Chapter VII: Part 7

[1] Gen. v. 32, vi. 10, vii. 13, x. 1; cf. 1 Chron. i. 4.

[2] Gen. ix. 27, x. 2, J. c. 850-750 B.C. In ix. 18 Ham is an
editorial addition.

[3] Gen. x. 1-5; cf. I Chron. i. 5-7. For the significance of the
genealogies in Gen. x. see HAM.

[4] See GOMER, GOG.

[5] So we should read with 1 Chron. i. 7 (LXX.) for Dodanim.

JAR, a vessel of simple form, made of earthenware, glass, &c., with a spoutless mouth, and usually without handles. The word came into English through Fr. _jarre_ or Span, _jarra_, from Arab, _jarrah_, the earthenware vessel of Eastern countries, used to contain water, oil, wine, &c. The simple electrical condenser known as a _Leyden Jar_ (q.v.) was so called because of the early experiments made in the science of electricity at Leiden. In the sense of a harsh vibrating sound, a sudden shock or vibrating movement, hence dissension, quarrel or petty strife, "jar" is onomatopoeic in origin; it is also seen in the name of the bird night-jar (also known as the goat-sucker). In the expression "on the jar" or "ajar," of a door or window partly open, the word is another form of _chare_ or _char_, meaning turn or turning, which survives in charwoman, one who works at a turn, a job and _chore_, a job, spell of work.

JARGON, in its earliest use a term applied to the chirping and twittering of birds, but since the 15th century mainly confined to any language, spoken or written, which is either unintelligible to the user or to the hearer. It is particularly applied by uninstructed hearers or readers to the language full of technical terminology used by scientific, philosophic and other writers. The word is O. Fr., and Cotgrave defines it as "gibridge (gibberish), fustian language." It is cognate with Span. _gerigonza_, and Ital. _gergo_, _gergone_, and probably related to the onomatopoeic O. Fr. _jargouiller_, to chatter. The root is probably seen in Lat. _garrire_, to chatter.

JARGOON, or Jargon (occasionally in old writings _jargounce_ and _jacounce_), a name applied by modern mineralogists to those zircons which are fine enough to be cut as gem-stones, but are not of the red colour which characterizes the hyacinth or jacinth. The word is related to Arab _zargun_ (zircon). Some of the finest jargoons are green, others brown and yellow, whilst some are colourless. The colourless jargoon may be obtained by heating certain coloured stones. When zircon is heated it sometimes changes in colour, or altogether loses it, and at the same time usually increases in density and brilliancy. The so-called Matura diamonds, formerly sent from Matara (or Matura), in Ceylon, were decolorized zircons. The zircon has strong refractive power, and its lustre is almost adamantine, but it lacks the fire of the diamond. The specific gravity of zircon is subject to considerable variation in different varieties; thus Sir A. H. Church found the sp. gr. of a fine leaf-green jargoon to be as low as 3.982, and that of a pure white jargoon as high as 4.705. Jargoon and tourmaline, when cut as gems, are sometimes mistaken for each other, but the sp. gr. is distinctive, since that of tourmaline is only 3 to 3.2. Moreover, in tourmaline the dichroism is strongly marked, whereas in jargoon it is remarkably feeble. The refractive indices of jargoon are much higher than those of tourmaline (see ZIRCON). (F. W. R.*)

JARIR IBN 'ATIYYA UL-KHATFI (d. 728), Arabian poet, was born in the reign of the caliph 'Ali, was a member of the tribe Kulaib, a part of the Tamim, and lived in Irak. Of his early life little is known, but he succeeded in winning the favour of Hajjaj, the governor of Irak (see CALIPHATE). Already famous for his verse, he became more widely known by his feud with Farazdaq and Akhtal. Later he went to Damascus and visited the court of Abdalmalik ('Abd ul-Malik) and that of his successor, Walid. From neither of these did he receive a warm welcome. He was, however, more successful with Omar II., and was the only poet received by the pious caliph.

His verse, which, like that of his contemporaries, is largely satire
and eulogy, was published in 2 vols. (Cairo, 1896). (G. W. T.)

JARKENT, a town of Russian Central Asia, in the province of Semiryechensk, 70 m. W.N.W. of Kulja and near to the Ili river. Pop. (1897), 16,372.

JARNAC, a town of western France in the department of Charente, on the right bank of the river Charente, and on the railway 23 m. W. of Angoulême, between that city and Cognac. Pop. (1906), 4493. The town is well built; and an avenue, planted with poplar trees, leads to a handsome suspension bridge. The church contains an interesting ogival crypt. There are communal colleges for both sexes. Brandy, wine and wine-casks are made in the town. Jarnac was in 1569 the scene of a battle in which the Catholics defeated the Protestants. A pyramid marks the spot where Louis, Prince de Condé, one of the Protestant generals, was slain. Jarnac gave its name to an old French family, of which the best known member is Gui Chabot, comte de Jarnac (d. c. 1575), whose lucky backstroke in his famous duel with Châteigneraie gave rise to the proverbial phrase _coup de jarnac_, signifying an unexpected blow.

JARO, a town of the province of Iloílo, Panay, Philippine Islands, on the Jaro river, 2 m. N.W. of the town of Iloílo, the capital. Pop. (1903), 10,681. It lies on a plain in the midst of a rich agricultural district, has several fine residences, a cathedral, a curious three-tiered tower, a semi-weekly paper and a monthly periodical. Jaro was founded by the Spanish in 1584. From 1903 until February 1908 it was part of the town or municipality of Iloílo.

