Chapter XXI: Part I: £402,216,795 (15)

JACKSON, FREDERICK GEORGE (1860- ), British Arctic explorer, was educated at Denstone College and Edinburgh University. His first voyage in Arctic waters was on a whaling-cruise in 1886-1887, and in 1893 he made a sledge-journey of 3000 miles across the frozen _tundra_ of Siberia lying between the Ob and the Pechora. His narrative of this journey was published under the title of _The Great Frozen Land_ (1895). On his return, he was given the command of the Jackson-Harmsworth Arctic expedition (1894-1897), which had for its objective the general exploration of Franz Josef Land. In recognition of his services he received a knighthood of the first class of the Danish Royal Order of St Olaf in 1898, and was awarded the gold medal of the Paris Geographical Society in 1899. His account of the expedition was published under the title of _A Thousand Days in the Arctic_ (1899). He served in South Africa during the Boer War, and obtained the rank of captain. His travels also include a journey across the Australian deserts.

JACKSON, HELEN MARIA (1831-1885), American poet and novelist, who wrote under the initials of "H. H." (Helen Hunt), was born in Amherst, Massachusetts, on the 18th of October 1831, the daughter of Nathan Welby Fiske (1798-1847), who was a professor in Amherst College. In October 1852 she married Lieutenant Edward Bissell Hunt (1822-1863), of the U.S. corps of engineers. In 1870 she published a little volume of meditative _Verses_, which was praised by Emerson in the preface to his _Parnassus_ (1874). In 1875 she married William S. Jackson, a banker, of Colorado Springs. She became a prolific writer of prose and verse, including juvenile tales, books of travel, household hints and novels, of which the best is _Ramona_ (1884), a defence of the Indian character. In 1883, as a special commissioner with Abbot Kinney (b. 1850), she investigated the condition and needs of the Mission Indians in California. _A Century of Dishonor_ (1881) was an arraignment of the treatment of the Indians by the United States. She died on the 12th of August 1885 in San Francisco.

In addition to her publications referred to above, _Mercy Philbrick's
Choice_ (1876), _Hetty's Strange History_ (1877), _Zeph_ (1886), and
_Sonnets and Lyrics_ (1886) may be mentioned.

JACKSON, MASON (c. 1820-1903), British engraver, was born at Berwick-on-Tweed about 1820, and was trained as a wood engraver by his brother, John Jackson, the author of a history of this art. In the middle of the 19th century he made a considerable reputation by his engravings for the Art Union of London, and for Knight's _Shakespeare_ and other standard books; and in 1860 he was appointed art editor of the _Illustrated London News_, a post which he held for thirty years. He wrote a history of the rise and progress of illustrated journalism. He died in December 1903.

JACKSON, THOMAS (1579-1640), president of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and dean of Peterborough, was born at Witton-le-Wear, Durham, and educated at Oxford. He became a probationer fellow of Corpus in 1606, and was soon afterwards elected vice-president. In 1623 he was presented to the living of St Nicholas, Newcastle, and about 1625 to the living of Winston, Durham. Five years later he was appointed president of Corpus, and in 1632 the king presented him to the living of Witney, Oxfordshire. He was made a prebendary of Winchester in 1635, and was dean of Peterborough in 1635-1639. Although originally a Calvinist, he became in later life an Arminian.

His chief work was a series of commentaries on the Apostles' Creed,
the first complete edition being entitled _The Works of Thomas
Jackson, D.D._ (London, 1673). The commentaries were, however,
originally published in 1613-1657, as twelve books with different
titles, the first being _The Eternal Truth of Scriptures_ (London,
1613).

JACKSON, THOMAS JONATHAN (1824-1863), known as "Stonewall Jackson," American general, was born at Clarksburg, Virginia (now West Virginia), on the 21st of January 1824, and was descended from an Ulster family. At an early age he was left a penniless orphan, and his education was acquired in a small country school until he procured, mainly by his own energy, a nomination to the Military Academy. Lack of social graces and the deficiencies of his early education impeded him at first, but "in the end 'Old Jack,' as he was always called, with his desperate earnestness, his unflinching straightforwardness, and his high sense of honour, came to be regarded with something like affection." Such qualities he displayed not less amongst the light-hearted cadets than afterwards at the head of troops in battle. After graduating he took part, as second lieutenant in the 1st U.S. Artillery, in the Mexican War. At Vera Cruz he won the rank of first lieutenant, and for gallant conduct at Contreras and Chapultepec respectively he was brevetted captain and major, a rank which he attained with less than one year's service. During his stay in the city of Mexico his thoughts were seriously directed towards religion, and, eventually entering the Presbyterian communion, he ruled every subsequent action of his life by his faith. In 1851 he applied for and obtained a professorship at the Virginia military institute, Lexington; and here, except for a short visit to Europe, he remained for ten years, teaching natural science, the theory of gunnery and battalion drill. Though he was not a good teacher, his influence both on his pupils and on those few intimate friends for whom alone he relaxed the gravity of his manner was profound, and, little as he was known to the white inhabitants of Lexington, he was revered by the slaves, to whom he showed uniform kindness, and for whose moral instruction he worked unceasingly. As to the great question at issue in 1861, Major Jackson's ruling motive was devotion to his state, and when Virginia seceded, on the 17th of April, and the Lexington cadets were ordered to Richmond, Jackson went thither in command of the corps. His intimate friend, Governor Letcher, appreciating his gifts, sent him as a colonel of infantry to Harper's Ferry, where the first collision with the Union forces was hourly expected. In June he received the command of a brigade, and in July promotion to the rank of brigadier-general. He had well employed the short time at his disposal for training his men, and on the first field of Bull Run they won for themselves and their brigadier, by their rigid steadiness at the critical moment of the battle, the historic name of "Stonewall."

