Chapter XVI: Part 16

Few places in Palestine are more fertile. It was the city of palm
trees of the ancient record of the Israelite invasion preserved in
part in Judg. i. 16; and Josephus speaks of its fruitfulness with
enthusiasm (_Wars_ IV. 8, 3). Even now with every possible hindrance
in the way of cultivation it is an important centre of fruit-growing.

The modern er-Riha is a poor squalid village of, it is estimated,
about 300 inhabitants. It is not built exactly on the ancient site.
Indeed, the site of Jericho has shifted several times. The mound of
Tell es-Sultan, near "Elisha's Fountain," north of the modern village,
no doubt covers the Canaanite town. There are two later sites, of
Roman or Herodian date, one north, the other west, of this. It was
probably the crusaders who established the modern site. An old tower
attributed to them is to be seen in the village, and in the
surrounding mountains are many remains of early monasticism.
Aqueducts, ruined sugar-mills, and other remains of ancient industry
abound in the neighbourhood. The whole district is the private
property of the sultan of Turkey. In 1907-8 the Canaanite Jericho was
excavated under the direction of Prof. Sellin of Vienna.

See "The German Excavations at Jericho," _Pal. Explor. Fund, Quart.
Statem._ (1910), pp. 54-68.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Cf. Schoene's critical edition (Berlin, 1866, 1875).

JERKIN, a short close-fitting jacket, made usually of leather, and without sleeves, the typical male upper garment of the 16th and 17th centuries. The origin of the word is unknown. The Dutch word _jurk_, a child's frock, often taken as the source, is modern, and represents neither the sound nor the sense of the English word. In architecture the term "jerkin-roofed" is applied, probably with some obscure connexion with the garment, to a particular form of gable end, the gable being cut off half way up the roof and sloping back like a "hipped roof" to the edge.

JEROBOAM (Heb. _yarob'am_, apparently "Am ['the clan,' here perhaps a divine name] contends"; LXX. [Greek: ieroboam]), the name of two kings in the Bible.

1. The first king of (north) Israel after the disruption (see SOLOMON). According to the traditions of his early life (1 Kings xi. 26 sqq. and LXX.), he was an Ephraimite who for his ability was placed over the forced levy of Ephraim and Manasseh. Having subsequently incurred Solomon's suspicions he fled to Shishak, king of Egypt, and remained with him until Rehoboam's accession. When the latter came to be made king at Shechem, the old religious centre (see ABIMELECH), hopes were entertained that a more lenient policy would be introduced. But Rehoboam refused to depart from Solomon's despotic rule, and was tactless enough to send Adoniram, the overseer of the _corvée_. He was stoned to death, and Rehoboam realizing the temper of the people fled to Jerusalem and prepared for war. Jeroboam became the recognized leader of the northern tribes.[1] Conflicts occurred (1 Kings xiv. 30), but no details are preserved except the late story of Rehoboam's son Abijah in 2 Chron. xiii. Jeroboam's chief achievement was the fortification of Shechem (his new capital) and of Penuel in east Jordan. To counteract the influence of Jerusalem he established golden calves at Dan and Bethel, an act which to later ages was as gross a piece of wickedness as his rebellion against the legitimate dynasty of Judah. No notice has survived of Shishak's invasion of Israel (see REHOBOAM), and after a reign of twenty-two years Jeroboam was succeeded by Nadab, whose violent death two years later brought the whole house of Jeroboam to an end.

The history of the separation of Judah and Israel in the 10th century
B.C. was written from a strong religious standpoint at a date
considerably later than the event itself. The visit of Ahijah to
Shiloh (xi. 29-39), to announce symbolically the rending of the
kingdom, replaces some account of a rebellion in which Jeroboam
"lifted up his hand" (v. 27) against Solomon. To such an account, not
to the incident of Ahijah and the cloak, his flight (v. 40) is the
natural sequel. The story of Ahijah's prophecy against Jeroboam (ch.
xiv.) is not in the original LXX., but another version of the same
narrative appears at xii. 24 (LXX.), in which there is no reference to
a previous promise to Jeroboam through Ahijah, but the prophet is
introduced as a new character. Further, in this version (xii. 24) the
incident of the tearing of the cloak is related of Shemaiah and placed
at the convention of Shechem. Shemaiah is the prophet who counselled
Rehoboam to refrain from war (xii. 21-24); the injunction is opposed
to xiv. 30, but appears to be intended to explain Rehoboam's failure
to overcome north Israel. (See W. R. Smith, _Old Test. in Jewish
Church_ (2nd ed.), 117 sqq.; Winckler, _Alte Test. Untersuch._ 12
sqq., and J. Skinner, _Century Bible: Kings_, pp. 443 sqq.)

2. JEROBOAM, son of Joash (2) a contemporary of Azariah king of Judah. He was one of the greatest of the kings of Israel. He succeeded in breaking the power of Damascus, which had long been devastating his land, and extended his kingdom from Hamath on the Orontes to the Dead Sea. The brief summary of his achievements preserved in 2 Kings xiv. 23 sqq. may be supplemented by the original writings of Amos and Hosea.[2] There appears to be an allusion in Amos vi. 13 to the recovery of Ashteroth-Karnaim and Lodebar in E. Jordan, and the conquest of Moab (Isa. xv. seq.) is often ascribed to this reign. After a period of prosperity, internal disturbances broke out and the northern kingdom hastened to its fall. Jeroboam was succeeded by his son Zechariah, who after six months was killed at Ibleam (so read in 2 Kings xv. 10; cp. ix. 27, murder of Ahaziah) by Shallum the son of Jabesh--i.e. possibly of Jabesh-Gilead--who a month later fell to Menahem (q.v.). (S. A. C.)

See, further, JEWS §§ 7, 9 and §§ 12, 13.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] On the variant traditions in the Hebrew text and the Septuagint,
see the commentaries on Kings.