JAROSITE, a rare mineral species consisting of hydrous potassium and aluminium sulphate, and belonging to the group of isomorphous rhombohedral minerals enumerated below:--

Alunite K2 [Al(OH)2]6 (SO4)4
Jarosite K2 [Fe(OH)2]6 (SO4)4
Natrojarosite Na2 [Fe(OH)2]6 (SO4)4
Plumbojarosite Pb [Fe(OH)2]8 (SO4)4

Jarosite usually occurs as drusy incrustations of minute indistinct crystals with a yellowish-brown colour and brilliant lustre. Hardness 3; sp. gr. 3.15. The best specimens, consisting of crystalline crusts on limonite, are from the Jaroso ravine in the Sierra Almagrera, province of Almeria, Spain, from which locality the mineral receives its name. It has been also found, often in association with iron ores, at a few other localities. A variety occurring as concretionary or mulberry-like forms is known as moronolite (from Gr. [Greek: môron], "mulberry," and [Greek: líthos], "stone"); it is found at Monroe in Orange county, New York. The recently discovered species natrojarosite and plumbojarosite occur as yellowish-brown glistening powders consisting wholly of minute crystals, and are from Nevada and New Mexico respectively. (L. J. S.)

JARRAH WOOD (an adaptation of the native name _Jerryhl_), the product of a large tree (_Eucalyptus marginata_) found in south-western Australia, where it is said to cover an area of 14,000 sq. m. The trees grow straight in the stem to a great size, and yield squared timber up to 40 ft. length and 24 in. diameter. The wood is very hard, heavy (sp. gr. 1.010) and close-grained, with a mahogany-red colour, and sometimes sufficient "figure" to render it suitable for cabinet-makers' use. The timber possesses several useful characteristics; and great expectations were at first formed as to its value for ship-building and general constructive purposes. These expectations have not, however, been realized, and the exclusive possession of the tree has not proved that source of wealth to western Australia which was at one time expected. Its greatest merit for ship-building and marine purposes is due to the fact that it resists, better than any other timber, the attacks of the _Teredo navalis_ and other marine borers, and on land it is equally exempt, in tropical countries, from the ravages of white ants. When felled with the sap at its lowest point and well seasoned, the wood stands exposure in the air, earth or sea remarkably well, on which account it is in request for railway sleepers, telegraph poles and piles in the British colonies and India. The wood, however, frequently shows longitudinal blisters, or lacunae, filled with resin, the same as may be observed in spruce fir timber; and it is deficient in fibre, breaking with a short fracture under comparatively moderate pressure. It has been classed at Lloyds for ship-building purposes in line three, table A, of the registry rules.

JARROW, a port and municipal borough in the Jarrow parliamentary division of Durham, England, on the right bank of the Tyne, 6½ m. below Newcastle, and on a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 34,295. The parish church of St Paul was founded in 685, and retains portions of pre-Norman work. The central tower is Norman, and there are good Decorated and Perpendicular details in the body of the church. Close by are the scattered ruins of the monastery begun by the pious Biscop in 681, and consecrated with the church by Ceolfrid in 685. Within the walls of this monastery the Venerable Bede spent his life from childhood; and his body was at first buried within the church, whither, until it was removed under Edward the Confessor to Durham, it attracted many pilgrims. The town is wholly industrial, devoted to ship-building, chemical works, paper mills and the neighbouring collieries. It owes its development from a mere pit village very largely to the enterprise of Sir Charles Mark Palmer (q.v.). Jarrow Slake, a river bay, 1 m. long by ½ m. broad, contains the Tyne docks of the North-Eastern railway company. A great quantity of coal is shipped. Jarrow was incorporated in 1875, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 783 acres.

JARRY, NICOLAS, one of the best-known 17th century French calligraphers. He was born at Paris about 1620, and was officially employed by Louis XIV. His most famous work is the _Guirlande de Julie_ (1641). He died some time before 1674.

JARVIS, JOHN WESLEY (1780-1840), American artist, nephew of the great John Wesley, was born at South Shields, England, and was taken to the United States at the age of five. He was one of the earliest American painters to give serious attention to the study of anatomy. He lived at first in Philadelphia, afterwards establishing himself in New York, where he enjoyed great popularity, though his conviviality and eccentric mode of life affected his work. He visited Baltimore, Charleston and New Orleans, entertaining much and painting portraits of prominent people, particularly in New Orleans, where General Andrew Jackson was one of his sitters. He had for assistants at different times both Sully and Inman. He affected singularity in dress and manners, and his _mots_ were the talk of the day. But his work deteriorated, and he died in great poverty in New York City. Examples of his painting are in the collection of the New York Historical Society.

JASHAR, BOOK OF, in Hebrew _Sepher ha-yashar_, a Hebrew composition mentioned as though well-known in Josh. x. 13 and 2 Sam. i. 18. From these two passages it seems to have been a book of songs relating to important events, but no early collection of the kind is now extant, nor is anything known of it. Various speculations have been put forward as to the name: (1) that it means the book of the upright, i.e. Israel or distinguished Israelites, the root being the same as in Jeshurun; (2) that Jashar ([Hebrew: yashar]) is a transposition of shîr ([Hebrew: shir], song); (3) that it should be pointed Yashir ([Hebrew: yashir], sing; cf. Exod. xv. 1) and was so called after its first word. None of these is very convincing, though support may be found for them all in the versions. The Septuagint favours (1) by its rendering [Greek: epi bibliou tou euthous] in Samuel (it omits the words in Joshua); the Vulgate has _in libro justorum_ in both places; the Syriac in Samuel has _Ashir_, which suggests a Hebrew reading _ha-shir_ (the song), and in Joshua it translates "book of praises." The Targum on both passages has "book of the law," an explanation which is followed by the chief Jewish commentators, making the incidents the fulfilment of passages in the Pentateuch. Since it contained the lament of David (2 Sam. i. 18) it cannot have been completed till after his time. If Wellhausen's restoration of 1 Kings viii. 12 be accepted (from Septuagint 1 Kings viii. 53, [Greek: en bibliô tês ôdês]) where the reference is to the building of the Temple, the book must have been growing in the time of Solomon. The attempt of Donaldson[1] to reconstruct it is largely subjective and uncritical.