After the battle of Bull Run Jackson spent some time in the further training of his brigade which, to his infinite regret, he was compelled to leave behind him when, in October, he was assigned as a major-general to command in the Shenandoah Valley. His army had to be formed out of local troops, and few modern weapons were available, but the Valley regiments retained the impress of Jackson's training till the days of Cedar Creek. Discipline was not acquired at once, however, and the first ventures of the force were not very successful. At Kernstown, indeed, Jackson was tactically defeated by the Federals under Shields (March 23, 1862). But the Stonewall brigade had been sent to its old leader in November, and by the time that the famous Valley Campaign (see SHENANDOAH VALLEY CAMPAIGNS) began, the forces under Jackson's command had acquired cohesion and power of manoeuvre. On the 8th of May 1862 was fought the combat of McDowell, won by Jackson against the leading troops of Frémont's command from West Virginia. Three weeks later the forces under Banks were being driven over the Potomac at Harper's Ferry, and Jackson was master of the Valley. Every other plan of campaign in Virginia was at once subordinated to the scheme of "trapping Jackson." But the Confederates, marching swiftly up the Valley, slipped between the converging columns of Frémont from the west and McDowell from the east, and concluded a most daring campaign by the victorious actions of Cross Keys and Port Republic (8th and 9th of June). While the forces of the North were still scattered, Jackson secretly left the Valley to take a decisive part in Lee's campaign before Richmond. In the "Seven Days" Jackson was frequently at fault, but his driving energy bore no small part in securing the defeat of McClellan's advance on Richmond. Here he passed for the first time under the direct orders of Robert Lee, and the rest of his career was spent in command of the II. corps of the Army of Northern Virginia. As Lee's chief and most trusted subordinate he was throughout charged with the execution of the more delicate and difficult operations of his commander's hazardous strategy. After his victory over Banks at Cedar Mountain, near Culpeper, Virginia, Jackson led the daring march round the flank of General Pope's army, which against all theoretical rules ended in the great victory of second Bull Run. In the Maryland campaign Lieut.-General Jackson was again detached from the main army. Eleven thousand Federals, surrounded in Harper's Ferry, were forced to surrender, and Jackson rejoined Lee just in time to oppose McClellan's advance. At the Antietam his corps bore the brunt of the battle, which was one of the most stubborn of modern warfare. At Fredericksburg his wing of Lee's line of battle was heavily engaged, and his last battle, before Chancellorsville, in the thickets of the Wilderness, was his greatest triumph. By one of his swift and secret flank marches he placed his corps on the flank of the enemy, and on the 2nd of May flung them against the Federal XI. corps, which was utterly routed. At the close of a day of victory he was reconnoitring the hostile positions when suddenly the Confederate outposts opened fire upon his staff, whom they mistook in the dark and tangled forest for Federal cavalry. Jackson fell wounded, and on the 10th of May he died at Guinea's station. He was buried, according to his own wish, at Lexington, where a statue and a memorial hall commemorate his connexion with the place; and on the spot where he was mortally wounded stands a plain granite pillar. The first contribution towards the bronze statue at Richmond was made by the negro Baptist congregation for which Jackson had laboured so earnestly in his Lexington years. He was twice married, first to Eleanor (d. 1854), daughter of George Junkin, president of Washington College, Virginia, and secondly in 1857 to Mary Anna Morrison, daughter of a North Carolina clergyman.

That Jackson's death, at a critical moment of the fortunes of the Confederacy, was an irreparable loss was disputed by no one. Lee said that he had lost his right arm, and, good soldiers as were the other generals, not one amongst them was comparable to Jackson, whose name was dreaded in the North like that of Lee himself. His military character was the enlargement of his personal character--"desperate earnestness, unflinching straightforwardness," and absolute, almost fatalist, trust in the guidance of providence. At the head of his troops, who idolized him, he was a Cromwell, adding to the zeal of a fanatic and the energy of the born leader the special military skill and trained soldierly spirit which the English commander had to gain by experience. His Christianity was conspicuous, even amongst deeply religious men like Lee and Stuart, and penetrated every part of his character and conduct.

See lives by R. L. Dabney (New York, 1883), J. E. Cooke (New York,
1866), M. A. Jackson (General Jackson's widow) (New York, 1892); and
especially G. F. R. Henderson, _Stonewall Jackson_ (London, 1898), and
H. A. White, _Stonewall Jackson_ (Philadelphia, 1909).

JACKSON, WILLIAM (1730-1803), English musician, was born at Exeter on the 29th of May 1730. His father, a grocer, bestowed a liberal education upon him, but, on account of the lad's strong predilection for music, was induced to place him under the care of John Silvester, the organist of Exeter Cathedral, with whom he remained about two years. In 1748 he went to London, and studied under John Travers, organist of the king's chapel. Returning to Exeter, he settled there as a teacher and composer, and in 1777 was appointed subchanter, organist, lay-vicar and master of the choristers of the cathedral. In 1755 he published his first work, _Twelve Songs_, which became at once highly popular. His next publication, _Six Sonatas for the Harpsichord_, was a failure. His third work, _Six Elegies for three voices, preceded by an Invocation, with an Accompaniment_, placed him among the first composers of his day. His fourth work was another set of _Twelve Songs_, now very scarce; and his fifth work was again a set of _Twelve Songs_, all of which are now forgotten. He next published _Twelve Hymns_, with some good remarks upon that style of composition, although his precepts were better than his practice. A set of _Twelve Songs_ followed, containing some good compositions. Next came an _Ode to Fancy_, the words by Dr Warton. _Twelve Canzonets for two voices_ formed his ninth work; and one of them--"Time has not thinned my Flowing Hair"--long held a place at public and private concerts. His tenth work was _Eight Sonatas for the Harpsichord_, some of which were novel and pleasing. He composed three dramatic pieces,--_Lycidas_ (1767), _The Lord of the Manor_, to General Burgoyne's words (1780), and _The Metamorphoses_, a comic opera produced at Drury Lane in 1783, which did not succeed. In the second of these dramatic works, two airs--"Encompassed in an Angel's Form" and "When first this Humble Roof I knew"--were great favourites. His church music was published after his death by James Paddon (1820); most of it is poor, but "Jackson in F" was for many years popular. In 1782 he published _Thirty Letters on Various Subjects_, in which he severely attacked canons, and described William Bird's _Non nobis Domine_ as containing passages not to be endured. But his anger and contempt were most strongly expressed against catches of all kinds, which he denounced as barbarous. In 1791 he put forth a pamphlet, _Observations on the Present State of Music in London_, in which he found fault with everything and everybody. He published in 1798 _The Four Ages, together with Essays on Various Subjects_,--a work which gives a favourable idea of his character and of his literary acquirements. Jackson also cultivated a taste for landscape painting, and imitated, not unsuccessfully, the style of his friend Gainsborough. He died on the 5th of July 1803.

