Chapter X: Part 10

_History._--The origin of the name Java is very doubtful. It is not improbable that it was first applied either to Sumatra or to what was known of the Indian Archipelago--the insular character of the several parts not being at once recognized. Jawa Dwipa, or "land of millet," may have been the original form and have given rise both to the Jaba diu of Ptolemy and to the Je-pho-thi of Fahien, the Chinese pilgrim of the 4th-5th century. The oldest form of the name in Arabic is apparently Zábej. The first epigraphic occurrence of Jawa is in an inscription of 1343. In Marco Polo the name is the common appellation of all the Sunda islands. The Jawa of Ibn Batuta is Sumatra; Java is his Mul Jáwa (i.e. possibly "original Java"). Jåwå is the modern Javanese name (in the court speech Jawi), sometimes with Nusa, "island," or Tanah, "country," prefixed.

It is impossible to extract a rational historical narrative from the earlier _babads_ or native chronicles, and even the later are destitute of any satisfactory chronology. The first great era in the history is the ascendancy of the Hindus, and that breaks up into three periods--a period of Buddhism, a period of aggressive Sivaism, and a period of apparent compromise. Of the various Hindu states that were established in the island, that of Majapahit was the most widely dominant down to the end of the 15th century; its tributaries were many, and it even extended its sway into other parts of the archipelago. The second era of Javanese history is the invasion of Islam in the beginning of the 15th century; and the third is the establishment of European and more particularly of Dutch influence and authority in the island. About 1520 the Portuguese entered into commercial relationship with the natives, but at the close of the same century the Dutch began to establish themselves. At the time when the Dutch East India company began to fix its trading factories on the coast towns, the chief native state was Mataram, which had in the 16th century succeeded to the overlordship possessed by the house of Demak--one of the states that rose after the fall of Majapahit. The emperors of Java, as the princes of Mataram are called in the early accounts, had their capital at Kartasura, now an almost deserted place, 6 m. west of Surakarta. At first and for long the company had only forts and little fragments of territory at Jakatra (Batavia), &c.; but in 1705 it obtained definite possession of the Preanger by treaty with Mataram; and in 1745 its authority was extended over the whole north-east coast, from Cheribon to Banyuwangi. In 1755 the kingdom of Mataram was divided into the two states of Surakarta and Jokjakarta, which still retain a shadow of independence. The kingdom of Bantam was finally subjugated in 1808. By the English occupation of the island (1811-1818) the European ascendancy was rather strengthened than weakened; the great Java war (1825-1830), in which Dipå Negårå, the last Javanese prince, a clever, bold and unscrupulous leader, struggled to maintain his claim to the whole island, resulted in the complete success of the Dutch. To subdue him and his following, however, taxed all the resources of the Dutch Indian army for a period of five years, and cost it the loss of 15,000 officers and soldiers, besides millions of guilders. Nor did his great influence die with him when his adventurous career came to a close in 1855 at Macassar. Many Javanese, who dream of a restoration of their ancient empire, do not believe even yet that Dipå Negårå is dead. They are readily persuaded by fanatical hadjis that their hero will suddenly appear to drive away the Dutch and claim his rightful heritage. Several times there have been political troubles in the native states of central Java, in which Dipå Negårå's name was used, notably in 1883, when many rebellious chieftains were exiled. Similar attempts at revolt had been made before, mainly in 1865 and 1870, but none so serious perhaps as that in 1849, in which a son and a brother of Dipå Negårå were implicated, aiming to deliver and reinstate him. All such attempts proved as futile there as others in different parts of Java, especially in Bantam, where the trouble of 1850 and 1888 had a religious origin, and in the end they directly contributed to the consolidation of Dutch sway. Being the principal Dutch colony in the Malay Archipelago, Java was the first to benefit from the material change which resulted from the introduction of the Grondwet or Fundamental Law of 1848 in Holland. The main changes were of an economical character, but the political developments were also important. Since 1850 Dutch authority has steadily advanced, principally at the expense of the semi-independent sultanates in central Java, which had been allowed to remain after the capture and exile of Dipå Negårå. The power of the sultans of Jokjakarta and Surakarta has diminished; in 1863 Dutch authority was strengthened in the neighbouring island of Madura, and Bantam has lost every vestige of independence. The strengthening of the Dutch power has largely resulted from a more statesmanlike and more generous treatment of the natives, who have been educated to regard the _orang blanda_, or white man, as their protector against the native rulers. Thus, in 1866, passports for natives travelling in Java were abolished by the then governor-general, Dr Sloet van de Beele, who also introduced many reforms, reducing the _corvée_ in the government plantations to a minimum, and doing away with the monopoly of fisheries. Six years later a primary education system for the natives, and a penal code, whose liberal provisions seemed framed for Europeans, were introduced.