[2] See also JONAH. In 2 Kings xiv. 28, "Hamath, _which had belonged_
to Judah" (R.V.) is incorrect; Winckler (_Keilinschrift. u. Alte
Test._, 2nd ed., 262) suspects a reference to Israel's overlordship
in Judah; Burney (_Heb. Text of Kings_) reads: "how he fought with
Damascus and how he turned away the wrath of Yahweh from Israel"; see
also _Ency. Bib._ col. 2406 n. 4, and the commentaries.

JEROME, ST (HIERONYMUS, in full EUSEBIUS SOPHRONIUS HIERONYMUS) (c. 340-420), was born at Strido (modern Strigau?), a town on the border of Dalmatia fronting Pannonia, destroyed by the Goths in A.D. 377. What is known of Jerome has mostly been recovered from his own writings. He appears to have been born about 340; his parents were Christians, orthodox though living among people mostly Arians and wealthy. He was at first educated at home, Bonosus, a life-long friend, sharing his youthful studies, and was afterwards sent to Rome. Donatus taught him grammar and explained the Latin poets. Victorinus taught him rhetoric. He attended the law-courts, and listened to the Roman advocates pleading in the Forum. He went to the schools of philosophy, and heard lectures on Plato, Diogenes, Clitomachus and Carneades; the conjunction of names show how philosophy had become a dead tradition. accuracy of his version: "Let him who would challenge aught in this translation," he says, "ask the Jews." The result of all this labour was the Latin translation of the Scriptures which, in spite of much opposition from the more conservative party in the church, afterwards became the Vulgate or authorized version; but the Vulgate as we have it now is not exactly Jerome's Vulgate, for it suffered a good deal from changes made under the influence of the older translations; the text became very corrupt during the middle ages, and in particular all the Apocrypha, except Tobit and Judith, which Jerome translated from the Chaldee, were added from the older versions. (See BIBLE: _O.T. Versions_.)

Notwithstanding the labour involved in translating the Scriptures, Jerome found time to do a great deal of literary work, and also to indulge in violent controversy. Earlier in life he had a great admiration for Origen, and translated many of his works, and this lasted after he had settled at Bethlehem, for in 389 he translated Origen's homilies on Luke; but he came to change his opinion and wrote violently against two admirers of the great Alexandrian scholar, John, bishop of Jerusalem, and his own former friend Rufinus.

At Bethlehem also he found time to finish _Didymi de spiritu sancto liber_, a translation begun at Rome at the request of Pope Damasus, to denounce the revival of Gnostic heresies by Jovinianus and Vigilantius (_Adv. Jovinianum lib. II._ and _Contra Vigilantium liber_), and to repeat his admiration of the hermit life in his _Vita S. Hilarionis eremitae_, in his _Vita Malchi monachi captivi_, in his translations of the Rule of St Pachomius (the Benedict of Egypt), and in his _S. Pachomii et S. Theodorici epistolae et verba mystica_. He also wrote at Bethlehem _De viris illustribus sive de scriptoribus ecclesiasticis_, a church history in biographies, ending with the life of the author; _De nominibus Hebraicis_, compiled from Philo and Origen; and _De situ et nominibus locorum Hebraicorum_.[1] At the same place, too, he wrote _Quaestiones Hebraicae_ on Genesis,[2] and a series of commentaries on Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, the Twelve Minor Prophets, Matthew and the Epistles of St Paul. About 394 Jerome came to know Augustine, for whom he held a high regard. He engaged in the Pelagian controversy with more than even his usual bitterness (_Dialogi contra pelagianos_); and it is said that the violence of his invective so provoked his opponents that an armed mob attacked the monastery, and that Jerome was forced to flee and to remain in concealment for nearly two years. He returned to Bethlehem in 418, and after a lingering illness died on the 30th of September 420.

Jerome "is one of the few Fathers to whom the title of Saint appears to have been given in recognition of services rendered to the Church rather than for eminent sanctity. He is the great Christian scholar of his age, rather than the profound theologian or the wise guide of souls." His great work was the Vulgate, but his achievements in other fields would have sufficed to distinguish him. His commentaries are valuable because of his knowledge of Greek and Hebrew, his varied interests, and his comparative freedom from allegory. To him we owe the distinction between canonical and apocryphal writings; in the _Prologus Galeatus_ prefixed to his version of Samuel and Kings, he says that the church reads the Apocrypha "for the edification of the people, not for confirming the authority of ecclesiastical doctrines." He was a pioneer in the fields of patrology and of biblical archaeology. In controversy he was too fond of mingling personal abuse with legitimate argument, and this weakness mars his letters, which were held in high admiration in the early middle ages, and are valuable for their history of the man and his times. Luther in his _Table Talk_ condemns them as dealing only with fasting, meats, virginity, &c. "If he only had insisted upon the works of faith and performed them! But he teaches nothing either about faith, or love, or hope, or the works of faith."

Editions of the complete works: Erasmus (9 vols., Basel, 1516-1520);
Mar. Victorius, bishop of Rieti (9 vols., Rome, 1565-1572); F.
Calixtus and A. Tribbechovius (12 vols., Frankfort and Leipzig,
1684-1690); J. Martianay (5 vols., incomplete Benedictine ed., Paris,
1693-1706); D. Vallarsi (11 vols., Verona, 1734-1742), the best;
Migne, _Patrol. Ser. Lat._ (xxii.-xxix.). The _De viris illust._ was
edited by Herding in 1879. A selection is given in translation by W.
H. Fremantle, "Select Library of Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers," 2nd
series, vol. vi. (New York, 1893). Biographies are prefixed to most of
the above editions. See also lives by F. Z. Collombet (Paris and
Lyons, 1844); O. Zöckler (Gotha, 1865); E. L. Cutts (London, 1878); C.
Martin (London, 1888); P. Largent (Paris, 1898); F. W. Farrar, _Lives
of the Fathers_, ii. 150-297 (Edinburgh, 1889). Additional literature
is cited in Hauck-Herzog's _Realencyk. für prot. Theol._ viii. 42.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Compare the critical edition of these two works in Lagarde's
_Onomastica sacra_ (Götting. 1870).