JACKSON, a city and the county-seat of Jackson county, Michigan, U.S.A., on both sides of the Grand River, 76 m. W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890), 20,798; (1900), 25,180, of whom 3843 were foreign-born (1004 German, 941 English Canadian); (1910 census) 31,433. It is served by the Michigan Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Trunk and the Cincinnati Northern railways, and by inter-urban electric lines. It is the seat of the state prison (established 1839). Coal is mined in the vicinity; the city has a large trade with the surrounding agricultural district (whose distinctive product is beans); the Michigan Central railway has car and machine shops here; and the city has many manufacturing establishments. The total factory product in 1904 was valued at $8,348,125, an increase of 24.4% over that of 1900. The municipality owns and operates its water-works. The place was formerly a favourite camping ground of the Indians, and was settled by whites in 1829. In 1830 it was laid out as a town, selected for the county-seat, and named Jacksonburg in honour of Andrew Jackson; the present name was adopted in 1838. Jackson was incorporated as a village in 1843, and in 1857 was chartered as a city. It was at a convention held at Jackson on the 6th of July 1854 that the Republican party was first organized and so named by a representative state body.

JACKSON, a city and the county-seat of Hinds county, Mississippi, U.S.A., and the capital of the state, on the W. bank of the Pearl River, about 40 m. E. of Vicksburg and 185 m. N. of New Orleans, Louisiana. Pop. (1890), 5920; (1900), 7816, of whom 4447 were negroes. According to the Federal census taken in 1910 the population had increased to 21,262. Jackson is served by the Illinois Central, the Alabama & Vicksburg, the Gulf & Ship Island, New Orleans Great Northern, and the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley railways, and during the winter by small freight and passenger steamboats on the Pearl River. In Jackson is the state library, with more than 80,000 volumes. The new state capitol was finished in 1903. The old state capitol, dating from 1839, is of considerable interest; in it were held the secession convention (1861), the "Black and Tan Convention" (1868), and the constitutional convention of 1890, and in it Jefferson Davis made his last speech (1884). Jackson is the seat of Millsaps College, chartered in 1890 and opened in 1892 (under the control of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South), and having, in 1907-1908, 12 instructors and 297 students; of Belhaven College (non-sectarian, 1894), for girls; and of Jackson College (founded in 1877 at Natchez by the American Baptist Home Mission Society; in 1883 removed to Jackson), for negroes, which had 356 students in 1907-1908. The city is a market for cotton and farm products, and has a number of manufactories. In 1821 the site was designated as the seat of the state government, and early in the following year the town, named in honour of Andrew Jackson, was laid out. The legislature first met here in December 1822. It was not until 1840 that it was chartered as a city. During the Civil War Jackson was in the theatre of active campaigning. On the 14th of May 1863 Johnston who then held the city, was attacked on both sides by Sherman and McPherson with two corps of Grant's army, which, after a sharp engagement, drove the Confederates from the town. After the fall of Vicksburg Johnston concentrated his forces at Jackson, which had been evacuated by the Federal troops, and prepared to make a stand behind the intrenchments. On the 9th of July Sherman began an investment of the place, and during the succeeding week a sharp bombardment was carried on. In the night of the 16th Johnston, taking advantage of a lull in the firing, withdrew suddenly from the city. Sherman's army entered on the 17th and remained five days, burning a considerable part of the city and ravaging the surrounding country.

JACKSON, a city and the county-seat of Madison county, Tennessee, U.S.A., situated on the Forked Deer river, about 85 m. N.E. of Memphis. Pop. (1890), 10,039; (1900), 14,511, of whom 6108 were negroes; (1910 census), 15,779. It is served by the Mobile & Ohio, the Nashville, Chattanooga & St Louis and the Illinois Central railways. The state supreme court holds its sessions here for the western district of Tennessee. The city is the seat of Union University (co-educational), chartered in 1875 as Southwestern Baptist University, and conducted under that name at Jackson until 1907, when the present name was adopted. In 1907-1908 the university had 17 instructors and 280 students. At Jackson, also, are St Mary's Academy (Roman Catholic); the Memphis Conference Female Institute (Methodist Episcopal, South, 1843), and Lane College (for negroes), under the control of the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church. Jackson is an important cotton market, and is a shipping point for the farm products and fruits of the surrounding country. It has also numerous manufactures and railway shops. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $2,317,715. The municipality owns and operates the electric-lighting plant and the water-works. There is in the city an electro-chalybeate well with therapeutic properties. Jackson was settled about 1820, incorporated as a town in 1823, chartered as a city in 1854, and in 1907 received a new charter by which the sale of intoxicating liquors is forever prohibited. After General Grant's advance into Tennessee in 1862 Jackson was fortified and became an important base of operations for the Federal army, Grant himself establishing his headquarters here in October.

JACKSONVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Duval county, Florida, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, on the left bank of the St John's River, 14 m. from the Atlantic Ocean as the crow flies and about 27 m. by water. Pop. (1890), 17,201; (1900), 28,429, of whom 16,236 were negroes and 1166 foreign-born; (1910 census) 57,699; the city being the largest in the state. It is served by the Southern, the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line, the Georgia Southern & Florida and the Florida East Coast railways, and by several steamship lines.[1] It is the largest railway centre in the state, and is popularly known as the Gate City of Florida. In appearance Jacksonville is very attractive. It has many handsome buildings, and its residential streets are shaded with live-oaks, water oaks and bitter-orange trees. Jacksonville is the seat of two schools for negroes, the Florida Baptist Academy and Cookman Institute (1872; Methodist Episcopal). Many winter visitors are annually attracted by the excellent climate, the mean temperature for the winter months being about 55° F. Among the places of interest in the vicinity is the large Florida ostrich farm. There are numerous municipal and other parks. The city owns and operates its electric-lighting plant and its water-works system. The capital invested in manufacturing increased from $1,857,844 in 1900 to $4,837,281 in 1905, or 160.4%, and the value of the factory product rose from $1,798,607 in 1900 to $5,340,264 in 1905, or 196.9%. Jacksonville is the most important distributing centre in Florida, and is a port of entry. In 1909 its foreign imports were valued at $513,439; its foreign exports at $2,507,373.

The site of Jacksonville was called Cow Ford (a version of the Indian name, Wacca Pilatka), from the excellent ford of the St John's River, over which went the King's Road, a highway built by the English from St Augustine to the Georgia line. The first settlement was made in 1816. In 1822 a town was laid out here and was named in honour of General Andrew Jackson; in 1833 Jacksonville was incorporated. During the Civil War the city was thrice occupied by Federal troops. In 1888 there was an epidemic of yellow fever. On the 3rd of May 1901 a fire destroyed nearly 150 blocks of buildings, constituting nearly the whole of the business part of the city, the total loss being more than $15,000,000; but within two years new buildings greater in number than those destroyed were constructed, and up to December 1909 about 9000 building permits had been granted.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Shoals in the river and sand rock at its mouth long prevented the
development of an extensive water trade, but in 1896 the United
States Government made an appropriation (supplemented in 1902, 1903
and 1904) for deepening, for a width of 300 ft., the channel
connecting the city and the ocean to 24 ft., and on the bar 27 ft.
(mean low water), and by 1909 the work had been completed; further
dredging to a 24 ft. depth between the navigable channel and pierhead
lines was authorized in 1907 and completed by 1910.

JACKSONVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Morgan county, Illinois, U.S.A., on Mauvaiseterre Creek, about 33 m. W. of Springfield. Pop. (1890), 12,935; (1900), 15,078, of whom 1497 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 15,326. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & Alton, the Chicago, Peoria & St Louis and the Wabash railways. It is the seat of several educational and philanthropic institutions. Illinois College (Presbyterian), founded in 1829 through the efforts of the Rev. John Millot Ellis (1793-1855), a missionary of the American Home Missionary Society and of the so-called Yale Band (seven Yale graduates devoted to higher education in the Middle West), is one of the oldest colleges in the Central States of the United States. The Jacksonville Female Academy (1830) and the Illinois Conservatory of Music (1871) were absorbed in 1903 by Illinois College, which then became co-educational. The college embraces, besides the collegiate department, Whipple Academy (a preparatory department), the Illinois Conservatory of Music and a School of Art, and in 1908-1909 had 21 instructors and 173 students. The Rev. Edward Beecher was the first president of the college (from 1830 to 1844), and among its prominent graduates have been Richard Yates, jun., the Rev. Thomas K. Beecher, Newton Bateman (1822-1897), superintendent of public instruction of Illinois from 1865 to 1875 and president of Knox College in 1875-1893, Bishop Theodore N. Morrison (b. 1850), Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Iowa after 1898, and William J. Bryan. The Illinois Woman's College (Methodist Episcopal; chartered in 1847 as the Illinois Conference Female Academy) received its present name in 1899. The State Central Hospital for the Insane (opened in 1851), the State School for the deaf (established in 1839, opened in 1845, and the first charitable institution of the state) and the State School for the Blind (1849) are also in Jacksonville. Morgan Lake and Duncan Park are pleasure resorts. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,981,582, an increase of 17.7% since 1900. Jacksonville was laid out in 1825 as the county-seat of Morgan county, was named probably in honour of Andrew Jackson, and was incorporated as a town in 1840, chartered as a city in 1867, and re-chartered in 1887. The majority of the early settlers came from the southern and border states, principally from Missouri and Kentucky; but subsequently there was a large immigration of New England and Eastern people, and these elements were stronger in the population of Jacksonville than in any other city of southern Illinois. The city was a station of the "Underground Railroad."