_Antiquities._--Ordinary traces of early human occupation are few in
Java. The native bamboo buildings speedily perish. Stone weapons are
occasionally found. But remains of the temples and monastic buildings
of the Hindu period are numerous and splendid, and are remarkable as
representing architecture which reached a high standard without the
use of mortar, supporting columns or arches. Chandis (i.e. temples,
though the word originally meant a depository for the ashes of a
saint) are not found in western Java. They exist in two great zones:
one in middle Java, one in eastern Java, each with its own
distinguishing characteristics, both architectural and religious. The
former begins in the Dyeng plateau, in the east of Banyumas, and
extends into the east of Bagelen, Kedu and the neighbouring districts
of Semarang, northern Jokjakarta, and the western corner of Surakarta.
The latter lies mainly in Surabaya, Kediri and Pasuruan. A
considerable number of ruins also exist in Probolinggo. Farther east
they grow scarce. There is none in Madura. The remains of Macham Putih
in Banyuwangi are possibly of non-Hindu origin. In the regency of
Kendal (Semarang), to the north of Kedu, the place-names show that
temples once existed.[16] Some of them are Sivaite, some Buddhist,
some astoundingly composite. None of the Buddhist buildings shows
traces of the older Himaryana form of the creed. The greatest of all
is a perfect sculptural exposition of the Mahayana doctrine. As to the
period during which these temples were erected, authorities are not
agreed. Ijzerman assigns the central Java groups to between the 8th
and the 10th centuries. The seven-storeyed vihara (monastery)
mentioned in the famous Menang-Kabu inscription (Sumatra) as founded
by Maharaja Dhiraya Adityadharma in A.D. 656 is by some supposed to be
Boro-Budur. A copper plate of 840 refers to Dyeng (Dehyang) as one of
the sacred mountains of Java. One thing seems certain, that the
temples of the eastern zone are of much more recent origin than most,
at least, of the central zone. They are generally distinguished by the
characteristics of a decadent and more voluptuous age, and show that
the art of the time had become less Indian and more Javanese, with
traces of influences derived from the more eastern East. At the same
time it must be noted that even in Boro Budur there are non-Indian
elements in the decoration, indicating that the Hindu architect
employed native artists and to some extent left them a free hand.

In his standard work on _Indian and Eastern Architecture_ (London,
1876), James Fergusson asserted that the Javanese temples are in the
Chalukyan style. But J. W. Ijzerman in an elaborate paper in the
_Album-Kern_ contends that the learned historian of architecture was
misled by basing his opinion mainly on inaccurate drawings reproduced
by Raffles. The Javanese temples, with the solitary exception of
Chandi Bima in the Dyeng, are Dravidian and not Chalukyan. The very
temples quoted by Fergusson, when more carefully examined, disprove
his statement: a fact not without its bearing on the history of the
Hindu immigration.

The wonderful scenery of the Dyeng plateau was already, in all
probability, an object of superstitious awe to the aboriginal
inhabitants of Java; and thus it would catch the attention of the
earliest Hindu settlers. The old crater floor is full of traces of
human occupation; though, in spite of the tradition of the existence
of a considerable town, no sepulchral relics of the inhabitants have
been discovered. There still remain five groups of temples--some well
preserved, some mere heaps of stone--to prove the devotion their
builders bore to Siva, his consort Durga, and Ganesha their son. The
Arjuno group, in the middle of the plateau, consists of Chandi Arjuno
(with its chapel or priests' residence, Ch. Semar), Ch. Srikahdi, Ch.
Puntadeva and Ch. Sembadro, each a simple square chamber with a
portico reached by a flight of steps. The second group, Ch. Daravati
and Ch. Parakesit, lies to the north-east. The third, now a ruined
mound, lies to the east. The fourth, to the north-west, is a group of
seven small temples of which Ch. Sanchaki is the most important, with
a square ground plan and an octagon roof with a second circular
storey. Of the fifth group, in the south, only one temple remains--the
Chandi Bima--a small, beautiful and exceptionally interesting
building, in "the form of a pyramid, the ribs of which stand out much
more prominently than the horizontal lines of the niche-shaped
ornaments which rest each on its lotus cushion." How this happens to
be the one Chalukyan temple amid hundreds is a problem to be solved.
The plateau lies 6500 ft. above the sea, and roads and stairways,
locally known as Buddha roads, lead up from the lowlands of Bagelen
and Pekalongan. The stairway between Lake Menjur and Lake Chebong
alone consisted of 4700 steps. The width of the roadway, however, is
only some three or four feet. A remarkable subterranean tunnel still
exists, which served to drain the plateau.

Of all the Hindu temples of Java the largest and most magnificent is
Boro-Budur, which ranks among the architectural marvels of the world.
It lies in the residency of Kedu, a little to the west of the Progo, a
considerable stream flowing south to the Indian Ocean. The place is
best reached by taking the steam-tram from Magelang or Jokjakarta to
the village of Muntilam Passar, where a conveyance may be hired.
Strictly speaking, Boro-Budur is not a temple but a hill, rising about
150 ft. above the plain, encased with imposing terraces constructed of
hewn lava-blocks and crowded with sculptures. The lowest terrace now
above ground forms a square, each side 497 ft. long. About 50 ft.
higher there is another terrace of similar shape. Then follow four
other terraces of more irregular contour. The structure is crowned by
a dome or cupola 52 ft. in diameter surrounded by sixteen smaller
bell-shaped cupolas. Regarded as a whole, the main design, to quote Mr
Sewell, may be described as "an archaic Indian temple, considerably
flattened and consisting of a series of terraces, surmounted by a
quasi-stupa capped by a dagoba." It was discovered by the engineer J.
W. Ijzerman in 1885 that the basement of the structure had been
earthed up before the building was finished, and that the lowest
retaining wall was completely concealed by the embankment. The
architects had evidently found that their temple was threatened with a
destructive subsidence; and, while the sculptors were still busy with
the decoration of the lower façades, they had to abandon their work.
But the unfinished bas-reliefs were carefully protected by clay and
blocks of stone and left in position; and since 1896 they are
gradually but systematically being exhumed and photographed by the
Dutch archaeologists, who, however, have to proceed with caution,
filling up one portion of the embankment before they go on to deal
with another. The subjects treated in this lowest enceinte are of the
most varied description, forming a picture-gallery of landscapes,
scenes of outdoor and domestic life, mingled with mythological and
religious designs. Among the genre class appear men shooting birds
with blow-pipe or bow and arrow, fishermen with rod or net, a man
playing a bagpipe, and so on. It would seem as if the architect had
intended gradually to wean the devotees from the things of this world.
When once they began to ascend from stage to stage of the temple-hill
they were introduced to the realities of religion; and by the time
they reached the dagoba they had passed through a process of
instruction and were ready, with enlightened eyes, to enter and behold
the image of Buddha, symbolically left imperfect, as beyond the power
of human art to realize or portray. From basement to summit the whole
hill is a great picture bible of the Mahayana creed.

