Chapter IX: Part 9

JOYEUSE, a small town in the department of Ardèche, France, situated on the Baume, a tributary of the Ardèche, is historically important as having been the seat of a noble French family which derived its name from it. The lordship of Joyeuse came, in the 13th century, into the possession of the house of Châteauneuf-Randon, and was made into a viscountship in 1432. Guillaume, viscount of Joyeuse, was bishop of Alet, but afterwards left the church, and became a marshal of France; he died in 1592. His eldest son Anne de Joyeuse (1561-1587), was one of the favourites of Henry III. of France, who created him duke and peer (1581), admiral of France (1582), and governor of Normandy (1586), and married him to Marguerite de Lorraine-Vaudémont, younger sister of the queen. He gained several successes against the Huguenots, but was recalled by court intrigues at an inopportune moment, and when he marched a second time against Henry of Navarre he was defeated and killed at Coutras. Guillaume had three other sons: François de Joyeuse (d. 1615), cardinal and archbishop of Narbonne, Toulouse and Rouen, who brought about the reconciliation of Henry IV. with the pope; Henri, count of Bouchage, and later duke of Joyeuse, who first entered the army, then became a Capuchin under the name of Père Ange, left the church and became a marshal of France, and finally re-entered the church, dying in 1608; Antoine Scipion, grand prior of Toulouse in the order of the knights of Malta, who was one of the leaders in the League, and died in the retreat of Villemur (1592). Henriette Catherine de Joyeuse, daughter of Henri, married in 1611 Charles of Lorraine, duke of Guise, to whom she brought the duchy of Joyeuse. On the death of her great-grandson, François Joseph de Lorraine, duke of Guise, in 1675, without issue, the duchy of Joyeuse was declared extinct, but it was revived in 1714, in favour of Louis de Melun, prince of Épinoy. (M. P.*)

JOYEUSE ENTRÉE, a famous charter of liberty granted to Brabant by Duke John III. in 1354. John summoned the representatives of the cities of the duchy to Louvain to announce to them the marriage of his daughter and heiress Jeanne of Brabant to Wenceslaus duke of Luxemburg, and he offered them liberal concessions in order to secure their assent to the change of dynasty. John III. died in 1355, and Wenceslaus and Jeanne on the occasion of their state entry into Brussels solemnly swore to observe all the provisions of the charter, which had been drawn up. From the occasion on which it was first proclaimed this charter has since been known in history as _La Joyeuse Entrée_. By this document the dukes of Brabant undertook to maintain the integrity of the duchy, and not to wage war, make treaties, or impose taxes without the consent of their subjects, as represented by the municipalities. All members of the duke's council were to be native-born Brabanters. This charter became the model for other provinces and the bulwark of the liberties of the Netherlands. Its provisions were modified from time to time, but remained practically unchanged from the reign of Charles V. onwards. The ill-advised attempt of the emperor Joseph II. in his reforming zeal to abrogate the _Joyeuse Entrée_ caused a revolt in Brabant, before which he had to yield.

See E. Poullet, _La Joyeuse entrée, ou constitution Brabançonne_
(1862).

JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS, a small group in the South Pacific Ocean, between 33° and 34° S., 80° W., belonging to Chile and included in the province of Valparaiso. The main island is called _Mas-a-Tierra_ (Span. "more to land") to distinguish it from a smaller island, _Mas-a-Fuera_ ("more to sea"), 100 m. farther west. Off the S.W. of Mas-a-Tierra lies the islet of Santa Clara. The aspect of Mas-a-Tierra is beautiful; only 13 m. in length by 4 in width, it consists of a series of precipitous rocks rudely piled into irregular blocks and pinnacles, and strongly contrasting with a rich vegetation. The highest of these, 3225 ft., is called, from its massive form, El Yunque (the anvil). The rocks are volcanic. Cumberland Bay on the north side is the only fair anchorage, and even there, from the great depth of water, there is some risk. A wide valley collecting streams from several of the ravines on the north side of the island opens into Cumberland Bay, and is partially enclosed and cultivated. The inhabitants number only some twenty.