JACOB (Hebrew _ya'aqob_, derived, according to Gen. xxv. 26, xxvii. 36, from a root meaning "to seize the heel" or "supplant"), son of Isaac and Rebekah in the Biblical narrative, and the father of the twelve tribes of Israel. Jacob and his twin brother Esau are the eponyms of the Israelites and Edomites. It was said of them that they would be two nations, and that the elder would serve the younger. Esau was born first, but lost his superiority by relinquishing his birthright, and Jacob by an act of deceit gained the paternal blessing intended for Esau (Gen. xxvii., J and E).[1] The popular view regarding Israel and Edom is expressed when the story makes Jacob a tent-dweller, and Esau a hunter, a man of the field. But whilst Esau married among the Canaanite "daughters of the land" (P in xxvi. 34; xxviii. 8 seq.), Jacob was sent, or (according to a variant tradition) fled from Beer-sheba, to take a wife from among his Syrian kinsfolk at Haran. On the way he received a revelation at Bethel ("house of God") promising to him and to his descendants the whole extent of the land. The beautiful story of Jacob's fortunes at Haran is among the best examples of Hebrew narrative: how he served seven years for Rachel, "and they seemed a few days for the love he had to her," and was tricked by receiving the elder sister Leah, and how he served yet another seven years, and at last won his love. The patriarch's increasing wealth caused him to incur the jealousy of his father-in-law, Laban, and he was forced to flee in secret with his family. They were overtaken at Gilead,[2] whose name (interpreted "heap of witness") is explained by the covenant into which Jacob and Laban entered (xxxi. 47 sqq.). Passing Mahanaim ("camps"), where he saw the camps of God, Jacob sent to Esau with friendly overtures. At the Jabbok he wrestled with a divine being and prevailed (cf. Hos. xii. 3 sqq.), hence he called the place Peniel or Penuel ("the face of God"), and received the new name Israel. He then effected an unexpected reconciliation with Esau, passed to Succoth, where he built "booths" for his cattle (hence its name), and reached Shechem. Here he purchased ground from the clan Hamor (cf. Judg. ix. 28), and erected an altar to "God (El) the God of Israel." This was the scene of the rape of Dinah and of the attack of Simeon and Levi which led to their ruin (xxxiv.; see DAN, LEVITES, SIMEON). Thence Jacob went down south to Bethel, where he received a divine revelation (P), similar to that recorded by the earlier narrator (J), and was called Israel (xxxv. 9-13, 15). Here Deborah, Rebekah's nurse, died, on the way to Ephrath. Rachel died in giving birth to Benjamin (q.v.), and further south Reuben was guilty of a grave offence (cf. xlix. 4). According to P, Jacob came to Hebron, and it was at this juncture that Jacob and Esau separated (a second time) and the latter removed to Mount Seir (xxxvi. 6 sqq.; cf. the parallel in xiii. 5 sqq.). Compelled by circumstances, described with much fullness and vividness, Jacob ultimately migrated to Egypt, receiving on the way the promise that God would make of him a great nation, which should come again out of Egypt (see JOSEPH). After an interview with the Pharaoh (recorded only by P, xlvii. 5-11), he dwelt with his sons in the land of Goshen, and as his death drew near pronounced a formal benediction upon the two sons of Joseph (Manasseh and Ephraim), intentionally exalting the younger. Then he summoned all the "sons" to gather round his bed, and told them "what shall befall in the latter days" (xlix.). He died at the age of 147 (so P), and permission was given to carry his body to Canaan to be buried.

These narratives are full of much valuable evidence regarding marriage customs, pastoral life and duties, popular beliefs and traditions, and are evidently typical of what was currently retailed. Their historical value has been variously estimated. The _name_ existed long before the traditional date of Jacob, and the Egyptian phonetic equivalent of Jacob-el (cf. Isra-el, Ishma-el) appears to be the name of a district of central Palestine (or possibly east of Jordon) about 1500 B.C. But the stories in their present form are very much later. The close relation between Jacob and Aramaeans confirms the view that some of the tribes of Israel were partly of Aramaean origin; his entrance into Palestine from beyond the Jordan is parallel to Joshua's invasion at the head of the Israelites; and his previous journey from the south finds independent support in traditions of another distinct movement from this quarter. Consequently, it would appear that these extremely elevated and richly developed narratives of Jacob-Israel embody, among a number of other features, a recollection of two distinct traditions of migration which became fused among the Israelites. See further GENESIS; JEWS. (S. A. C.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] For the symbols J, E, P, as regards the sources of the book of
Genesis, see GENESIS; BIBLE: _Old Test. Criticism._

[2] Since it is some 300 m. from Haran to Gilead it is probable that
Laban's home, only seven days' journey distant, was nearer Gilead
than the current tradition allows (Gen. xxxi. 22 sqq.).

JACOB, JOHN (1812-1858), Indian soldier and administrator, was born on the 11th of January 1812, educated at Addiscombe, and entered the Bombay artillery in 1828. He served in the first Afghan War under Sir John Keane, and afterwards led his regiment with distinction at the battles of Meeanee, Shahdadpur, and Umarkot; but it is as commandant of the Sind Horse and political superintendent of Upper Sind that he was chiefly famous. He was the pacificator of the Sind frontier, reducing the tribes to quietude as much by his commanding personality as by his ubiquitous military measures. In 1853 he foretold the Indian Mutiny, saying: "There is more danger to our Indian empire from the state of the Bengal army, from the feeling which there exists between the native and the European, and thence, spreads throughout the length and breadth of the land, than from all other causes combined. Let government look to this; it is a serious and most important truth"; but he was only rebuked by Lord Dalhousie for his pains. He was a friend of Sir Charles Napier and Sir James Outram, and resembled them in his outspoken criticisms and independence of authority. He died at the early age of 46 of brain fever, brought on by excessive heat and overwork. The town of Jacobabad, which has the reputation of being the hottest place in India, is named after him.

See A. I. Shand, _General John Jacob_ (1900).

JACOB BEN ASHER (1280-1340), codifier of Jewish law, was born in Germany and died in Toledo. A son of Asher ben Yehiel (q.v.), Jacob helped to re-introduce the older elaborate method of legal casuistry which had been overthrown by Maimonides (q.v.). The Asheri family suffered great privations but remained faithful in their devotion to the Talmud. Jacob ben Asher is known as the Ba'al ha-turim (literally "Master of the Rows") from his chief work, the four _Turim_ or Rows (the title is derived from the four _Turim_ or rows of jewels in the High Priest's breastplate). In this work Jacob ben Asher codified Rabbinic law on ethics and ritual, and it remained a standard work of reference until it was edited with a commentary by Joseph Qaro, who afterwards simplified the code into the more popular _Shulhan Aruch_. Jacob also wrote two commentaries on the Pentateuch.