If the statues and bas-reliefs of Boro-Budur were placed side by side
they would extend for 3 m. The eye of the spectator, looking up from
the present ground-level, is caught, says Mr Sewell, by the rows of
life-size Buddhas that adorn the retaining walls of the several
terraces and the cage-like shrines on the circular platforms. All the
great figures on the east side represent Akshobhya, the Dhyani Buddha
of the East. His right hand is in the Chumisparsa mudra (pose)
touching the earth in front of the right knee--"I swear by the earth."
All the statues on the south side are Ratnasam Chavu in the varada
mudra--the right hand displayed upwards--"I give you all." On the west
side the statues represent Amitabha in the dhyana or padinasama mudra,
the right hand resting palm upwards on the left, both being on the
lap--the attitude of meditation. Those on the north represent
Amogasiddhi in the abhaya mudra, the right hand being raised and
displayed, palm outwards--"Fear not, all is well."

Other remarkable groups of Hindu temples exist near the village of
Prambanan[17] (less correctly Brambanan) in Surakarta, but not far
from the borders of Jokjakarta, with a station on the railway between
the two chief towns. The village has been named after the temples,
Prambanan signifying the place of teachers. The whole ecclesiastical
settlement was surrounded by three lines of wall, of which only the
inmost is now visible above ground. Between the second and third walls
are 157 small temples, and in the central enclosure are the ruins of
six larger temples in a double row with two smaller ones at the side.
The middle temple of the western row is the main building, full of
statues of purely Sivaite character--Siva as Guru or teacher, Siva as
Kala or Time the Destroyer, Durga, Ganesha, and so on. But, just as
many churches in Christendom are called not after the Christ but after
the Virgin, so this is known as Lara (i.e. Virgin) Janggrang from the
popular name of Durga. In the southern temple of the row is a very
fine figure of a four-armed Brahma; in the northern there was a Vishnu
with attendant figures. Of the other row the middle temple is again
the largest, with Siva, his nandi or bull, and other symbolic
sculptures. To the north lies the extraordinary cluster of temples
which, though it does not deserve its popular name of Chandi Sewu, the
thousand shrines, consists of at least 240 small buildings gathered
round a great central temple, richly adorned, though roofless and
partially ruined since the earthquake of 1867. Among the more
noteworthy figures are those of the huge and ungainly guardians of the
temple kneeling at the four main gateways of each of the principal
buildings. Colonel Yule pointed out that there are distinct traces of
a fine coat of stucco on the exterior and the interior of the
buildings, and he compared in this respect "the cave walls of Ellora,
the great idols at Bamian, and the Doric order at Selinus." Other
temples in the same neighbourhood as Chandi Sewu are Ch. Lumbung, Ch.
Kali Bening (Baneng), with a monstrous Kala head as the centre of the
design on the southern side, Ch. Kalong and Ch. Plaosan. Tradition
assigns these temples to 1266-1296.

Of the temples of the eastern zone the best known is Chandi Jago (or
Tumpang), elaborately described in the Archaeological Commission's
monograph. According to the _Pararaton_, a native chronicle (published
in the _Verhand. v. h. Bat. Gen. v. K. en W._, 1896), it belongs to
the 13th century, containing the tomb of Rangavuni or Vishnuvardhana,
who died in 1272-1273. The shrine proper occupies the third of three
platforms, the lowest of which forms a square of 45 to 46 ft. each
side. The building fronts the west, and is constructed of an andesitic
tuff of inferior quality and dark colour. Of distinctly Buddhistic
influence there is no trace. The makara (elephant-fish head) is
notably absent. The sculptures which run round the base and along the
sides of the platforms or terraces are of the most elaborate and
varied description--kings on thrones, dwarfs, elephants, supernatural
beings, diabolical and grotesque, tree-monsters, palaces, temples,
courtyards, lakes, gardens, forests--all are represented. In one place
appears a Chinese--or Burmese-looking seven-roofed pagoda; in another,
a tall temple strangely split down the centre, with a flight of steps
running up the fissure. The inscriptions are in the Devanagari
character. In the same neighbourhood are Ch. Singossari, Ch. Kidal,
&c. Another of the most beautiful of the eastern temples is Ch.
Jabung, mentioned in 1330. It is built of red brick; and its
distinctly Javanese origin is suggested by the frequency of the
snake-motif still characteristic of modern Javanese art. It may be
added that a comparison of the several buildings of the zone affords
an interesting study in the development of the pilaster as a
decorative rather than structural element.

At Panabaram, near Blitar, Kediri, is another group of stone temples
and other buildings. The chief temple is remarkable for the richness
of its sculptures, which are peculiarly delicate and spirited in their
details. The decoration of the mere robes of one of the free-standing
stairway-guardians consists of scroll-work, interspersed with birds
and animals rendered in a non-Indian style, reminiscent of Chinese or
Japanese work. It has been described as one of the most beautiful
pieces of sculpture in all the East.

Sculptures from the temples are scattered far and wide throughout
Java, and it is one of the greatest difficulties of the archaeologist
to determine the origin of many of the most interesting specimens.
This, too, is often the case with those that have found their way to
the museums of Java and Europe (Batavia, Leiden, Haarlem, Berlin,
&c.). Minor relics of the past are to be found alike in the palaces of
the nobles and the huts of the highland peasants. Zodiac cups of
copper or bronze dating from the 12th or 13th century are in daily use
among the Tenggerese. The musical instruments used by the musicians of
the native courts are often prized on account of their great
antiquity.