In later times when it became customary to compose midrashic works
under well-known names, a book of Jashar naturally made its
appearance. It need hardly be remarked that this has nothing whatever
to do with the older book. It is an anonymous elaboration in Hebrew of
the early part of the biblical narrative, probably composed in the
12th century. The fact that its legendary material is drawn from
Arabic sources, as well as from Talmud, Midrash and later Jewish
works, would seem to show that the writer lived in Spain, or,
according to others, in south Italy. The first edition appeared at
Venice in 1625, and it has been frequently printed since. It was
translated into English by (or for) M. M. Noah (New York, 1840). A
work called _The Book of ... Jasher, translated ... by Alcuin_ (1751;
2nd ed., Bristol, 1829), has nothing to do with this or with any
Hebrew original, but is a mere fabrication by the printer, Jacob Hive,
who put it forward as the book "mentioned in Holy Scripture."

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--M. Heilprin, _Historical Poetry of the Ancient Hebrews_
(New York, 1879), i. 128-131; Mercati, "Una congettura sopra il libro
del Giusto," in _Studi e Testi_ (5, Roma, 1901). On the medieval work
see Zunz, _Gottesdienstliche Vorträge der Juden_ (Frankfurt a. M.,
1892), 2nd ed., p. 162.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] _Jashar: fragmenta archetypa carminum Hebraicorum_ (Berlin,
1854). Cf. Perowne's _Remarks_ on it (Lond. 1855).

JASHPUR, a tributary state of India, in the Central Provinces, having been transferred from Bengal in 1905. The country is divided almost equally into high and low lands. The Uparghat plateau on the east rises 2200 ft. above sea-level, and the hills above it reach their highest point in Ranijula (3527 ft.). The only river of importance is the Ib, in the bed of which diamonds are found, while from time immemorial its sands have been washed for gold. Jashpur iron, smelted by the Kols, is highly prized. Jungles of _sál_ forests abound, harbouring elephant, bison and other wild beasts. Jungle products include lac, silk cocoons and beeswax, which are exported. Area 1948 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 132,114; estimated revenue £8000.

JASMIN, JACQUES (1798-1864), Provençal poet, was born at Agen on the 6th of March 1798, his family name being Boé. His father, who was a tailor, had a certain facility for making doggerel verses, which he sang or recited at fairs and such-like popular gatherings; and Jacques, who used generally to accompany him, was thus early familiarized with the part which he afterwards so successfully filled himself. When sixteen years of age he found employment at a hairdresser's shop, and subsequently started a similar business of his own on the Gravier at Agen. In 1825 he published his first volume of _Papillotos_ ("Curl Papers"), containing poems in French (a language he used with a certain sense of restraint), and in the familiar Agen _patois_--the popular speech of the working classes--in which he was to achieve all his literary triumphs. Jasmin was the most famous forerunner in Provençal literature (q.v.) of Mistral and the _Félibrige_. His influence in rehabilitating, for literary purposes, his native dialect, was particularly exercised in the public recitals of his poems to which he devoted himself. His poetic gift, and his flexible voice and action, fitted him admirably for this double rôle of troubadour and jongleur. In 1835 he recited his "Blind Girl of Castel-Cuillé" at Bordeaux, in 1836 at Toulouse; and he met with an enthusiastic reception in both those important cities. Most of his public recitations were given for benevolent purposes, the proceeds being contributed by him to the restoration of the church of Vergt and other good works. Four successive volumes of _Papillotos_ were published during his lifetime, and contained amongst others the following remarkable poems, quoted in order: "The Charivari," "My Recollections" (supplemented after an interval of many years), "The Blind Girl," "Françounetto," "Martha the Simple," and "The Twin Brothers." With the exception of "The Charivari," these are all touching pictures of humble life--in most cases real episodes--carefully elaborated by the poet till the graphic descriptions, full of light and colour, and the admirably varied and melodious verse, seem too spontaneous and easy to have cost an effort. Jasmin was not a prolific writer, and, in spite of his impetuous nature, would work a long time at one poem, striving to realize every feeling he wished to describe, and give it its most lucid and natural expression. A verse from his spirited poem, "The Third of May," written in honour of Henry IV., and published in the first volume of _Papillotos_, is engraved on the base of the statue erected to that king at Nérac. In 1852 Jasmin's works were crowned by the Académie Française, and a pension was awarded him. The medal struck on the occasion bore the inscription: _Au poëte moral et populaire_. His title of "Maistre ès Jeux" is a distinction only conferred by the academy of Toulouse on illustrious writers. Pius IX. sent him the insignia of a knight of St Gregory the Great, and he was made chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He spent the latter years of his life on a small estate which he had bought near Agen and named "Papillotos," and which he describes in _Ma Bigno_ ("My Vine"). Though invited to represent his native city, he refused to do so, preferring the pleasures and leisure of a country life, and wisely judging that he was no really eligible candidate for electoral honours. He died on the 4th of October 1864. His last poem, an answer to Renan, was placed between his folded hands in his coffin.

JASMINE, or JESSAMINE, botanically _Jasminum_, a genus of shrubs or climbers constituting the principal part of the tribe Jasminoideae of the natural order Oleaceae, and comprising about 150 species, of which 40 or more occur in the gardens of Britain. The plants of the genus are mostly natives of the warmer regions of the Old World; there is one South American species. The leaves are pinnate or ternate, or sometimes apparently simple, consisting of one leaflet, articulated to the petiole. The flowers, usually white or yellow, are arranged in terminal or axillary panicles, and have a tubular 5- or 8-cleft calyx, a cylindrical corolla-tube, with a spreading limb, two included stamens and a two-celled ovary.

The name is derived from the Persian _yásmín_. Linnaeus obtained a fancied etymology from [Greek: ia], violets, and [Greek: osmê], smell, but the odour of its flowers bears no resemblance to that of the violet. The common white jasmine, _Jasminum officinale_, one of the best known and most highly esteemed of British hardy ligneous climbers, is a native of northern India and Persia, introduced about the middle of the 16th century. In the centre and south of Europe it is thoroughly acclimatized. Although it grows to the height of 12 and sometimes 20 ft., its stem is feeble and requires support; its leaves are opposite, pinnate and dark green, the leaflets are in three pairs, with an odd one, and are pointed, the terminal one larger and with a tapering point. The fragrant white flowers bloom from June to October; and, as they are found chiefly on the young shoots, the plant should only be pruned in the autumn. Varieties with golden and silver-edged leaves and one with double flowers are known.