[2] See Lagarde's edition appended to his _Genesis Graece_ (Leipzig,
1868).

JEROME, JEROME KLAPKA (1859- ), English author, was born on the 2nd of May 1859. He was educated at the philological school, Marylebone, London; and was by turns clerk, schoolmaster and actor, before he settled down to journalism. He made his reputation as a humorist in 1889 with _Idle Thoughts of an Idle Fellow_ and _Three Men in a Boat_, and from 1892 to 1897 he was co-editor of the _Idler_ with Robert Barr. At the same time he was also the editor of _To-Day_. A one-act play of his, _Barbara_, was produced at the Globe theatre in 1886, and was followed by many others, among them _Sunset_ (1888), _Wood Barrow Farm_ (1891), _The Passing of the Third Floor Back_ (1907). Among his later books are _Letters to Clorinda_ (1898), _The Second Thoughts of an Idle Fellow_ (1898), _Three Men on the Bummel_ (1900), _Tommy and Co._ (1904), _They and I_ (1909).

JEROME OF PRAGUE (d. 1416), an early Bohemian church-reformer and friend of John Hus. Jerome's part in the Hussite movement was formerly much over-rated. Very little is known of his early years. He is stated to have belonged to a noble Bohemian family[1] and to have been a few years younger than Hus. After beginning his studies at the university of Prague, where he never attempted to obtain any ecclesiastical office, Jerome proceeded to Oxford in 1398. There he became greatly impressed by the writings of Wycliffe, of whose _Dialogus_ and _Trialogus_ he made copies. Always inclined to a roving life, he soon proceeded to the university of Paris and afterwards continued his studies at Cologne and Heidelberg, returning to Prague in 1407. In 1403 he is stated to have undertaken a journey to Jerusalem. At Paris his open advocacy of the views of Wycliffe brought him into conflict with John Gerson, chancellor of the university. In Prague Jerome soon attracted attention by his advanced and outspoken opinions. He gave great offence also by exhibiting a portrait of Wycliffe in his room. Jerome was soon on terms of friendship with Hus, and took part in all the controversies of the university. When in 1408 a French embassy arrived at Kutná Hora, the residence of King Wenceslaus of Bohemia, and proposed that the papal schism should be terminated by the refusal of the temporal authorities further to recognize either of the rival popes, Wenceslaus summoned to Kutná Hora the members of the university. The Bohemian _magistri_ spoke strongly in favour of the French proposals, while the Germans maintained their allegiance to the Roman pope, Gregory XII. The reorganization of the university was also discussed, and as Wenceslaus for a time favoured the Germans, Hus and Jerome, as leaders of the Bohemians, incurred the anger of the king, who threatened them with death by fire should they oppose his will.

In 1410 Jerome, who had incurred the hostility of the archbishop of Prague by his speeches in favour of Wycliffe's teaching, went to Ofen, where King Sigismund of Hungary resided, and, though a layman, preached before the king denouncing strongly the rapacity and immorality of the clergy. Sigismund shortly afterwards received a letter from the archbishop of Prague containing accusations against Jerome. He was imprisoned by order of the king, but does not appear to have been detained long in Hungary. Appearing at Vienna, he was again brought before the ecclesiastical authorities. He was accused of spreading Wycliffe's doctrines, and his general conduct at Oxford, Paris, Cologne, Prague and Ofen was censured. Jerome vowed that he would not leave Vienna till he had cleared himself from the accusation of heresy. Shortly afterwards he secretly left Vienna, declaring that this promise had been forced on him. He went first to Vöttau in Moravia, and then to Prague. In 1412 the representatives of Pope Gregory XII. publicly offered indulgences for sale at Prague, wishing to raise money for the pope's campaign against King Ladislaus of Naples, an adherent of the antipope of Avignon. Contrary to the wishes of the archbishop of Prague a meeting of the members of the university took place, at which both Hus and Jerome spoke strongly against the sale of indulgences. The fiery eloquence of Jerome, which is noted by all contemporary writers, obtained for him greater success even than that of Hus, particularly among the younger students, who conducted him in triumph to his dwelling-place. Shortly afterwards Jerome proceeded to Poland--it is said on the invitation of King Wladislaus. His courtly manners and his eloquence here also caused him to become very popular, but he again met with strong opposition from the Roman Church. While travelling with the grand-duke Lithold of Lithuania Jerome took part in the religious services of the Greek Orthodox Church.

During his stay in northern Europe Jerome received the news that Hus had been summoned to appear before the council of Constance. He wrote to his friend advising him to do so and adding that he would also proceed there to afford him assistance. Contrary to the advice of Hus he arrived at Constance on the 4th of April 1415. Advised to fly immediately to Bohemia, he succeeded in reaching Hirschau, only 25 m. from the Bohemian frontier. He was here arrested and brought back in chains to Constance, where he was examined by judges appointed by the council. His courage failed him in prison and, to regain his freedom, he renounced the doctrines of Wycliffe and Hus. He declared that Hus had been justly executed and stated in a letter addressed on the 12th of August 1415 to Lacek, lord of Kravâr--the only literary document of Jerome that has been preserved--that "the dead man (Hus) had written many false and harmful things." Full confidence was not placed in Jerome's recantation. He claimed to be heard at a general meeting of the council, and this was granted to him. He now again maintained all the theories which he had formerly advocated, and, after a trial that lasted only one day, he was condemned to be burnt as a heretic. The sentence was immediately carried out on the 30th of May 1416, and he met his death with fortitude. As Poggio Bracciolini writes, "none of the Stoics with so constant and brave a soul endured death, which he (Jerome) seemed rather to long for." The eloquence of the Italian humanist has bestowed a not entirely merited aureole on the memory of Jerome of Prague.