As many of the Chinese came from China centuries ago and have not
ceased to hold intercourse with their native country, the houses of
the wealthier men among them are often rich in ancient specimens of
Chinese art. The special exhibition organized by Henri Borel and other
enthusiasts showed how much of value in this matter might be brought
together in spite of the reluctance of the owners to commit the
sacrilege of exposing to public gaze the images of their ancestral
gods and heroes. Borel has given exquisite examples of images of
Kwan-yin (the Chinese Virgin-Goddess), of Buddhas, of the ghoulish god
of literature, of Lie-tai-Peh (the Chinese poet who has gone to live
in the planet Venus), &c., in illustration of his papers in _L'Art
flamand et hollandais_, pt. v. (1900), a translation of his monograph
published at Batavia.

AUTHORITIES.--Besides the special works quoted _passim_, see Sir
Stamford Raffles, _History of Java_ (London, 1830); F. Junghuhn,
_Java: seine Gestalt, Pflanzendecke, und innere Bauart_ (Ger. trans.
by J. K. Hasskarl, Leipzig, 1854-1857); P. J. Veth, _Java,
Geographisch, ethnologisch, historisch_ (2nd ed., Haarlem, 1896-1903),
a masterly compendium originally based largely on Junghuhn's
descriptions; L. van Deventer, _Geschiedenis der Nederlanders op Java_
(2nd ed., Haarlem, 1895); L. W. C. van den Berg, _Le Hadhramout et les
colonies arabes dans l'archipel indien_ (Batavia, 1886); E. R.
Scidmore, _Java, the Garden of the East_ (New York, 1898); J.
Chailley-Bert, _Java et ses habitants_ (Paris, 1900); C. Day, _The
Policy and Administration of the Dutch in Java_ (London, 1904); E. S.
de Klerck, _De Java-Oorlog van_ 1825-1830 (Batavia, 1905);
_Encyclopaedie v. N. Indië_, art. "Java;" _Guide à travers
l'Exposition de Paris_ (The Hague, 1900), with articles by specialists
on each department of the Dutch colonies, more particularly Java;
_Koloniale Verslagen en Regeerings-almanak van N. Indië_, being
official publications of the Dutch and Dutch East-Indian Government
(see also MALAY ARCHIPELAGO). (H. A. W.; O. J. R. H.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] It must be observed that Bavian, &c., are mere conventional
appendices to Java.

[2] H. B. Guppy (_R. S. G. Soc. Magazine_, 1889) holds that there is
no sufficient proof of this connexion but gives interesting details
of the present movement.

[3] See G. F. Tijdeman's map of the depths of the sea in the eastern
part of the Indian archipelago in M. Weber's _Siboga Expedition_,
1903. The details of the coast forms of the island have been studied
by J. F. Snelleman and J. F. Niermeyer in a paper in the Veth
_Feestbundel_, utilizing _inter alia_ Guppy's observations.

[4] This Merapi must be carefully distinguished from Merapi the Fire
Mountain of Sumatra.

[5] R. D. M. Verbeek and R. Fennema, _Description géologique de Java
et Madoura_ (2 vols. and atlas, Amsterdam, 1896; also published in
Dutch)--a summary with map was published by Verbeek in _Peterm.
Mitt._ xliv. (1898), 24-33, pl. 3. Also K. Martin, _Die Eintheilung
der versteinerungsführenden Sedimente von Java_, Samml. Geol.
Reichsmus. Leiden, ser. i., vol. vi. (1899-1902), 135-245.

[6] On the 16th of November the sun rises at 5.32 and sets at 5.57;
on the 16th of July it rises at 6.12 and sets at 5.57. The longest
day is in December and the shortest in June, while on the other hand
the sun is highest in February and October and lowest in June and
December.

[7] S. Figei. _Regenwaarnemingen in Nederlandsch Indië_ (1902).

[8] See J. C. Konigsberger, "De vogels Java en hunne oeconomische
betukenis," _Med. int. s. Lands Plantentuin_.

[9] See especially M. Weber, _Siboga Expedition_.

[10] The _Annales de Buitenzorg_, with their _Icones bogorienses_,
are universally known; the _Teysmannia_ is named after a former
director. A history of the gardens was published by Dr Treub,
_Festboek van's Lands Plantentuin_ (1891).

[11] Bertha Hoola van Nooten published _Fleurs, fruits et feuillages
de la flore et de la pomone de l'île de Java_ in 1863, but the book
is difficult of access. Excellent views of characteristic aspects of
the vegetation will be found in Karsten and Schenck,
_Vegetationsbilder_ (1903).

[12] It is interesting to compare this with the natural
"reflorization" of Krakatoa. See Penzig, _Ann. jard. de Buitenzorg_,
vol. viii. (1902); and W. Botting in _Nature_ (1903).

[13] See Walbreken, _De Taalsvorten in het Javaansh_; and G. A.
Wilken, _Handboek voor de vergelijkende Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch
Indie_, edited by C. M. Pleyte (1893).

[14] See Van den Berg's account of the MSS. of the Batavian Society
(the Hague, 1877); and a series of papers by C. Poensen in _Meded.
van wege het Ned. Zendelinggenootschap_ (1880).

[15] Cheribon is the form employed by the Dutch: an exception to
their usual system, in which Tj- takes the place of the Ch- used in
this article.

[16] See R. Verbeek, "Liget der oudheden van Java," in _Verhand. v.
h. Bat. Gen._, xlvi., and his _Oudheidkundige kaart van Java_. R.
Sewell's "Antiquarian notes in Java," in _Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society_ (1906), give the best conspectus available for
English readers. W. B. Worsfold, _A Visit to Java_ (London, 1893),
has a good sketch of what was then known, revised by Professor W.
Rhys Davids; but whoever wishes full information must refer to Dutch
authorities. These are numerous but difficult of access.