The zambak or Arabian jasmine, _J. Sambac_, is an evergreen
white-flowered climber, 6 or 8 ft. high, introduced into Britain in
the latter part of the 17th century. Two varieties introduced somewhat
later are respectively 3-leaved and double-flowered, and these, as
well as that with normal flowers, bloom throughout the greater part of
the year. On account of their exquisite fragrance the flowers are
highly esteemed in the East, and are frequently referred to by the
Persian and Arabian poets. An oil obtained by boiling the leaves is
used to anoint the head for complaints of the eye, and an oil obtained
from the roots is used medicinally to arrest the secretion of milk.
The flowers of one of the double varieties are held sacred to Vishnu,
and used as votive offerings in Hindu religious ceremonies. The
Spanish, or Catalonian jasmine, _J. grandiflorum_, a native of the
north-west Himalaya, and cultivated both in the old and new world, is
very like _J. officinale_, but differs in the size of the leaflets;
the branches are shorter and stouter, and the flowers very much
larger, and reddish underneath. By grafting it on two-year-old plants
of _J. officinale_, an erect bush about 3 ft. high is obtained,
requiring no supports. In this way it is very extensively cultivated
at Cannes and Grasse, in the south of France; the plants are set in
rows, fully exposed to the sun; they come into full bearing the second
year after grafting; the blossoms, which are very large and intensely
fragrant, are produced from July till the end of October, but those of
August and September are the most odoriferous.

The aroma is extracted by the process known as _enfleurage_, i.e.
absorption by a fatty body, such as purified lard or olive oil. Square
glass trays framed with wood about 3 in. deep are spread over with
grease about half an inch thick, in which ridges are made to
facilitate absorption, and sprinkled with freshly gathered flowers,
which are renewed every morning during the whole time the plant
remains in blossom; the trays are piled up in stacks to prevent the
evaporation of the aroma; and finally the pomade is scraped off the
glass, melted at as low a temperature as possible, and strained. When
oil is employed as the absorbent, coarse cotton cloths previously
saturated with the finest olive oil are laid on wire-gauze frames, and
repeatedly covered in the same manner with fresh flowers; they are
then squeezed under a press, yielding what is termed _huile antique au
jasmin_. Three pounds of flowers will perfume 1 lb. of grease--this is
exhausted by maceration in 1 pt. of rectified spirit to form the
"extract." An essential oil is distilled from jasmine in Tunis and
Algeria, but its high price prevents its being used to any extent. The
East Indian oil of jasmine is a compound largely contaminated with
sandalwood-oil.

The distinguishing characters of _J. odoratissimum_, a native of the
Canary Islands and Madeira, consist principally in the alternate,
obtuse, ternate and pinnate leaves, the 3-flowered terminal peduncles
and the 5-cleft yellow corolla with obtuse segments. The flowers have
the advantage of retaining when dry their natural perfume, which is
suggestive of a mixture of jasmine, jonquil and orange-blossom. In
China _J. paniculatum_ is cultivated as an erect shrub, known as
_sieu-hing-hwa_; it is valued for its flowers, which are used with
those of _J. Sambac_, in the proportion of 10 lb. of the former to 30
lb. of the latter, for scenting tea--40 lb. of the mixture being
required for 100 lb. of tea. _J. angustifolium_ is a beautiful
evergreen climber 10 to 12 ft. high, found in the Coromandel forests,
and introduced into Britain during the present century. Its leaves are
of a bright shining green; its large terminal flowers are white with a
faint tinge of red, fragrant and blooming throughout the year.

In Cochin China a decoction of the leaves and branches of _J.
nervosum_ is taken as a blood-purifier; and the bitter leaves of _J.
floribundum_ (called in Abyssinia _habbez-zelim_) mixed with kousso is
considered a powerful anthelmintic, especially for tapeworm; the
leaves and branches are added to some fermented liquors to increase
their intoxicating quality. In Catalonia and in Turkey the wood of the
jasmine is made into long, slender pipe-stems, highly prized by the
Moors and Turks. Syrup of jasmine is made by placing in a jar
alternate layers of the flowers and sugar, covering the whole with wet
cloths and standing it in a cool place; the perfume is absorbed by the
sugar, which is converted into a very palatable syrup. The important
medicinal plant known in America as the "Carolina jasmine" is not a
true jasmine (see GELSEMIUM).

Other hardy species commonly cultivated in gardens are the low or
Italian yellow-flowered jasmine, _J. humile_, an East Indian species
introduced and now found wild in the south of Europe, an erect shrub 3
or 4 ft. high, with angular branches, alternate and mostly ternate
leaves, blossoming from June to September; the common yellow jasmine,
_J. fruticans_, a native of southern Europe and the Mediterranean
region, a hardy evergreen shrub, 10 to 12 ft. high, with weak, slender
stems requiring support, and bearing yellow, odourless flowers from
spring to autumn; and _J. nudiflorum_ (China), which bears its bright
yellow flowers in winter before the leaves appear. It thrives in
almost any situation and grows rapidly.