See Graetz, _History of the Jews_ (Eng. trans.), vol. iv. ch. iii.;
Weiss, _Dor dor we-dorashav_, v. 118-123. (I. A.)

JACOB OF EDESSA, who ranks with Barhebraeus as the most distinguished for scholarship among Syriac writers,[1] was born at 'En-debha in the province of Antioch, probably about A.D. 640. From the trustworthy account of his life by Barhebraeus (_Chron. Eccles._ i. 289) we learn that he studied first at the famous monastery of Ken-neshre (on the left bank of the Euphrates, opposite Jerabis) and afterwards at Alexandria, which had of course been for some time in the hands of the Moslems.[2] On his return he was appointed bishop of Edessa by his friend Athanasius II. (of Balad), probably in 684,[3] but held this office only for three or four years, as the clergy withstood his strict enforcement of the Church canons and he was not supported by Julian, the successor of Athanasius in the patriarchate. Accordingly, having in anger publicly burnt a copy of the canons in front of Julian's residence, Jacob retired to the monastery of Kaisum near Samosata, and from there to the monastery of Eusebhona,[4] where for eleven years he taught the Psalms and the reading of the Scriptures in Greek. But towards the close of this period he again encountered opposition, this time from monks "who hated the Greeks," and so proceeded to the great convent of Tell 'Adda or Teleda (? modern Telladi, N.W. of Aleppo), where he spent nine years in revising and emending the Peshitta version of the Old Testament by the help of the various Greek versions. He was finally recalled to the bishopric of Edessa in 708, but died four months later, on the 5th of June.

In doctrine Jacob was undoubtedly Monophysite.[5] Of the very large
number of his works, which are mostly in prose, not many have as yet
been published, but much information may be gathered from Assemani's
_Bibliotheca Orientalis_ and Wright's _Catalogue of Syriac MSS. in the
British Museum_. (1) Of the Syriac Old Testament Jacob produced what
Wright calls "a curious eclectic or patchwork text," of which five
volumes survive in Europe (Wright's _Catalogue_ 38). It was "the last
attempt at a revision of the Old Testament in the Monophysite Church."
Jacob was also the chief founder of the Syriac Massorah among the
Monophysites, which produced such MSS. as the one (Vat. cliii.)
described by Wiseman in _Horae syriacae_, part iii. (2) Jacob was the
author both of commentaries and of scholia on the sacred books; of
these specimens are given by Assemani and Wright. They were largely
quoted by later commentators, who often refer to Jacob as "the
interpreter of the Scriptures." With the commentaries may be mentioned
his _Hexahemeron_, or treatise on the six days of creation, MSS. of
which exist at Leiden and at Lyons. It was his latest work, and being
left incomplete was finished by his friend George the bishop of the
Arabs. Among apocrypha, the _History of the Rechabites_ composed by
Zosimus was translated from Greek into Syriac by Jacob (Wright's
_Catalogue_ 1128, and Nau in _Revue sémitique_ vi. 263, vii. 54, 136).
(3) Mention has been made above of Jacob's zeal on behalf of
ecclesiastical canons. In his letter to the priest Addai we possess a
collection of canons from his pen, given in the form of answers to
Addai's questions. These were edited by Lagarde in _Reliquiae juris
eccl. syriace_, pp. 117 sqq. and Lamy in _Dissert._ pp. 98 sqq.
Additional canons were given in Wright's _Notulae syriacae_. The whole
have been translated and expounded by Kayser, _Die Canones Jacobs von
Edessa_ (Leipzig, 1886). (4) Jacob made many contributions to Syriac
liturgy, both original and translated (Wright, _Short Hist._ p. 145
seq.). (5) To philosophical literature his chief original contribution
was his _Enchiridion_, a tract on philosophical terms (Wright's
_Catalogue_ 984). The translations of works of Aristotle which have
been attributed to him are probably by other hands (Wright, _Short
Hist._ p. 149; Duval, _Littérature syriaque_, pp. 255, 258). The
treatise _De causa omnium causarum_, which was the work of a bishop of
Edessa, was formerly attributed to Jacob; but the publication of the
whole by Kayser[6] has made it clear that the treatise is of much
later date. (6) An important historical work by Jacob--a _Chronicle_
in continuation of that of Eusebius--has unfortunately perished all
except a few leaves. Of these a full account is given in Wright's
_Catalogue_ 1062. (7) Jacob's fame among his countrymen rests most of
all on his labours as a grammarian. In his letter to George, bishop of
Serugh, on Syriac orthography (published by Phillips in London 1869,
and by Martin in Paris the same year) he sets forth the importance of
fidelity by scribes in the copying of minutiae of spelling. In his
grammar[7] (of which only some fragments remain), while expressing his
sense of the disadvantage under which Syriac labours through its
alphabet containing only consonants, he declined to introduce a
general system of vowel-signs, lest the change should contribute to
the neglect and loss of the older books written without vowels. At the
same time he invented, by adaptation of the Greek vowels, such a
system of signs as might serve for purposes of grammatical exposition,
and elaborated the rules by which certain consonants serve to indicate
vowels. He also systematized and extended the use of diacritical
points. It is still a moot question how far Jacob is to be regarded as
the author of the five vowel-signs derived from Greek which soon after
came into use among the Jacobites.[8] In any case he made the most
important contribution to Syriac grammar down to the time of
Barhebraeus. (8) As a translator Jacob's greatest achievement was his
Syriac version of the _Homiliae cathedrales_ of Severus, the
monophysite patriarch of Antioch (512-518, 535-536). This important
collection is now in part known to us by E. W. Brooks's edition and
translation of the 6th book of selected epistles of Severus, according
to another Syriac version made by Athanasius of Nisibis in 669. (9) A
large number of letters by Jacob to various correspondents have been
found in various MSS. Besides those on the canon law to Addai, and on
grammar to George of Serugh referred to above, there are others
dealing with doctrine, liturgy, &c. A few are in verse.