[17] The chief authorities on Prambanan are J. W. Ijzerman,
_Beschrijving der oudheden nabij de Grens der residenties Soerakarta
en Djogjakarta_ (Batavia, 1891, with photographs and atlas); and J.
Groneman, _Tjandi Parambanan op Midden Java_; see also _Guide à
travers l'exposition des Pays-Bas_ (The Hague, 1900), No. 174, sqq.

JAVELIN, a spear, particularly one light enough to be thrown, a dart. The javelin was often provided with a thong to help in casting (see SPEAR). Javelin-throwing is one of the contests in the athletic section at the international Olympic games. Formerly the sheriff of a county or borough had a body of men armed with javelins, and known as javelin-men, who acted as a bodyguard for the judges when they went on assize. Their duties are now performed by the ordinary police. The word itself is an adaptation of Fr. _javeline_. There are several words in Celtic and Scandinavian languages and in Old English, meaning a spear or dart, that seem to be connected with _javel_, the base form in French; thus Welsh _gaflach_, Irish _gabhla_, O. Norwegian _gaflok_, O. E. _gafeluc_, later in the form _gavelock_, cf. O. Norman-Fr. _gavelot_, _javelot_, Ital. _giavelotto_. The origin seems to be Celtic, and the word is cognate with Ir. _gafa_, a hook, fork, gaff; the root is seen in "gable" (q.v.), and in the German _Gabel_, fork. The change in meaning from fork, forked end of a spear, to the spear itself is obscure.

JAW (Mid. Eng. _jawe_, _jowe_ and _geowe_, O. Eng. _cheowan_, connected with "chaw" and "chew," and in form with "jowl"), in anatomy, the term for the upper maxillary bone, and the mandible or lower maxillary bone of the skull; it is sometimes loosely applied to all the lower front parts of the skull (q.v.).

JAWALIQI, ABU MANSUR MAUHUB UL-JAWALIQI (1073-1145), Arabian grammarian, was born at Bagdad, where he studied philology under Tibrizi and became famous for his handwriting. In his later years he acted as imam to the caliph Moqtafi. His chief work is the _Kitab ul-Mu'arrab_, or "Explanation of Foreign Words used in Arabic."

The text was edited from an incomplete manuscript by E. Sachau
(Leipzig, 1867). Many of the lacunae in this have been supplied from
another manuscript by W. Spitta in the _Journal of the German Oriental
Society_, xxxiii. 208 sqq. Another work, written as a supplement to
the _Durrat ul-Ghawwas_ of Hariri (q.v.), has been published as "Le
Livre des locutions vicieuses," by H. Derenbourg in _Morgenländische
Forschungen_ (Leipzig, 1875), pp. 107-166. (G. W. T.)

JAWHAR, a native state of India, in the Konkan division of Bombay, situated among the lower ranges of the western Ghats. Area 310 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 47,538. The estimated revenue is £11,000; there is no tribute. The chief, who is a Koli by caste, traces back his descent to 1343. The leading exports are teak and rice. The principal village is that of Jawhar (pop. 3567).

JAWORÓW, a town in Galicia, Austria, 30 m. W. of Lemberg. Pop. (1900), 10,090. It has a pottery, a brewery, a distillery and some trade in agricultural produce. Not far from it is the watering-place of Szkto with sulphur springs. The town was a favourite residence of John Sobieski, who there received the congratulations of the pope and the Venetian republic on his success against the Turks at Vienna (1683). At Jaworów Peter the Great was betrothed to Catherine I.

JAY, JOHN (1745-1829), American statesman, the descendant of a Huguenot family, and son of Peter Jay, a successful New York merchant, was born in New York City on the 12th of December 1745. On graduating at King's College (now Columbia University) in 1764, Jay entered the office of Benjamin Kissam, an eminent New York lawyer. In 1768 he was admitted to the bar, and rapidly acquired a lucrative practice. In 1774 he married Sarah, youngest daughter of William Livingston, and was thus brought into close relations with one of the most influential families in New York. Like many other able young lawyers, Jay took an active part in the proceedings that resulted in the independence of the United States, identifying himself with the conservative element in the Whig or patriot party. He was sent as a delegate from New York City to the Continental Congress at Philadelphia in September 1774, and though almost the youngest member, was entrusted with drawing up the address to the people of Great Britain. Of the second congress, also, which met at Philadelphia on the 10th of May 1775, Jay was a member; and on its behalf he prepared an address to the people of Canada and an address to the people of Jamaica and Ireland. In April 1776, while still retaining his seat in the Continental Congress, Jay was chosen as a member of the third provincial congress of New York; and his consequent absence from Philadelphia deprived him of the honour of affixing his signature to the Declaration of Independence. As a member of the fourth provincial congress he drafted a resolution by which the delegates of New York in the Continental Congress were authorized to sign the Declaration of Independence. In 1777 he was chairman of the committee of the convention which drafted the first New York state constitution. After acting for some time as one of the council of safety (which administered the state government until the new constitution came into effect), he was made chief justice of New York state, in September 1777. A clause in the state constitution prohibited any justice of the Supreme Court from holding any other post save that of delegate to Congress on a "special occasion," but in November 1778 the legislature pronounced the secession of what is now the state of Vermont from the jurisdiction of New Hampshire and New York to be such an occasion, and sent Jay to Congress charged with the duty of securing a settlement of the territorial claims of his state. He took his seat in congress on the 7th of December, and on the 10th was chosen president in succession to Henry Laurens.