JASON ([Greek: Iasôn]), in Greek legend, son of Aeson, king of Iolcus in Thessaly. He was the leader of the Argonautic expedition (see ARGONAUTS). After he returned from it he lived at Corinth with his wife Medea (q.v.) for many years. At last he put away Medea, in order to marry Glauce (or Creusa), daughter of the Corinthian king Creon. To avenge herself, Medea presented the new bride with a robe and head-dress, by whose magic properties the wearer was burnt to death, and slew her children by Jason with her own hand. A later story represents Jason as reconciled to Medea (Justin, xlii. 2). His death was said to have been due to suicide through grief, caused by Medea's vengeance (Diod. Sic. iv. 55); or he was crushed by the fall of the poop of the ship "Argo," under which, on the advice of Medea, he had laid himself down to sleep (argument of Euripides' _Medea_). The name (more correctly Iason) means "healer," and Jason is possibly a local hero of Iolcus to whom healing powers were attributed. The ancients regarded him as the oldest navigator, and the patron of navigation. By the moderns he has been variously explained as a solar deity; a god of summer; a god of storm; a god of rain, who carries off the rain-giving cloud (the golden fleece) to refresh the earth after a long period of drought. Some regard the legend as a chthonian myth, Aea (Colchis) being the under-world in the Aeolic religious system from which Jason liberates himself and his betrothed; others, in view of certain resemblances between the story of Jason and that of Cadmus (the ploughing of the field, the sowing of the dragon's teeth, the fight with the Sparti, who are finally set fighting with one another by a stone hurled into their midst), associate both with Demeter the corn-goddess, and refer certain episodes to practices in use at country festivals, e.g. the stone throwing, which, like the [Greek: ballêtys] at the Eleusinia and the [Greek: lithobolia] at Troezen (Pausanias ii. 30, 4 with Frazer's note) was probably intended to secure a good harvest by driving away the evil spirits of unfruitfulness.

See articles by C. Seeliger in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_ and
by F. Durrbach in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des
antiquités_; H. D. Müller, _Mythologie der griechischen Stämme_
(1861), ii. 328, who explains the name Jason as "wanderer"; W.
Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (1884), pp. 75, 130; O.
Crusius, _Beiträge zur griechischen Mythologie una
Religionsgeschichte_ (Leipzig, 1886).

_Later Versions of the Legend._--_Les fais et prouesses du noble et vaillant chevalier Jason_ was composed in the middle of the 15th century by Raoul Lefèvre on the basis of Benoît's _Roman de Troie_, and presented to Philip of Burgundy, founder of the order of the Golden Fleece. The manners and sentiments of the 15th century are made to harmonize with the classical legends after the fashion of the Italian pre-Raphaelite painters, who equipped Jewish warriors with knightly lance and armour. The story is well told; the digressions are few; and there are many touches of domestic life and natural sympathy. The first edition is believed to have been printed at Bruges in 1474.

Caxton translated the book under the title of _A Boke of the hoole Lyf
of Jason_, at the command of the duchess of Burgundy. A Flemish
translation appeared at Haarlem in 1495. The Benedictine Bernard de
Montfaucon (1655-1741) refers to a MS. by Guido delle Colonne,
_Historia Medeae et Jasonis_ (unpublished).

The _Histoire de la Thoison d'Or_ (Paris, 1516) by Guillaume Fillastre
(1400-1473), written about 1440-1450, is an historical compilation
dealing with the exploits of the _très chrétiennes maisons_ of France,
Burgundy and Flanders.

JASON OF CYRENE, a Hellenistic Jew, who lived about 100 B.C. and wrote a history of the times of the Maccabees down to the victory over Nicanor (175-161 B.C.). This work is said to have been in five books and formed the basis of the present 2 Macc. (see ch. ii. 19-32).

JASPER, an opaque compact variety of quartz, variously coloured and often containing argillaceous matter. The colours are usually red, brown, yellow or green, and are due to admixture with compounds of iron, either oxides or silicates. Although the term jasper is now restricted to opaque quartz it is certain that the ancient _jaspis_ or [Greek: iaspis] was a stone of considerable translucency. The jasper of antiquity was in many cases distinctly green, for it is often compared with the emerald and other green objects. Jasper is referred to in the _Niebelungenlied_ as being clear and green. Probably the jasper of the ancients included stones which would now be classed as chalcedony, and the emerald-like jasper may have been akin to our chrysoprase. The Hebrew word _yashefeh_ may have designated a green jasper (cf. Assyrian _yashpu_). Professor Flinders Petrie has suggested that the _odem_, the first stone on the High Priest's breastplate, translated "sard," was a red jasper, whilst _tarshish_, the tenth stone, may have been a yellow jasper (Hastings's _Dict. Bible_, 1902).

Many varieties of jasper are recognized. Riband jasper is a form in
which the colours are disposed in bands, as in the well-known
ornamental stone from Siberia, which shows a regular alternation of
dark red and green stripes. Egyptian jasper is a brown jasper,
occurring as nodules in the Lybian desert and in the Nile valley, and
characterized by a zonal arrangement of light and dark shades of
colour. Agate-jasper is a variety intermediate between true jasper and
chalcedony. Basanite, lydite, or Lydian stone, is a velvet-black
flinty jasper, used as a touchstone for testing the purity of precious
metals by their streak. Porcelain jasper is a clay indurated by
natural calcination. (F. W. R.*)

JASSY (_Iasii_), also written JASII, JASCHI and YASSY, the capital of the department of Jassy, Rumania; situated on the left bank of the river Bahlui, an affluent of the Jijia, about 10 m. W. of the Pruth and the Russian frontier. Pop. (1900), 78,067. Jassy communicates by rail with Galatz on the Danube, Kishinev in Bessarabia, and Czernowitz in Bukowina. The surrounding country is one of uplands and woods, among which rise the monasteries of Cetatuia, Frumoasa, and Galata with its mineral springs, the water-cure establishment of Rapide and the great seminary of Socola. Jassy itself stands pleasantly amid vineyards and gardens, partly on two hills, partly in the hollow between. Its primitive houses of timber and plaster were mostly swept away after 1860, when brick or stone came into general use, and good streets were cut among the network of narrow, insanitary lanes. Jassy is the seat of the metropolitan of Moldavia, and of a Roman Catholic archbishop. Synagogues and churches abound. The two oldest churches date from the reign of Stephen the Great (1458-1504); perhaps the finest, however, are the 17th-century metropolitan, St Spiridion and Trei Erarchi, the last a curious example of Byzantine art, erected in 1639 or 1640 by Basil the Wolf, and adorned with countless gilded carvings on its outer walls and twin towers. The St Spiridion Foundation (due to the liberality of Prince Gregory Ghika in 1727, and available for the sick of all countries and creeds) has an annual income of over £80,000, and maintains hospitals and churches in several towns of Moldavia, besides the baths at Slanic in Walachia. The main hospital in Jassy is a large building, and possesses a maternity institution, a midwifery school, a chemical institute, an inoculating establishment, &c. A society of physicians and naturalists has existed in Jassy since the early part of the 19th century, and a number of periodicals are published. Besides the university, founded by Prince Cuza in 1864, with faculties of literature, philosophy, law, science and medicine, there are a military academy and schools of art, music and commerce; a museum, a fine hall and a theatre; the state library, where the chief records of Rumanian history are preserved; an appeal court, a chamber of commerce and several banks. The city is the headquarters of the 4th army corps. It has an active trade in petroleum, salt, metals, timber, cereals, fruit, wine, spirits, preserved meat, textiles, clothing, leather, cardboard and cigarette paper.