See all works dealing with Hus; and indeed all histories of Bohemia
contain detailed accounts of the career of Jerome. _The Lives of John
Wicliffe, Lord Cobham, John Huss, Jerome of Prague and Zizka_ by
William Gilpin (London, 1765) still has a certain value. (L.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The statement that Jerome's family name was Faulfiss, is founded
on a misunderstood passage of Aeneas Sylvius, _Historica Bohemica_.
Aeneas Sylvius names as one of the early Bohemian reformers a man
"_genere nobilis, ex domo quam Putridi Piscis vacant_." This was
erroneously believed to refer to Jerome.

JERROLD, DOUGLAS WILLIAM (1803-1857), English dramatist and man of letters, was born in London on the 3rd of January 1803. His father, Samuel Jerrold, actor, was at that time lessee of the little theatre of Wilsby near Cranbrook in Kent, but in 1807 he removed to Sheerness. There, among the bluejackets who swarmed in the port during the war with France, Douglas grew into boyhood. He occasionally took a child's part on the stage, but his father's profession had little attraction for the boy. In December 1813 he joined the guardship "Namur," where he had Jane Austen's brother as captain, and he served as a midshipman until the peace of 1815. He saw nothing of the war save a number of wounded soldiers from Waterloo; but till his dying day there lingered traces of his early passion for the sea. The peace of 1815 ruined Samuel Jerrold; there was no more prize money. On the 1st of January 1816 he removed with his family to London, where the ex-midshipman began the world again as a printer's apprentice, and in 1819 became a compositor in the printing-office of the _Sunday Monitor_. Several short papers and copies of verses by him had already appeared in the sixpenny magazines, and one evening he dropped into the editor's box a criticism of the opera _Der Freischütz_. Next morning he received his own copy to set up, together with a flattering note from the editor, requesting further contributions from the anonymous author. Thenceforward Jerrold was engaged in journalism. In 1821 a comedy that he had composed in his fifteenth year was brought out at Sadler's Wells theatre, under the title _More Frightened than Hurt_. Other pieces followed, and in 1825 he was engaged for a few pounds weekly to produce dramas and farces to the order of Davidge of the Coburg theatre. In the autumn of 1824 the "little Shakespeare in a camlet cloak," as he was called, married Mary Swann; and, while he was engaged with the drama at night, he was steadily pushing his way as a journalist. For a short while he was part proprietor of a small Sunday newspaper. In 1829, through a quarrel with the exacting Davidge, Jerrold left the Coburg; and his three-act melodrama, _Black-eyed Susan; or, All in the Downs_, was brought out by R. W. Elliston at the Surrey theatre. The success of the piece was enormous. With its free gallant sea-flavour, it took the town by storm, and "all London went over the water to see it." Elliston made a fortune by the piece; T. P. Cooke, who played William, made his reputation; Jerrold received about £60 and was engaged as dramatic author at five pounds a week. But his fame as a dramatist was achieved. In 1830 it was proposed that he should adapt something from the French for Drury Lane. "No," was his reply, "I shall come into this theatre as an original dramatist or not at all." _The Bride of Ludgate_ (December 8, 1831) was the first of a number of his plays produced at Drury Lane. The other patent houses threw their doors open to him also (the Adelphi had already done so); and in 1836 Jerrold became co-manager of the Strand theatre with W. J. Hammond, his brother-in-law. The venture was not successful, and the partnership was dissolved. While it lasted Jerrold wrote his only tragedy, _The Painter of Ghent_, and himself appeared in the title-rôle, without any very marked success. He continued to write sparkling comedies till 1854, the date of his last piece, _The Heart of Gold_.

Meanwhile he had won his way to the pages of numerous periodicals--before 1830 of the second-rate magazines only, but after that to those of more importance. He was a contributor to the _Monthly Magazine, Blackwood's,_ the _New Monthly_, and the _Athenaeum_. To _Punch_, the publication which of all others is associated with his name, he contributed from its second number in 1841 till within a few days of his death. He founded and edited for some time, though with indifferent success, the _Illuminated Magazine, Jerrold's Shilling Magazine_, and _Douglas Jerrold's Weekly Newspaper;_ and under his editorship _Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper_ rose from almost nonentity to a circulation of 182,000. The history of his later years is little more than a catalogue of his literary productions, interrupted now and again by brief visits to the Continent or to the country. Douglas Jerrold died at his house, Kilburn Priory, in London, on the 8th of June 1857.

Jerrold's figure was small and spare, and in later years bowed almost to deformity. His features were strongly marked and expressive from the thin humorous lips to the keen blue eyes gleaming from beneath the shaggy eyebrows. He was brisk and active, with the careless bluffness of a sailor. Open and sincere, he concealed neither his anger nor his pleasure; to his simple frankness all polite duplicity was distasteful. The cynical side of his nature he kept for his writings; in private life his hand was always open. In politics Jerrold was a Liberal, and he gave eager sympathy to Kossuth, Mazzini and Louis Blanc. In social politics especially he took an eager part; he never tired of declaiming against the horrors of war, the luxury of bishops, and the iniquity of capital punishment.

Douglas Jerrold is now perhaps better known from his reputation as a brilliant wit in conversation than from his writings. As a dramatist he was very popular, though his plays have not kept the stage. He dealt with rather humbler forms of social life than had commonly been represented on the boards. He was one of the first and certainly one of the most successful of those who in defence of the native English drama endeavoured to stem the tide of translation from the French, which threatened early in the 19th century altogether to drown original native talent. His skill in construction and his mastery of epigram and brilliant dialogue are well exemplified in his comedy, _Time Works Wonders_ (Haymarket, April 26, 1845). The tales and sketches which form the bulk of Jerrold's collected works vary much in skill and interest; but, although there are evident traces of their having been composed from week to week, they are always marked by keen satirical observation and pungent wit.

