and
Rome. To some extent the industry also exists in Emilia, Calabria,
Basilicata, the Abruzzi, Sardinia and Sicily. It has, however, a
comparatively small export trade.

The other textile industries (flax, jute, &c.) have made notable
progress. The jute industry is concentrated in a few large factories,
which from 1887 onwards have more than supplied the home market, and
have begun considerably to export.

Chemicals.

Chemical industries show an output worth £2,640,000 in 1902 as against
£1,040,000 in 1893. The chief products are sulphuric acid; sulphate of
copper, employed chiefly as a preventive of certain maladies of the
vine; carbonate of lead, hyperphosphates and chemical manures; calcium
carbide; explosive powder; dynamite and other explosives.
Pharmaceutical industries, as distinguished from those above
mentioned, have kept pace with the general development of Italian
activity. The principal product is quinine, the manufacture of which
has acquired great importance, owing to its use as a specific against
malaria. Milan and Genoa are the principal centres, and also the
government military pharmaceutical factory at Turin. Other industries
of a semi-chemical character are candle-, soap-, glue-, and
perfume-making, and the preparation of india-rubber. The last named
has succeeded, by means of the large establishments at Milan in
supplying not only the whole Italian market but an export trade.