The inscription by which the existence of a _Jassiorum municipium_ in the time of the Roman Empire is sought to be proved, lies open to grave suspicion; but the city is mentioned as early as the 14th century, and probably does derive its name from the Jassians, or Jazygians, who accompanied the Cumanian invaders. It was often visited by the Moldavian court. About 1564, Prince Alexander Lapusneanu, after whom one of the chief streets is named, chose Jassy for the Moldavian capital, instead of Suceava (now Suczawa, in Bukowina). It was already famous as a centre of culture. Between 1561 and 1563 an excellent school and a Lutheran church were founded by the Greek adventurer, Jacob Basilicus (see RUMANIA: _History_). In 1643 the first printed book published in Moldavia was issued from a press established by Basil the Wolf. He also founded a school, the first in which the mother-tongue took the place of Greek. Jassy was burned by the Tatars in 1513, by the Turks in 1538, and by the Russians in 1686. By the Peace of Jassy the second Russo-Turkish War was brought to a close in 1792. A Greek insurrection under Ypsilanti in 1821 led to the storming of the city by the Turks in 1822. In 1844 there was a severe conflagration. For the loss caused to the city in 1861 by the removal of the seat of government to Bucharest the constituent assembly voted £148,150, to be paid in ten annual instalments, but no payment was ever made.

JATAKA, the technical name, in Buddhist literature, for a story of one or other of the previous births of the Buddha. The word is also used for the name of a collection of 547 of such stories included, by a most fortunate conjuncture of circumstances, in the Buddhist canon. This is the most ancient and the most complete collection of folk-lore now extant in any literature in the world. As it was made at latest in the 3rd century B.C., it can be trusted not to give any of that modern or European colouring which renders suspect much of the folk-lore collected by modern travellers.

Already in the oldest documents, drawn up by the disciples soon after the Buddha's death, he is identified with certain ancient sages of renown. That a religious teacher should claim to be successor of the prophets of old is not uncommon in the history of religions. But the current belief in metempsychosis led, or enabled, the early Buddhists to make a much wider claim. It was not very long before they gradually identified their master with the hero of each of the popular fables and stories of which they were so fond. The process must have been complete by the middle of the 3rd century B.C.; for we find at that date illustrations of the Jatakas in the bas-reliefs on the railing round the Bharahat tope with the titles of the Jataka stories inscribed above them in the characters of that period.[1] The hero of each story is made into a Bodhisatta; that is, a being who is destined, after a number of subsequent births, to become a Buddha. This rapid development of the Bodhisatta theory is the distinguishing feature in the early history of Buddhism, and was both cause and effect of the simultaneous growth of the Jataka book. In adopting the folk-lore and fables already current in India, the Buddhists did not change them very much. The stories as preserved to us, are for the most part Indian rather than Buddhist. The ethics they inculcate or suggest are milk for babes; very simple in character and referring almost exclusively to matters common to all schools of thought in India, and indeed elsewhere. Kindness, purity, honesty, generosity, worldly wisdom, perseverance, are the usual virtues praised; the higher ethics of the Path are scarcely mentioned. These stories, popular with all, were especially appreciated by that school of Buddhists that laid stress on the Bodhisatta theory--a school that obtained its chief support, and probably had its origin, in the extreme north-west of India and in the highlands of Asia. That school adopted, from the early centuries of our era, the use of Sanskrit, instead of Pali, as the means of literary expression. It is almost impossible, therefore, that they would have carried the canonical Pali book, voluminous as it is, into Central Asia. Shorter collections of the original stories, written in Sanskrit, were in vogue among them. One such collection, the Jataka-mala, by Arya Sura (6th century), is still extant. Of the existence of another collection, though the Sanskrit original has not yet been found, we have curious evidence. In the 6th century a book of Sanskrit fables was translated into Pahlavi, that is, old Persian (see Bidpai). In succeeding centuries this work was retranslated into Arabic and Hebrew, thence into Latin and Greek and all the modern languages of Europe. The book bears a close resemblance to the earlier chapters of a late Sanskrit fable book called, from its having five chapters, the _Pancha tantra_, or Pentateuch.

The introduction to the old Jataka book gives the life of the historical Buddha. That introduction must also have reached Persia by the same route. For in the 8th century St John of Damascus put the story into Greek under the title of _Barlaam and Josaphat_. This story became very popular in the West. It was translated into Latin, into seven European languages, and even into Icelandic and the dialect of the Philippine Islands. Its hero, that is the Buddha, was canonized as a Christian saint; and the 27th of November was officially fixed as the date for his adoration as such.

The book popularly known in Europe as _Aesop's Fables_ was not written
by Aesop. It was put together in the 14th century at Constantinople by
a monk named Planudes, and he drew largely for his stories upon those
in the Jataka book that had reached Europe along various channels. The
fables of Babrius and Phaedrus, written respectively in the 1st
century before, and in the 1st century after, the Christian era, also
contain Jataka stories known in India in the 4th century B.C. A great
deal has been written on this curious question of the migration of
fables. But we are still very far from being able to trace the
complete history of each story in the Jataka book, or in any one of
the later collections. For India itself the record is most incomplete.
We have the original Jataka book in text and translation. The history
of the text of the Pancha tantra, about a thousand years later, has
been fairly well traced out. But for the intervening centuries
scarcely anything has been done. There are illustrations, in the
bas-reliefs of the 3rd century B.C., of Jatakas not contained in the
Jataka book. Another collection, the _Cariyâ pitaka_, of about the
same date, has been edited, but not translated. Other collections both
in Pali and Sanskrit are known to be extant in MS; and a large number
of Jataka stories, not included in any formal collection, are
mentioned, or told in full, in other works.