Among the best known of his numerous works are: _Men of Character_
(1838), including "Job Pippin: The man who couldn't help it," and
other sketches of the same kind; _Cakes and Ale_ (2 vols., 1842), a
collection of short papers and whimsical stories; some more serious
novels--_The Story of a Feather_ (1844), _The Chronicles of
Clovernook_ (1846), _A Man made of Money_ (1849); and _St Giles and St
James_ (1851); and various series of papers reprinted from
_Punch--Punch's Letters to his Son_ (1843), _Punch's Complete
Letter-writer_ (1845), and the famous _Mrs Caudle's Curtain Lectures_
(1846).

See W. B. Jerrold, _Life and Remains of Douglas Jerrold_ (1859). A
collected edition of his writings appeared in 1851-1854, and _The
Works of Douglas Jerrold_, with a memoir by his son, W. B. Jerrold, in
1863-1864; but neither is complete. Among the numerous selections from
his tales and witticisms are two edited by his grandson, Walter
Jerrold, _Bons Mots of Charles Dickens and Douglas Jerrold_ (new ed.
1904), and _The Essays of Douglas Jerrold_ (1903), illustrated by H.
M. Brock. See also _The Wit and Opinions of Douglas Jerrold_ (1858),
edited by W. B. Jerrold.

His eldest son, WILLIAM BLANCHARD JERROLD (1826-1884), English journalist and author, was born in London on the 23rd of December 1826, and abandoning the artistic career for which he was educated, began newspaper work at an early age there. He was appointed Crystal Palace commissioner to Sweden in 1853, and wrote _A Brage-Beaker with the Swedes_ (1854) on his return. In 1855 he was sent to the Paris exhibition as correspondent for several London papers, and from that time he lived much in Paris. In 1857 he succeeded his father as editor of _Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper_, a post which he held for twenty-six years. During the Civil War in America he strongly supported the North, and several of his leading articles were reprinted and placarded in New York by the federal government. He was the founder and president of the English branch of the international literary association for the assimilation of copyright laws. Four of his plays were successfully produced on the London stage, the popular farce _Cool as a Cucumber_ (Lyceum 1851) being the best known. His French experiences resulted in a number of books, most important of which is his _Life of Napoleon III_. (1874). He was occupied in writing the biography of Gustave Doré, who had illustrated several of his books, when he died on the 10th of March 1884.

Among his books are _A Story of Social Distinction_ (1848), _Life and
Remains of Douglas Jerrold_ (1859), _Up and Down in the World_ (1863),
_The Children of Lutetia_ (1864), _Cent per Cent_ (1871), _At Home in
Paris_ (1871), _The Best of all Good Company_ (1871-1873), and _The
Life of George Cruikshank_ (1882).

JERRY, a short form of the name Jeremiah, applied to various common objects, and more particularly to a machine for finishing cloth. The expression "jerry-built" is applied to houses built badly and of inferior materials, and run up by a speculative builder. There seems to be no foundation for the assertion that this expression was occasioned by the work of a firm of Liverpool builders named Jerry.

JERSEY, EARLS OF. Sir Edward Villiers (c. 1656-1711), son of Sir Edward Villiers (1620-1689), of Richmond, Surrey, was created Baron Villiers and Viscount Villiers in 1691 and earl of Jersey in 1697. His grandfather, Sir Edward Villiers (c. 1585-1626), master of the mint and president of Munster, was half-brother of George Villiers, 1st duke of Buckingham, and of Christopher Villiers, 1st earl of Anglesey; his sister was Elizabeth Villiers, the mistress of William III., and afterwards countess of Orkney. Villiers was knight-marshal of the royal household in succession to his father; master of the horse to Queen Mary; and lord chamberlain to William III. and Queen Anne. In 1696 he represented his country at the congress of Ryswick; he was ambassador at the Hague, and after becoming an earl was ambassador in Paris. In 1699 he was made secretary of state for the southern department, and on three occasions he was one of the lords justices of England. In 1704 he was dismissed from office by Anne, and after this event he was concerned in some of the Jacobite schemes. He died on the 25th of August 1711. The 2nd earl was his son William (c. 1682-1721), an adherent of the exiled house of Stuart, and the 3rd earl was the latter's son William (d. 1769), who succeeded his kinsman John Fitzgerald (c. 1692-1766) as 6th Viscount Grandison. The 3rd earl's son, George Bussy, the 4th earl (1735-1805), held several positions at the court of George III., and on account of his courtly manners was called the "prince of Maccaronies." The 4th earl's son, George, 5th earl of Jersey (1773-1859), one of the most celebrated fox-hunters of his time and a successful owner of racehorses, married Sarah Sophia (1785-1867), daughter of John Fane, 10th earl of Westmorland, and granddaughter of Robert Child, the banker. She inherited her grandfather's great wealth, including his interest in Child's bank, and with her husband took the name of Child-Villiers. Since this time the connexions of the earls of Jersey with Child's bank has been maintained. Victor Albert George Child-Villiers (b. 1845) succeeded his father George Augustus (1808-1859), 6th earl, who had only held the title for three weeks, as 7th earl of Jersey in 1859. This nobleman was governor of New South Wales from 1890 to 1893.

JERSEY, the largest of the Channel Islands, belonging to Great Britain. Its chief town, St Helier, on the south coast of the island, is in 49° 12´ N., 2° 7´ W., 105 m. S. by E. of Portland Bill on the English coast, and 24 m. from the French coast to the east. Jersey is the southernmost of the more important islands of the group. It is of oblong form with a length of 10 m. from east to west and an extreme breadth of 6¼ m. The area is 28,717 acres, or 45 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 52,576.