On the 27th of September 1779 Jay was appointed minister plenipotentiary to negotiate a treaty between Spain and the United States. He was instructed to endeavour to bring Spain into the treaty already existing between France and the United States by a guarantee that Spain should have the Floridas in case of a successful issue of the war against Great Britain, reserving, however, to the United States the free navigation of the Mississippi. He was also to solicit a subsidy in consideration of the guarantee, and a loan of five million dollars. His task was one of extreme difficulty. Although Spain had joined France in the war against Great Britain, she feared to imperil her own colonial interests by directly encouraging and aiding the former British colonies in their revolt against their mother country, and she had refused to recognize the United States as an independent power. Jay landed at Cadiz on the 22nd of January 1780, but was told that he could not be received in a formally diplomatic character. In May the king's minister, Count de Florida Bianca, intimated to him that the one obstacle to a treaty was the question of the free navigation of the Mississippi, and for months following this interview the policy of the court was clearly one of delay. In February 1781 Congress instructed Jay that he might make concessions regarding the navigation of the Mississippi, if necessary; but further delays were interposed, the news of the surrender of Yorktown arrived, and Jay decided that any sacrifice to obtain a treaty was no longer advisable. His efforts to procure a loan were not much more successful, and he was seriously embarrassed by the action of Congress in drawing bills upon him for large sums. Although by importuning the Spanish minister, and by pledging his personal responsibility, Jay was able to meet some of the bills, he was at last forced to protest others; and the credit of the United States was saved only by a timely subsidy from France.

In 1781 Jay was commissioned to act with Franklin, John Adams, Jefferson and Henry Laurens in negotiating a peace with Great Britain. He arrived in Paris on the 23rd of June 1782, and jointly with Franklin had proceeded far with the negotiations when Adams arrived late in October. The instructions of the American negotiators were as follows:--

"You are to make the most candid and confidential communications upon
all subjects to the ministers of our generous ally, the king of
France; to undertake nothing in the negotiations for peace or truce
without their knowledge and concurrence; and ultimately to govern
yourselves by their advice and opinion, endeavouring in your whole
conduct to make them sensible how much we rely on his majesty's
influence for effectual support in every thing that may be necessary
to the present security, or future prosperity, of the United States of
America."

Jay, however, in a letter written to the president of Congress from Spain, had expressed in strong terms his disapproval of such dependence upon France, and, on arriving in Paris, he demanded that Great Britain should treat with his country on an equal footing by first recognizing its independence, although the French minister, Count de Vergennes, contended that an acknowledgment of independence as an effect of the treaty was as much as could reasonably be expected. Finally, owing largely to Jay, who suspected the good faith of France, the American negotiators decided to treat independently with Great Britain. The provisional articles, which were so favourable to the United States as to be a great surprise to the courts of France and Spain, were signed on the 30th of November 1782, and were adopted with no important change as the final treaty on the 3rd of September 1783.

On the 24th of July 1784 Jay landed in New York, where he was presented with the freedom of the city and elected a delegate to Congress. On the 7th of May Congress had already chosen him to be secretary for foreign affairs, and in December Jay resigned his seat in Congress and accepted the secretaryship. He continued to act in this capacity until 1790, when Jefferson became secretary of state under the new constitution. In the question of this constitution Jay had taken a keen interest, and as an advocate of its ratification he wrote over the name "Publius," five (Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5 and 64) of the famous series of papers known collectively as the _Federalist_ (see HAMILTON, ALEXANDER). He published anonymously (though without succeeding in concealing the authorship) _An Address to the People of New York_, in vindication of the constitution; and in the state convention at Poughkeepsie he ably seconded Hamilton in securing its ratification by New York. In making his first appointments to federal offices President Washington asked Jay to take his choice; Jay chose that of chief justice of the Supreme Court, and held this position from September 1789 to June 1795. The most famous case that came before him was that of _Chisolm_ v. _Georgia_, in which the question was, Can a state be sued by a citizen of another state? Georgia argued that it could not be so sued, on the ground that it was a sovereign state, but Jay decided against Georgia, on the ground that sovereignty in America resided with the people. This decision led to the adoption of the eleventh amendment to the federal constitution, which provides that no suit may be brought in the federal courts against any state by a citizen of another state or by a citizen or subject of any foreign state. In 1792 Jay consented to stand for the governorship of New York State, but a partisan returning-board found the returns of three counties technically defective, and though Jay had received an actual majority of votes, his opponent, George Clinton, was declared elected.