AUTHORITIES.--V. Fausböll, _The Jataka_, Pali text (7 vols., London,
1877-1897), (Eng. trans., edited by E. B. Cowell, 6 vols., Cambridge,
1895-1907); _Cariyâ pitaka_, edited by R. Morris for the Pali Text
Society (London, 1882); H. Kern, _Jataka-mala_, Sanskrit text
(Cambridge, Mass., 1891), (Eng. trans. by J. S. Speyer, Oxford, 1895);
Rhys Davids, _Buddhist Birth Stories_ (with full bibliographical
tables) (London, 1880); _Buddhist India_ (chap. xi. on the Jataka
Book) (London, 1903); E. Kuhn, _Barlaam und Joasaph_ (Munich, 1893);
A. Cunningham, _The Stupa of Bharhut_ (London, 1879). (T. W. R. D.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] A complete list of these inscriptions will be found in Rhys
Davids's _Buddhist India_, p. 209.

JATH, a native state of India, in the Deccan division of Bombay, ranking as one of the southern Mahratta jagirs. With the small state of Daphlapur, which is an integral part of it, it forms the Bijapur Agency, under the collector of Bijapur district. Area, including Daphlapur, 980 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 68,665, showing a decline of 14% in the decade. Estimated revenue £24,000; tribute £700. Agriculture and cattle-breeding are carried on; there are no important manufactures. The chief, whose title is deshmukh, is a Mahratta of the Daphle family. The town of JATH is 92 m. S.E. of Satara. Pop. (1901), 5404.

JÁTIVA (formerly written XATIVA), or SAN FELIPE DE JÁTIVA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Valencia, on the right bank of the river Albaida, a tributary of the Júcar, and at the junction of the Valencia-Murcia and Valencia-Albacete railways. Pop. (1900), 12,600. Játiva is built on the margin of a fertile and beautiful plain, and on the southern slopes of the Monte Bernisa, a hill with two peaks, each surmounted by a castle. With its numerous fountains, and spacious avenues shaded with elms or cypresses, the town has a clean and attractive appearance. Its collegiate church, dating from 1414, but rebuilt about a century later in the Renaissance style, was formerly a cathedral, and is the chief among many churches and convents. The town-hall and a church on the castle hill are partly constructed of inscribed Roman masonry, and several houses date from the Moorish occupation. There is a brisk local trade in grain, fruit, wine, oil and rice.

Játiva was the Roman Saetabis, afterwards Valeria Augusta, of Carthaginian or Iberian origin. Pliny (23-79) and Martial (c. 40-102) mention the excellence of its linen cloth. Under the Visigoths (c. 483-711) it became an episcopal see; but early in the 8th century it was captured by the Moors, under whom it attained great prosperity, and received its present name. It was reconquered by James I. of Aragon (1213-1276). During the 15th and 16th centuries, Játiva was the home of many members of the princely house of Borgia or Borja, who migrated hither from the town of Borja in the province of Saragossa. Alphonso Borgia, afterwards Pope Calixtus III., and Rodrigo Borgia, afterwards Pope Alexander VI., were natives of Játiva, born respectively in 1378 and 1431. The painter Jusepe Ribera was also born here in 1588. Owing to its gallant defence against the troops of the Archduke Charles in the war of the Spanish succession, Játiva received the additional name of San Felipe from Philip V. (1700-1746).

JATS, or JUTS, a people of north-western India, who numbered altogether more than 7 millions in 1901. They form a considerable proportion of the population in the Punjab, Rajputana and the adjoining districts of the United Provinces, and are also widely scattered through Sind and Baluchistan. Some writers have identified the Juts with the ancient Getae, and there is strong reason to believe them a degraded tribe of Rajputs, whose Scythic origin has also been maintained. Hindu legends point to a prehistoric occupation of the Indus valley by this people, and at the time of the Mahommedan conquest of Sind (712) they, with a cognate tribe called Meds, constituted the bulk of the population. They enlisted under the banner of Mahommed bin Kasim, but at a later date offered a vigorous resistance to the Arab invaders. In 836 they were overthrown by Amran, who imposed on them a tribute of dogs, and used their arms to vanquish the Meds. In 1025, however, they had gathered audacity, not only to invade Mansura, and compel the abjuration of the Mussulman amir, but to attack the victorious army of Mahmud, laden with the spoil of Somnath. Chastisement duly ensued: a formidable flotilla, collected at Multan, shattered in thousands the comparatively defenceless Jat boats on the Indus, and annihilated their national pretensions. It is not until the decay of the Mogul Empire that the Jats again appear in history. One branch of them, settled south of Agra, mainly by bold plundering raids founded two dynasties which still exist at Bharatpur (q.v.) and Dholpur (q.v.). Another branch, settled north-west of Delhi, who adopted the Sikh religion, ultimately made themselves dominant throughout the Punjab (q.v.) under Ranjit Singh, and are now represented in their original home by the Phulkian houses of Patiala (q.v.), Jind (q.v.) and Nabha (q.v.). It is from this latter branch that the Sikh regiments of the Indian army are recruited. The Jats are mainly agriculturists and cattle breeders. In their settlements on the Ganges and Jumna, extending as far east as Bareilly, they are divided into two great clans, the Dhe and the Hele; while in the Punjab there are said to be one hundred different sections. Their religion varies with locality. In the Punjab they have largely embraced Sikh tenets, while in Sind and Baluchistan they are Mahommedans. In appearance they are not ill-favoured though extremely dark; they have good teeth, and large beards, sometimes stained with indigo. Their inferiority of social position, however, to some extent betrays itself in their aspect, and tends to be perpetuated by their intellectual apathy.