The island reaches its greatest elevation (nearly 500 ft.) in the north, the land rising sharply from the north coast, and displaying bold and picturesque cliffs towards the sea. The east, south and west coasts consist of a succession of large open bays, shallow and rocky, with marshy or sandy shores separated by rocky headlands. The principal bays are Grève au Lançons, Grève de Lecq, St John's and Bouley Bays on the north coast; St Catherine's and Grouville Bays on the east; St Clement's, St Aubin's and St Brelade's Bays on the south; and St Ouen's Bay, the wide sweep of which occupies nearly the whole of the west coast. The sea in many places has encroached greatly on the land, and sand drifts have been found troublesome, especially on the west coast. The surface of the country is broken by winding valleys having a general direction from north to south, and as they approach the south uniting so as to form small plains. The lofty hedges which bound the small enclosures into which Jersey is divided, the trees and shrubberies which line the roads and cluster round the uplands and in almost every nook of the valleys unutilized for pasturage or tillage, give the island a luxuriant appearance, neutralizing the bare effect of the few sandy plains and sand-covered hills. Fruits and flowers indigenous to warm climates grow freely in the open air. The land, under careful cultivation, is rich and productive, the soil being generally a deep loam, especially in the valleys, but in the west shallow, light and sandy. The subsoil is usually gravel, but in some parts an unfertile clay. Some two-thirds of the total area is under cultivation, great numbers of cattle being pastured, and much market gardening practised. The potato crop is very large. The peasants take advantage of every bit of wall and every isolated nook of ground for growing fruit trees. Grapes are ripened under glass; oranges can be grown in sheltered situations, but the most common fruits are apples, which are used for cider, and pears. A manure of burnt sea-weed (vraic) is generally used. The pasturage is very rich, and is much improved by the application of this manure to the surface. The breed of cattle is kept pure by stringent laws against the importation of foreign animals. The milk is used almost exclusively to manufacture butter. The cattle are always housed in winter, but remain out at night from May till October. There was formerly a small black breed of horses peculiar to the island, but horses are now chiefly imported from France or England. Pigs are kept principally for local consumption, and only a few sheep are reared. Fish are not so plentiful as round the shores of Guernsey, but mackerel, turbot, cod, mullet and especially the conger eel are abundant at the Minquiers. There is a large oyster bed between Jersey and France, but partly on account of over-dredging the supply is not so abundant as formerly. There is a great variety of other shell fish. The fisheries, ship-building and boat-building employ many of the inhabitants. Kelp and iodine are manufactured from sea-weed. The principal exports are granite, fruit and vegetables (especially potatoes), butter and cattle; and the chief imports coal and articles of human consumption. Communications with England are maintained principally from Southampton and Weymouth, and there are regular steamship services from Granville and St Malo on the French coast. The Jersey railway runs west from St Helier round St Aubin's Bay to St Aubin, and continues to Corbière at the south-western extremity of the island; and the Jersey eastern railway follows the southern and eastern coasts to Gorey. The island is intersected with a network of good roads.

Jersey is under a distinct and in several respects different form of administrative government from Guernsey and the smaller islands included in the bailiwick of Guernsey. For its peculiar constitution, system of justice, ecclesiastical arrangements and finance, see CHANNEL ISLANDS. There are twelve parishes, namely St Helier, Grouville, St Brelade, St Clement, St John, St Laurence, St Martin, St Mary, St Ouen, St Peter, St Saviour and Trinity. The population of the island nearly doubled between 1821 and 1901, but decreased from 54,518 to 52,576 between 1891 and 1901.

The history of Jersey is treated under CHANNEL ISLANDS. Among objects of antiquarian interest, a cromlech near Mont Orgueil is the finest of several examples. St Brelade's church, probably the oldest in the island, dates from the 12th century; among the later churches St Helier's, of the 14th century, may be mentioned. There are also some very early chapels, considered to date from the 10th century or earlier; among these may be noted the Chapelle-ès-Pêcheurs at St Brelade's, and the picturesque chapel in the grounds of the manor of Rozel. The castle of Mont Orgueil, of which there are considerable remains, is believed to be founded upon the site of a Roman stronghold, and a "Caesar's fort" still forms a part of it.

JERSEY CITY, a city and the county-seat of Hudson county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on a peninsula between the Hudson and Hackensack rivers at the N. and between New York and Newark bays at the S., opposite lower Manhattan Island. Pop. (1890), 163,003; (1900), 206,433, of whom 58,424 were foreign-born (19,314 Irish, 17,375 German, 4642 English, 3832 Italian, 1694 Russian, 1690 Scottish, 1643 Russian Poles, 1445 Austrian) and 3704 were negroes; (1910 census) 267,779. It is the eastern terminus of the Pennsylvania, the Lehigh Valley, the West Shore, the Central of New Jersey, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Northern of New Jersey (operated by the Erie), the Erie, the New York, Susquehanna & Western, and the New Jersey & New York (controlled by the Erie) railways, the first three using the Pennsylvania station; and of the little-used Morris canal. Jersey City is served by several inter-urban electric railways and by the tunnels of the Hudson & Manhattan railroad company to Dey St. and to 33rd St. and 6th Ave., New York City, and it also has docks of several lines of Transatlantic and coast steamers. The city occupies a land area of 14.3 sq. m. and has a water-front of about 12 m. Bergen Hill, a southerly extension of the Palisades, extends longitudinally through it from north to south. At the north end this hill rises on the east side precipitously to a height of nearly 200 ft.; on the west and south sides the slope is gradual. On the crest of the hill is the fine Hudson County Boulevard, about 19 m. long and 100 ft. wide, extending through the city and county from north to south and passing through West Side Park, a splendid county park containing lakes and a 70-acre playground. The water-front, especially on the east side, is given up to manufacturing and shipping establishments. In the hill section are the better residences, most of which are wooden and detached.