Ever since the War of Independence there had been friction between Great Britain and the United States. To the grievances of the United States, consisting principally of Great Britain's refusal to withdraw its troops from the forts on the north-western frontier, as was required by the peace treaty of 1783, her refusal to make compensation for negroes carried away by the British army at the close of the War of Independence, her restrictions on American commerce, and her refusal to enter into any commercial treaty with the United States, were added, after war broke out between France and Great Britain in 1793, the anti-neutral naval policy according to which British naval vessels were authorized to search American merchantmen and impress American seamen, provisions were treated as contraband of war, and American vessels were seized for no other reason than that they had on board goods which were the property of the enemy or were bound for a port which though not actually blockaded was declared to be blockaded. The anti-British feeling in the House of Representatives became so strong that on the 7th of April 1794 a resolution was introduced to prohibit commercial intercourse between the United States and Great Britain until the north-western posts should be evacuated and Great Britain's anti-neutral naval policy should be abandoned. Thereupon Washington, fearing that war might result, appointed Jay minister extraordinary to Great Britain to negotiate a new treaty, and the Senate confirmed the appointment by a vote of 18 to 8, although the non-intercourse resolution which came from the house a few days later was defeated in the senate only by the casting vote of Vice-President John Adams. Jay landed at Falmouth in June 1794, signed a treaty with Lord Grenville on the 19th of November, and disembarked again at New York on the 28th of May 1795. The treaty, known in history as Jay's Treaty, provided that the north-western posts should be evacuated by the 1st of June 1796, that commissioners should be appointed to settle the north-east and the north-west boundaries, and that the British claims for British debts as well as the American claims for compensation for illegal seizures should be referred to commissioners. More than one-half of the clauses in the treaty related to commerce, and although they contained rather small concessions to the United States, they were about as much as could reasonably have been expected in the circumstances. One clause, the operation of which was limited to two years from the close of the existing war, provided that American vessels not exceeding 70 tons burden might trade with the West Indies, but should carry only American products there and take away to American ports only West Indian products; moreover, the United States was to export in American vessels no molasses, sugar, coffee, cocoa or cotton to any part of the world. Jay consented to this prohibition under the impression that the articles named were peculiarly the products of the West Indies, not being aware that cotton was rapidly becoming an important export from the southern states. The operation of the other commercial clauses was limited to twelve years. By them the United States was granted limited privileges of trade with the British East Indies; some provisions were made for reciprocal freedom of trade between the United States and the British dominions in Europe; some articles were specified under the head of "contraband of war"; it was agreed that whenever provisions were seized as contraband they should be paid for, and that in cases of the capture of a vessel carrying contraband goods such goods only and not the whole cargo should be seized; it was also agreed that no vessel should be seized merely because it was bound for a blockaded port, unless it attempted to enter the port after receiving notice of the blockade. The treaty was laid before the Senate on the 8th of June 1795, and, with the exception of the clause relating to trade with the West Indies, was ratified on the 24th by a vote of 20 to 10. As yet the public was ignorant of its contents, and although the Senate had enjoined secrecy on its members even after the treaty had been ratified, Senator Mason of Virginia gave out a copy for publication only a few days later. The Republican party, strongly sympathizing with France and strongly disliking Great Britain, had been opposed to Jay's mission, and had denounced Jay as a traitor and guillotined him in effigy when they heard that he was actually negotiating. The publication of the treaty only added to their fury. They filled newspapers with articles denouncing it, wrote virulent pamphlets against it, and burned Jay in effigy. The British flag was insulted. Hamilton was stoned at a public meeting in New York while speaking in defence of the treaty, and Washington was grossly abused for signing it. In the House of Representatives the Republicans endeavoured to prevent the execution of the treaty by refusing the necessary appropriations, and a vote (29th of April, 1795) on a resolution that it ought to be carried into effect stood 49 to 49; but on the next day the opposition was defeated by a vote of 51 to 48. Once in operation, the treaty grew in favour. Two days before landing on his return from the English mission, Jay had been elected governor of New York state; notwithstanding his temporary unpopularity, he was re-elected in April 1798. With the close of this second term of office in 1801, he ended his public career. Although not yet fifty-seven years old, he refused all offers of office and retiring to his estate near Bedford in Westchester county, N.Y., spent the rest of his life in rarely interrupted seclusion. In politics he was throughout inclined toward Conservatism, and after the rise of parties under the federal government he stood with Alexander Hamilton and John Adams as one of the foremost leaders of the Federalist party, as opposed to the Republicans or Democratic-Republicans. From 1821 until 1828 he was president of the American Bible Society. He died on the 17th of May 1829. The purity and integrity of his life are commemorated in a sentence by Daniel Webster: "When the spotless ermine of the judicial robe fell on John Jay, it touched nothing less spotless than itself."

See _The Correspondence and Public Papers of John Jay_ (4 vols., New
York, 1890-1893), edited by H. P. Johnston; William Jay, _Life of John
Jay with Selections from his Correspondence and Miscellaneous Papers_
(2 vols., New York, 1833); William Whitelocke, _Life and Times of John
Jay_ (New York, 1887); and George Pellew, _John Jay_ (Boston, 1890),
in the "American Statesmen Series."

John Jay's son, WILLIAM JAY (1789-1858), was born in New York City on the 16th of June 1789, graduated from Yale in 1807, and soon afterwards assumed the management of his father's large estate in Westchester county, N.Y. He was actively interested in peace, temperance and anti-slavery movements. He took a prominent part in 1816 in founding the American Bible Society; was a judge of Westchester county from 1818 to 1843, when he was removed from office by the party in power in New York, which hoped, by sacrificing an anti-slavery judge, to gain additional strength in the southern states; joined the American anti-slavery society in 1834, and held several important offices in this organization. In 1840, however, when it began to advocate measures which he deemed too radical, he withdrew his membership, but with his pen he continued his labours on behalf of the slave, urging emancipation in the district of Columbia and the exclusion of slavery from the Territories, though deprecating any attempt to interfere with slavery in the states. He was a member of the American peace society and was its president for several years. His pamphlet, _War and Peace: the Evils of the First with a Plan for Securing the Last_, advocating international arbitration, was published by the English Peace Society in 1842, and is said to have contributed to the promulgation, by the powers signing the Treaty of Paris in 1856, of a protocol expressing the wish that nations, before resorting to arms, should have recourse to the good offices of a friendly power. Among William Jay's other writings, the most important are _The Life of John Jay_ (2 vols., 1833) and a _Review of the Causes and Consequences of the Mexican War_ (1849). He died at Bedford on the 14th of October 1858.

See Bayard Tuckerman, _William Jay and the Constitutional Movement for
the Abolition of Slavery_ (New York, 1893).

William Jay's son, JOHN JAY (1817-1894), also took an active part in the anti-slavery movement. He was a prominent member of the free soil party, and was one of the organizers of the Republican party in New York. He was United States minister to Austria-Hungary in 1869-1875, and was a member, and for a time president, of the New York civil service commission appointed by Governor Cleveland in 1883.