Jacob impresses the modern reader mainly as an _educator_ of his
countrymen, and particularly of the clergy. His writings lack the
fervid rhetoric and graceful style of such authors as Isaac of
Antioch, Jacob of Serugh and Philoxenus of Mabbog. But judged by the
standard of his time he shows the qualities of a truly scientific
theologian and scholar. (N. M.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] "In the literature of his country Jacob holds much the same place
as Jerome among the Latin fathers" (Wright, _Short Hist. of Syr.
Lit._ p. 143).

[2] Merx infers that the fact of Jacob's going to Alexandria as a
student tells against the view that the Arabs burned the great
library (_Hist. artis gramm. apud Syros_, p. 35). On this question
cf. Krehl in _Alli del iv. congr. internaz. degli Orientalisti_
(Florence, 1880), pp. 433 sqq.

[3] Pseudo-Dionysius of Tell-Mahre says 677; but Athanasius was
patriarch only 684-687.

[4] According to Merx (_op. cit._ p. 43) this may be the celebrated
convent of Eusebius near Apamea.

[5] Assemani tried hard to prove him orthodox (_B.O._ i. 470 sqq.)
but changed his opinion on reading his biography by Barhebraeus (ib.
ii. 337). See especially Lamy, _Dissert. de Syrorum fide_, pp. 206
sqq.

[6] Text at Leipzig 1889 (_Das Buch der Erkenntniss der Wahrheit oder
der Ursache aller Ursachen_): translation (posthumously) at
Strassburg 1893.

[7] The surviving fragments were published by Wright (London, 1871)
and by Merx, _op. cit._ p. 73 sqq. of Syriac text.

[8] An affirmative answer is given by Wiseman (_Horae syr._ pp.
181-8) and Wright (_Catalogue_ 1168; _Fragm. of the Syriac Grammar of
Jacob of Edessa_, preface; Short Hist. p. 151 seq.). But Martin (in
_Jour. As._ May-June 1869, pp. 456 sqq.), Duval (_Grammaire
syriaque_, p. 71) and Merx (_op. cit._ p. 50) are of the opposite
opinion. The date of the introduction of the seven Nestorian
vowel-signs is also uncertain.

JACOB OF JÜTERBOGK (c. 1381-1465), monk and theologian. Benedict Stolzenhagen, known in religion as Jacob, was born at Jüterbogk in Brandenburg of poor peasant stock. He became a Cistercian at the monastery of Paradiz in Poland, and was sent by the abbot to the university of Cracow, where he became master in philosophy and doctor of theology. He returned to his monastery, of which he became abbot. In 1441, however, discontented with the absence of strict discipline in his community, he obtained the leave of the papal legate at the council of Basel to transfer himself to the Carthusians, entering the monastery of Salvatorberg near Erfurt, of which he became prior. He lectured on theology at the university of Erfurt, of which he was rector in 1455. He died on the 30th of April 1465.

Jacob's main preoccupation was the reform of monastic life, the grave
disorders of which he deplored, and to this end he wrote his
_Petitiones religiosorum pro reformatione sui status_. Another work,
_De negligentia praelatorum_, was directed against the neglect of
their duties by the higher clergy, and he addressed a petition for the
reform of the church (_Advisamentum pro reformatione ecclesiae_) to
Pope Nicholas V. This having no effect, he issued the most outspoken
of his works, _De Septem ecclesiae statibus_, in which he reviewed the
work of the reforming councils of his time, and, without touching the
question of doctrine, championed a drastic reform of life and practice
of the church on the lines laid down at Constance and Basel.

His principal works are collected in Walch, _Monimenta med. aev._ i.
and ii. (1757, 1771), and Engelbert Klüpfel, _Vetus bibliotheca
eccles_. (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1780).

JACOB OF SERUGH, one of the best Syriac authors, named by one of his biographers "the flute of the Holy Spirit and the harp of the believing church," was born in 451 at Kurtam, a village on the Euphrates to the west of Harran, and was probably educated at Edessa. At an early age he attracted the attention of his countrymen by his piety and his literary gifts, and entered on the composition of the long series of metrical homilies on religious themes which formed the great work of his life. Having been ordained to the priesthood, he became periodeutes or episcopal visitor of Haura, in Serugh, not far from his birthplace. His tenure of this office extended over a time of great trouble to the Christian population of Mesopotamia, due to the fierce war carried on by Kavadh II. of Persia within the Roman borders. When on the 10th of January 503 Amid was captured by the Persians after a three months' siege and all its citizens put to the sword or carried captive, a panic seized the whole district, and the Christian inhabitants of many neighbouring cities planned to leave their homes and flee to the west of the Euphrates. They were recalled to a more courageous frame of mind by the letters of Jacob.[1] In 519, at the age of 68, Jacob was made bishop of Batnan, another town in the district of Serugh, but only lived till November 521.

From the various extant accounts of Jacob's life and from the number
of his known works, we gather that his literary activity was
unceasing. According to Barhebraeus (_Chron. Eccles._ i. 191) he
employed 70 amanuenses and wrote in all 760 metrical homilies, besides
expositions, letters and hymns of different sorts. Of his merits as a
writer and poet we are now well able to judge from P. Bedjan's
excellent edition of selected metrical homilies, of which four volumes
have already appeared (Paris 1905-1908), containing 146 pieces.[2]
They are written throughout in dodecasyllabic metre, and those
published deal mainly with biblical themes, though there are also
poems on such subjects as the deaths of Christian martyrs, the fall of
the idols, the council of Nicaea, &c.[3] Of Jacob's prose works, which
are not nearly so numerous, the most interesting are his letters,
which throw light upon some of the events of his time and reveal his
attachment to the Monophysite doctrine which was then struggling for
supremacy in the Syrian churches, and particularly at Edessa, over the
opposite teaching of Nestorius.[4] (N. M.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] See the contemporary _Chronicle_ called that of Joshua the
Stylite, chap. 54.