The principal buildings are the city hall and the court house. There
are nine small city parks with an aggregate area of 39.1 acres. The
city has a public library containing (1907) 107,600 volumes and an
historical museum. At the corner of Bergen Ave. and Forrest St. is the
People's Palace, given in 1904 by Joseph Milbank to the First
Congregational church and containing a library and reading-room, a
gymnasium, bowling alleys, a billiard-room, a rifle-range, a
roof-garden, and an auditorium and theatre; kindergarten classes are
held and an employment bureau is maintained. Among the educational
institutions are the German American school, Hasbrouck institute, St
Aloysius academy (Roman Catholic) and St Peter's college (Roman
Catholic); and there are good public schools. Grain is shipped to and
from Jersey City in large quantities, and in general the city is an
important shipping port; being included, however, in the port of New
York, no separate statistics are available. There are large
slaughtering establishments, and factories for the refining of sugar
and for the manufacture of tobacco goods, soap and perfumery, lead
pencils, iron and steel, railway cars, chemicals, rubber goods, silk
goods, dressed lumber, and malt liquors. The value of the city's
manufactured products increased from $37,376,322 in 1890 to
$77,225,116 in 1900, or 106.6%; in 1905 the factory product alone was
valued at $75,740,934, an increase of only 3.9% over the factory
product in 1900, this small rate of increase being due very largely to
a decline in the value of the products of the sugar and molasses
refining industry. The value of the wholesale slaughtering and
meat-packing product decreased from $18,551,783 in 1880 and
$11,356,511 in 1890 to $6,243,217 in 1900--of this $5,708,763
represented wholesale slaughtering alone; in 1905 the wholesale
slaughtering product was valued at $7,568,739.

In 1908 the assessed valuation of the city was $267,039,754. The city is governed by a board of aldermen and a mayor (elected biennially), who appoints most of the officials, the street and water board being the principal exception.

Jersey City when first incorporated was a small sandy peninsula (an island at high tide) known as Paulus Hook, directly opposite the lower end of Manhattan Island. It had been a part of the Dutch patroonship of Pavonia granted to Michael Pauw in 1630. In 1633 the first buildings were erected, and for more than a century the Hook was occupied by a small agricultural and trading community. In 1764 a new post route between New York and Philadelphia passed through what is now the city, and direct ferry communication began with New York. Early in the War of Independence Paulus Hook was fortified by the Americans, but soon after the battle of Long Island they abandoned it, and on the 23rd of September 1776 it was occupied by the British. On the morning of the 19th of August 1779 the British garrison was surprised by Major Henry Lee ("Light Horse Harry"), who with about 500 men took 159 prisoners and lost only 2 killed and 3 wounded, one of the most brilliant exploits during the War of Independence. In 1804 Paulus Hook, containing 117 acres and having about 15 inhabitants, passed into the possession of three enterprising New York lawyers, who laid it out as a town and formed an association for its government, which was incorporated as the "associates of the Jersey company." In 1820 the town was incorporated as the City of Jersey, but it remained a part of the township of Bergen until 1838, when it was reincorporated as a distinct municipality. In 1851 the township of Van Vorst, founded in 1804 between Paulus Hook and Hoboken, was annexed. In 1870 there were two annexations: to the south, the town of Bergen, the county-seat, which was founded in 1660; to the north-west, Hudson City, which had been separated from the township of North Bergen in 1852 and incorporated as a city in 1855. The town of Greenville, to the south, was annexed in 1873.

JERUSALEM (Heb. [Hebrew: Yerushalaïm] _Yerushalaïm_, pronounced as a dual), the chief city of Palestine. Letters found at Tell el-Amarna in Egypt, written by an early ruler of Jerusalem, show that the name existed under the form _Urusalim_, i.e. "City of Salim" or "City of Peace," many years before the Israelites under Joshua entered Canaan. The emperor Hadrian, when he rebuilt the city, changed the name to Aelia Capitolina. The Arabs usually designate Jerusalem by names expressive of holiness, such as Beit el Makdis and El Mukaddis or briefly El Kuds, i.e. the Sanctuary.

_Natural Topography._--Jerusalem is situated in 31° 47´ N. and 35° 15´
E., in the hill country of southern Palestine, close to the watershed,
at an average altitude of 2500 ft. above the Mediterranean, and 3800
ft. above the level of the Dead Sea. The city stands on a rocky
plateau, which projects southwards from the main line of hills. On the
east the valley of the Kidron separates this plateau from the ridge of
the Mount of Olives, which is 100 to 200 ft. higher, while the Wadi Er
Rababi bounds Jerusalem on the west and south, meeting the Valley of
Kidron near the lower pool of Siloam. Both valleys fall rapidly as
they approach the point of junction, which lies at a depth of more
than 600 ft. below the general valley of the plateau. The latter,
which covers an area of about 1000 acres, has at the present time a
fairly uniform surface and slopes gradually from the north to the
south and east. Originally, however, its formation was very different,
as it was intersected by a deep valley, called Tyropoeon by Josephus,
which, starting from a point N.W. of the Damascus gate, followed a
course first south-east and then west of south, and joined the two
main valleys of Kidron and Er Rababi at Siloam. Another shorter valley
began near the present Jaffa gate and, taking an easterly direction,
joined the Tyropoeon; while a third ravine passed across what is now
the northern part of the Haram enclosure and fell into the valley of
the Kidron. The exact form of these three interior valleys, which had
an important influence on the construction and history of the city, is
still imperfectly known, as they are to a great extent obliterated by
vast accumulations of rubbish, which has filled them up in some places
to a depth of more than 100 ft. Their approximate form was only
arrived at by excavations made during the later years of the 19th
century. The limited knowledge which we possess of the original
features of the ground within the area of the city makes a
reconstruction of the topographical history of the latter a difficult
task; and, as a natural result, many irreconcilable theories have been
suggested. The difficulty is increased by the fact that the
geographical descriptions given in the Old Testament the Apocrypha and
the writings of Josephus are very short, and, having been written for
those who were acquainted with the places, convey insufficient
information to historians of the present day, when the sites are so
greatly altered. All that can be done is to form a continuous account
in accord with the ancient histories, and with the original formation
of the ground, so far as this has been identified by modern
exploration. But the progress of exploration and excavation may render
this subject to further modification.