JAY, WILLIAM (1769-1853), English Nonconformist divine, was born at Tisbury in Wiltshire on the 6th of May 1769. He adopted his father's trade of stone-mason, but gave it up in 1785 in order to enter the Rev. Cornelius Winter's school at Marlborough. During the three years that Jay spent there, his preaching powers were rapidly developed. Before he was twenty-one he had preached nearly a thousand times, and in 1788 he had for a while occupied Rowland Hill's pulpit in London. Wishing to continue his reading he accepted the humble pastorate of Christian Malford, near Chippenham, where he remained about two years. After one year at Hope chapel, Clifton, he was called to the ministry of Argyle Independent chapel in Bath; and on the 30th of January 1791 he began the work of his life there, attracting hearers of every religious denomination and of every rank, and winning for himself a wide reputation as a brilliant pulpit orator, an earnest religious author, and a friendly counsellor. Sheridan declared him to be the most manly orator he had ever heard. A long and honourable connexion of sixty-two years came to an end in January 1853, and he died on the 27th of December following.

The best-known of Jay's works are his _Morning and Evening Exercises_:
_The Christian contemplated_: _The Domestic Minister's Assistant_; and
his _Discourses_. He also wrote a _Life of Rev. Cornelius Winter_, and
_Memoirs of Rev. John Clarke_. An edition of Jay's _Works_ in 12
vols., 8vo, revised by himself, was issued in 1842-1844, and again in
1856. A new edition, in 8 vols., 8vo, was published in 1876. See
_Autobiography_ (1854); S. Wilson's _Memoir of Jay_ (1854); S. Newth
in _Pulpit Memorials_ (1878).

JAY (Fr. _géai_), a well-known and very beautiful European bird, the _Corvus glandarius_ of Linnaeus, the _Garrulus glandarius_ of modern ornithologists. To this species are more or less closely allied numerous birds inhabiting the Palaearctic and Indian regions, as well as the greater part of America, but not occurring in the Antilles, in the southern portion of the Neotropical Region, or in the Ethiopian or Australian. All these birds are commonly called jays, and form a group of the crows or _Corvidae_, which may fairly be considered a sub-family, _Garrulinae_. Indeed there are, or have been, systematists who would elevate the jays to the rank of a family _Garrulidae_--a proceeding which seems unnecessary. Some of them have an unquestionable resemblance to the pies, if the group now known by that name can be satisfactorily severed from the true _Corvinae_. In structure the jays are not readily differentiated from the pies; but in habit they are much more arboreal, delighting in thick coverts, seldom appearing in the open, and seeking their food on or under trees. They seem also never to walk or run when on the ground, but always to hop. The body-feathers are commonly loose and soft; and, gaily coloured as are most of the species, in few of them has the plumage the metallic glossiness it generally presents in the pies, while the proverbial beauty of the "jay's wing" is due to the vivid tints of blue--turquoise and cobalt, heightened by bars of jet-black, an indication of the same style of ornament being observable in the greater number of the other forms of the group, and in some predominating over nearly the whole surface. Of the many genera that have been proposed by ornithologists, perhaps about nine may be deemed sufficiently well established.

The ordinary European jay, _Garrulus glandarius_ (fig. 1), has suffered so much persecution in the British Islands as to have become in many districts a rare bird. In Ireland it seems now to be indigenous to the southern half of the island only; in England generally, it is far less numerous than formerly; and in Scotland its numbers have decreased with still greater rapidity. There is little doubt that it would have been exterminated but for its stock being supplied in autumn by immigration, and for its shy and wary behaviour, especially at the breeding-season, when it becomes almost wholly mute, and thereby often escapes detection. No truthful man, however much he may love the bird, will gainsay the depredations on fruit and eggs that it at times commits; but the gardeners and gamekeepers of Britain, instead of taking a few simple steps to guard their charge from injury, deliberately adopt methods of wholesale destruction--methods that in the case of this species are only too easy and too effectual--by proffering temptation to trespass which it is not in jay-nature to resist, and accordingly the bird runs great chance of total extirpation. Notwithstanding the war carried on against the jay, its varied cries and active gesticulations show it to be a sprightly bird, and at a distance that renders its beauty-spots invisible, it is yet rendered conspicuous by its cinnamon-coloured body and pure white tail-coverts, which contrast with the deep black and rich chestnut that otherwise mark its plumage, and even the young at once assume a dress closely resembling that of the adult. The nest, generally concealed in a leafy tree or bush, is carefully built, with a lining formed of fine roots neatly interwoven. Herein from four to seven eggs, of a greenish-white closely freckled, so as to seem suffused with light olive, are laid in March or April, and the young on quitting it accompany their parents for some weeks.

Though the common jay of Europe inhabits nearly the whole of this quarter of the globe south of 64° N. lat., its territory in the east of Russia is also occupied by _G. brandti_, a kindred form, which replaces it on the other side of the Ural, and ranges thence across Siberia to Japan; and again on the lower Danube and thence to Constantinople the nearly allied _G. krynicki_ (which alone is found in southern Russia, Caucasia and Asia Minor) shares its haunts with it.[1] It also crosses the Mediterranean to Algeria and Morocco; but there, as in southern Spain, it is probably but a winter immigrant. The three forms just named have the widest range of any of the genus. Next to them come _G. atricapillus_, reaching from Syria to Baluchistan, _G. japonicus_, the ordinary jay of southern Japan, and _G. sinensis_, the Chinese bird. Other forms have a much more limited area, as _G. cervicalis_, the local and resident jay of Algeria, _G. hyrcanus_, found on the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, and _G. taevanus_, confined to the island of Formosa. The most aberrant of the true jays is _G. lidthi_, a very rare species, which seems to come from some part of Japan (_vide_ Salvadori, _Atti Accad. Torino_, vii. 474), though its exact locality is not known.

Leaving the true jays of the genus _Garrulus_, it is expedient next to consider those of a group named, in 1831, _Perisoreus_ by Prince C. L. Bonaparte (_Saggio_, &c., _Anim. Vertebrati_, p. 43) and _Dysornithia_ by Swainson (_F. B.-Americana_, ii. 495).[2]