JAUBERT, PIERRE AMÉDÉE ÉMILIEN PROBE (1779-1847), French Orientalist, was born at Aix in Provence on the 3rd of June 1779. He was one of the most distinguished pupils of Silvestre de Sacy, whose funeral _Discours_ he pronounced in 1838. Jaubert acted as interpreter to Napoleon in Egypt in 1798-1799, and on his return to Paris held various posts under government. In 1802 he accompanied Sebastiani on his Eastern mission; and in 1804 he was at Constantinople. Next year he was despatched to Persia to arrange an alliance with the shah; but on the way he was seized and imprisoned in a dry cistern for four months by the pasha of Bayazid. The pasha's death freed Jaubert, who successfully accomplished his mission, and rejoined Napoleon at Warsaw in 1807. On the eve of Napoleon's downfall he was appointed chargé d'affaires at Constantinople. The restoration ended his diplomatic career, but in 1818 he undertook a journey with government aid to Tibet, whence he succeeded in introducing into France 400 Kashmir goats. The rest of his life Jaubert spent in study, in writing and in teaching. He became professor of Persian in the collège de France, and director of the école des langues orientales, and in 1830 was elected member of the Académie des Inscriptions. In 1841 he was made a peer of France and councillor of state. He died in Paris on the 28th of January, 1847.

Besides articles in the _Journal asiatique_, he published _Voyage en
Arménie et en Perse_ (1821; the edition of 1860 has a notice of
Jaubert, by M. Sédillot) and _Éléments de la grammaire turque_
(1823-1834). See notices in the _Journal asiatique_, Jan. 1847, and
the _Journal des débats_, Jan. 30, 1847.

JAUCOURT, ARNAIL FRANÇOIS, MARQUIS DE (1757-1852), French politician, was born on the 14th of November 1757 at Tournon (Seine-et-Marne) of a Protestant family, protected by the prince de Condé, whose regiment he entered. He adopted revolutionary ideas and became colonel of his regiment. In the Assembly, to which he was returned in 1791 by the department of Seine-et-Marne, he voted generally with the minority, and his views being obviously too moderate for his colleagues he resigned in 1792 and was soon after arrested on suspicion of being a reactionary. Mme de Staël procured his release from P. L. Manuel just before the September massacres. He accompanied Talleyrand on his mission to England, returning to France after the execution of Louis XVI. He lived in retirement until the establishment of the Consulate, when he entered the tribunate, of which he was for some time president. In 1803 he entered the senate, and next year became attached to the household of Joseph Bonaparte. Presently his imperialist views cooled, and at the Restoration he became minister of state and a peer of France. At the second Restoration he was for a brief period minister of marine, but held no further office. He devoted himself to the support of the Protestant interest in France. A member of the upper house throughout the reign of Louis Philippe, he was driven into private life by the establishment of the Second Republic, but lived to see the _Coup d'état_ and to rally to the government of Louis Napoleon, dying in Paris on the 5th of February 1852.

JAUER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, 13 m. by rail S. of Leignitz, on the Wüthende Neisse. Pop. (1900), 13,024. St Martin's (Roman Catholic) church dates from 1267-1290, and the Evangelical church from 1655. A new town-hall was erected in 1895-1898. Jauer manufactures leather, carpets, cigars, carriages and gloves, and is specially famous for its sausages. The town was first mentioned in 1242, and was formerly the capital of a principality embracing about 1200 sq. m., now occupied by the circles of Jauer, Bunzlau, Löweberg, Hirschberg and Schönau. From 1392 to 1741 it belonged to the kings of Bohemia, being taken from Maria Theresa by Frederick the Great. Jauer was formerly the prosperous seat of the Silesian linen trade, but the troubles of the Thirty Years' War, in the course of which it was burned down three times, permanently injured this.

See Schönaich, _Die alte Fürstentumshauptstadt Jauer_ (Jauer, 1903).

JAUHARI (ABU NASR ISMA^EIL IBN HAMMAD UL-JAUHARI) (d. 1002 or 1010), Arabian lexicographer, was born at Farab on the borders of Turkestan. He studied language in Farab and Bagdad, and later among the Arabs of the desert. He then settled in Damghan and afterwards at Nishapur, where he died by a fall from the roof of a house. His great work is the _Kitab us-Sahah fil-Lugha_, an Arabic dictionary, in which the words are arranged alphabetically according to the last letter of the root. He himself had only partially finished the last recension, but the work was completed by his pupil, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Salih ul-Warraq.

An edition was begun by E. Scheidius with a Latin translation, but one
part only appeared at Harderwijk (1776). The whole has been published
at Tebriz (1854) and at Cairo (1865), and many abridgments and Persian
translations have appeared; cf. C. Brockelmann, _Geschichte der
arabischen Literatur_ (Weimar, 1898), i. 128 seq. (G. W. T.)

JAUNDICE (Fr. _jaunisse_, from _jaune_, yellow), or ICTERUS (from its resemblance to the colour of the golden oriole, of which Pliny relates that if a jaundiced person looks upon it he recovers but the bird dies), a term in medicine applied to a yellow coloration of the skin and other parts of the body, depending in most instances on some derangement affecting the liver. This yellow colour is due to the presence in the blood of bile or of some of the elements of that secretion. Jaundice, however, must be regarded more as a symptom of some morbid condition previously existing than as a disease _per se_.

Cases with jaundice may be divided into three groups.

1. _Obstructive Jaundice._--Any obstruction of the passage of bile from the liver into the intestinal canal is sooner or later followed by the appearance of jaundice, which in such circumstances is due to the absorption of bile into the blood. The obstruction is due to one of the following causes: (1) Obstruction by foreign bodies within the bile duct, e.g. gallstones or parasites; (2) inflammation of the duodenum or the lining membrane of the duct; (3) stricture or obliteration of the duct; (4) a tumour growing from the duct; (5) pressure on the duct from without, from the liver or other organ, or tumours arising from them. Obstructions from these causes may be partial or complete, and the degree of jaundice will vary accordingly, but it is to be noted that extensive organic disease of the liver may exist without the evidence of obstructive jaundice.