The geological formation of the plateau consists of thin beds of hard
silicious chalk, locally called _misse_, which overlie a thick bed of
soft white limestone, known by the name of _meleke_. Both descriptions
of rock yielded good material for building; while in the soft _meleke_
tanks, underground chambers, tombs, &c., were easily excavated. In
ancient times a brook flowed down the valley of the Kidron, and it is
possible that a stream flowed also through the Tyropoeon valley. The
only known spring existing at present within the limits of the city is
the "fountain of the Virgin," on the western side of the Kidron
valley, but there may have been others which are now concealed by the
accumulations of rubbish. Cisterns were also used for the storage of
rain water, and aqueducts, of which the remains still exist (see
AQUEDUCTS _ad init._), were constructed for the conveyance of water
from a distance. Speaking generally, it is probable that the water
supply of Jerusalem in ancient times was better than it is at present.

_History._--The early history of Jerusalem is very obscure. The Tell el-Amarna letters show that, long before the invasion by Joshua, it was occupied by the Egyptians, and was probably a stronghold of considerable importance, as it formed a good strategical position in the hill country of southern Palestine. We do not know how the Egyptians were forced to abandon Jerusalem; but, at the time of the Israelite conquest, it was undoubtedly in the hands of the Jebusites, the native inhabitants of the country. The exact position of the Jebusite city is unknown; some authorities locate it on the western hill, now known as Zion; some on the eastern hill, afterwards occupied by the Temple and the city of David; while others consider it was a double settlement, one part being on the western, and the other on the eastern hill, separated from one another by the Tyropoeon valley. The latter view appears to be the most probable, as, according to the Biblical accounts, Jerusalem was partly in Judah and partly in Benjamin, the line of demarcation between the two tribes passing through the city. According to this theory, the part of Jerusalem known as Jebus was situated on the western hill, and the outlying fort of Zion on the eastern hill. The men of Judah and Benjamin did not succeed in getting full possession of the place, and the Jebusites still held it when David became king of Israel. Some years after his accession David succeeded after some difficulty in taking Jerusalem. He established his royal city on the eastern hill close to the site of the Jebusite Zion, while Jebus, the town on the western side of the Tyropoeon valley, became the civil city, of which Joab, David's leading general, was appointed governor. David surrounded the royal city with a wall and built a citadel, probably on the site of the Jebusite fort of Zion, while Joab fortified the western town. North of the city of David, the king, acting under divine guidance, chose a site for the Temple of Jehovah, which was erected with great magnificence by Solomon. The actual site occupied by this building has given rise to much controversy, though all authorities are agreed that it must have stood on some part of the area now known as the Haram. James Fergusson was of opinion that the Temple stood near the south-western corner. As, however, it was proved by the explorations of Sir Charles Warren in 1869-1870 that the Tyropoeon valley passed under this corner, and that the foundations must have been of enormous depth, Fergusson's theory must be regarded as untenable (see also SEPULCHRE, HOLY). On the whole it is most likely that the Temple was erected by Solomon on the same spot as is now occupied by the Dome of the Rock, commonly known as the Mosque of Omar, and, regard being had to the levels of the ground, it is possible that the Holy of Holies, the most sacred chamber of the Temple, stood over the rock which is still regarded with veneration by the Mahommedans. Solomon greatly strengthened the fortifications of Jerusalem, and was probably the builder of the line of defence, called by Josephus the first or old wall, which united the cities on the eastern and western hills. The kingdom reached its highest point of importance during the reign of Solomon, but, shortly after his death, it was broken up by the rebellion of Jeroboam, who founded the separate kingdom of Israel with its capital at Shechem. Two tribes only, Judah and Benjamin, with the descendants of Levi, remained faithful to Rehoboam, the son of Solomon. Jerusalem thus lost much of its importance, especially after it was forced to surrender to Shishak, king of Egypt, who carried off a great part of the riches which had been accumulated by Solomon. The history of Jerusalem during the succeeding three centuries consists for the most part of a succession of wars against the kingdom of Israel, the Moabites and the Syrians. Joash, king of Israel, captured the city from Amaziah, king of Judah, and destroyed part of the fortifications, but these were rebuilt by Uzziah, the son of Amaziah, who did much to restore the city to its original prosperity. In the reign of Hezekiah, the kingdom of Judah became tributary to the Assyrians, who attempted the capture of Jerusalem. Hezekiah improved the defences and arranged for a good water supply, preparatory to the siege by Sennacherib, the Assyrian general. The siege failed and the Assyrians retired. Some years later Syria was again invaded by the Egyptians, who reduced Judah to the position of a tributary state. In the reign of Zedekiah, the last of the line of kings, Jerusalem was captured by Nebuchadrezzar, king of Babylon, who pillaged the city, destroyed the Temple, and ruined the fortifications (see JEWS, § 17). A number of the principal inhabitants were carried captive to Babylon, and Jerusalem was reduced to the position of an insignificant town. Nebuchadrezzar placed in the city a garrison which appears to have been quartered on the western hill, while the eastern hill on which were the Temple and the city of David was left more or less desolate. We have no information regarding Jerusalem during the period of the captivity, but fortunately Nehemiah, who was permitted to return and rebuild the defences about 445 B.C., has given a fairly clear description of the line of the wall which enables us to obtain a good idea of the extent of the city at this period. The Temple had already been partially rebuilt by Zedekiah and his companions, but on a scale far inferior to the magnificent building of King Solomon, and Nehemiah devoted his attention to the reconstruction of the walls. Before beginning the work, he made a preliminary reconnaissance of the fortifications on the south of the town from the Valley Gate, which was near the S.E. corner, to the pool of Siloam and valley of the Kidron. He then allotted the reconstruction of wall and gates to different parties of workmen, and his narrative describes the portion of wall upon which each of these was employed.[1]