[2] Assemani (_Bibl. Orient._ i. 305-339) enumerates 231 which he had
seen in MSS.

[3] Some other historical poems M. Bedjan has not seen fit to
publish, on account of their unreliable and legendary character (vol.
i. p. ix. of preface).

[4] A full list of the older editions of works by Jacob is given by
Wright in _Short History of Syriac Literature_, pp. 68-72.

JACOBA, or JACQUELINE (1401-1436), countess of Holland, was the only daughter and heiress of William, duke of Bavaria and count of Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut. She was married as a child to John, duke of Touraine, second son of Charles VI., king of France, who on the death of his elder brother Louis became dauphin. John of Touraine died in April 1417, and two months afterwards Jacoba lost her father. Acknowledged as sovereign in Holland and Zeeland, Jacoba was opposed by her uncle John of Bavaria, bishop of Liége. She had the support of the Hook faction in Holland. Meanwhile she had been married in 1418 by her uncle, John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, to her cousin John IV., duke of Brabant. By the mediation of John the Fearless, a treaty of partition was concluded in 1419 between Jacoba and John of Bavaria; but it was merely a truce, and the contest between uncle and niece soon began again and continued with varying success. In 1420 Jacoba fled to England; and there, declaring that her marriage with John of Brabant was illegal, she contracted a marriage with Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, in 1422. Two years later Jacoba, with Humphrey, invaded Holland, where she was now opposed by her former husband, John of Brabant, John of Bavaria having died of poison. In 1425 Humphrey deserted his wife, who found herself obliged to seek refuge with her cousin, Philip V., duke of Burgundy, to whom she had to submit, and she was imprisoned in the castle of Ghent. John of Brabant now mortgaged the two counties of Holland and Zeeland to Philip, who assumed their protectorate. Jacoba, however, escaped from prison in disguise, and for three years struggled gallantly to maintain herself in Holland against the united efforts of Philip of Burgundy and John of Brabant, and met at first with success. The death of the weak John of Brabant (April 1427) freed the countess from her quondam husband; but nevertheless the pope pronounced Jacoba's marriage with Humphrey illegal, and Philip, putting out his full strength, broke down all opposition. By a treaty, made in July 1428, Jacoba was left nominally countess, but Philip was to administer the government of Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut, and was declared heir in case Jacoba should die without children. Two years later Philip mortgaged Holland and Zeeland to the Borselen family, of which Francis, lord of Borselen, was the head. Jacoba now made her last effort. In 1432 she secretly married Francis of Borselen, and endeavoured to foment a rising in Holland against the Burgundian rule. Philip invaded the country, however, and threw Borselen into prison. Only on condition that Jacoba abdicated her three countships in his favour would he allow her liberty and recognize her marriage with Borselen. She submitted in April 1432, retained her title of duchess in Bavaria, and lived on her husband's estates in retirement. She died on the 9th of October 1436, leaving no children.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--F. von Löher, _Jakobäa von Bayern und ihre Zeit_ (2
vols., Nördlingen, 1862-1869); W. J. F. Nuyens, _Jacoba van Beieren en
de eerste helft der XV. eeuw_ (Haarlem, 1873); A. von Overstraten,
_Jacoba van Beieren_ (Amsterdam, 1790). (G. E.)

JACOBABAD, a town of British India, the administrative headquarters of the Upper Sind frontier district in Bombay; with a station on the Quetta branch of the North-Western railway, 37 m. from the junction at Ruk, on the main line. Pop. (1901), 10,787. It is famous as having consistently the highest temperature in India. During the month of June the thermometer ranges between 120° and 127° F. The town was founded on the site of the village of Khangarh in 1847 by General John Jacob, for many years commandant of the Sind Horse, who died here in 1858. It has cantonments for a cavalry regiment, with accommodation for caravans from Central Asia. It is watered by two canals. An annual horse show is held in January.

JACOBEAN STYLE, the name given to the second phase of the early Renaissance architecture in England, following the Elizabethan style. Although the term is generally employed of the style which prevailed in England during the first quarter of the 17th century, its peculiar decadent detail will be found nearly twenty years earlier at Wollaton Hall, Nottinghamshire, and in Oxford and Cambridge examples exist up to 1660, notwithstanding the introduction of the purer Italian style by Inigo Jones in 1619 at Whitehall. Already during Queen Elizabeth's reign reproductions of the classic orders had found their way into English architecture, based frequently upon John Shute's _The First and Chief Grounds of Architecture_, published in 1563, with two other editions in 1579 and 1584. In 1577, three years before the commencement of Wollaton Hall, a copybook of the orders was brought out in Antwerp by Jan Vredeman de Vries. Though nominally based on the description of the orders by Vitruvius, the author indulged freely not only in his rendering of them, but in suggestions of his own, showing how the orders might be employed in various buildings. Those suggestions were of a most decadent type, so that even the author deemed it advisable to publish a letter from a canon of the Church, stating that there was nothing in his architectural designs which was contrary to religion. It is to publications of this kind that Jacobean architecture owes the perversion of its forms and the introduction of strap work and pierced crestings, which appear for the first time at Wollaton (1580); at Bramshill, Hampshire (1607-1612), and in Holland House, Kensington (1624), it receives its fullest development. (R. P. S.)