The flora and fauna of Juan Fernandez are in most respects Chilean.
There are few trees on the island, for most of the valuable indigenous
trees have been practically exterminated, such as the sandalwood,
which the earlier navigators found one of the most valuable products
of the island. Ferns are prominent among the flora, about one-third of
which consists of endemic species. There are no indigenous land
mammals. Pigs and goats, however, with cattle, horses, asses and dogs,
have been introduced, have multiplied, and in considerable numbers run
wild. Sea-elephants and fur-seals were formerly plentiful. Of birds,
a tyrant and a humming-bird (_Eustephanus fernandensis_) are peculiar
to the group, while another humming bird (_E. galerites_), a thrush,
and some birds of prey also occur in Chile. _E. fernandensis_ has the
peculiarity that the male is of a bright cinnamon colour, while the
female is green. Both sexes are green in _E. galerites_.

Juan Fernandez was discovered by a Spanish pilot of that name in 1563. Fernandez obtained from the Spanish government a grant of the islands, where he resided for some time, stocking them with goats and pigs. He soon, however, appears to have abandoned his possessions, which were afterwards for many years only visited occasionally by fishermen from the coasts of Chile and Peru. In 1616 Jacob le Maire and Willem Cornelis Schouten called at Juan Fernandez for water and fresh provisions. Pigs and goats were then abundant on the islands. In February 1700 Dampier called at Juan Fernandez and while there Captain Straddling of the "Cinque Porte" galley quarrelled with his men, forty-two of whom deserted but were afterwards taken on board by Dampier; five seamen, however, remained on shore. Other parties had previously colonized the islands but none had remained permanently. In October 1704 the "Cinque Porte" returned and found two of these men, the others having been apparently captured by the French. On this occasion Straddling quarrelled with Alexander Selkirk (q.v.), who, at his own request, became the island's most famous colonist, for his adventures are commonly believed to have inspired Daniel Defoe's _Robinson Crusoe_. Among later visits, that of Commodore Anson, in the "Centurion" (June 1741) led, on his return home, to a proposal to form an English settlement on Juan Fernandez; but the Spaniards, hearing that the matter had been mooted in England, gave orders to occupy the island, and it was garrisoned accordingly in 1750. Philip Carteret first observed this settlement in May 1767, and on account of the hostility of the Spaniards preferred to put in at Masa-Fuera. After the establishment of the independence of Chile at the beginning of the 19th century, Juan Fernandez passed into the possession of that country. On more than one occasion before 1840 Mas-a-Tierra was used as a state prison by the Chilean government.

JUANGS (Patuas, literally "leaf-wearers"), a jungle tribe of Orissa, India. They are found in only two of the tributary states, Dhenkanal and Keonjhar, most of them in the latter. They are estimated to amount in all to about 10,000. Their language belongs to the Munda family. They have no traditions which connect them with any other race, and they repudiate all connexion with the Hos or the Santals, declaring themselves the aborigines. They say the headquarters of the tribe is the Gonasika. In manners they are among the most primitive people of the world, representing the Stone age in our own day. They do not till the land, but live on the game they kill or on snakes and vermin. Their huts measure about 6 ft. by 8 ft., with very low doorways. The interior is divided into two compartments. In the first of these the father and all the females of a family huddle together; the second is used as a store-room. The boys have a separate hut at the entrance to the village, which serves as a guest-house and general assembly place where the musical instruments of the village are kept. Physically they are small and weak-looking, of a reddish-brown colour, with flat faces, broad noses with wide nostrils, large mouths and thick lips, the hair coarse and frizzly. The women until recently wore nothing but girdles of leaves, the men, a diminutive bandage of cloth. The Juangs declare that the river goddess, emerging for the first time from the Gonasika rock, surprised a party of naked Juangs dancing, and ordered them to wear leaves, with the threat that they should die if they ever gave up the custom. The Juangs' weapons are the bow and arrow and a primitive sling made entirely of cord. Their religion is a vague belief in forest spirits. They offer fowls to the sun when in trouble and to the earth for a bountiful harvest. Polygamy is rare. They burn their dead and throw the ashes into any running stream. The most sacred oaths a Juang can take are those on an ant-hill or a tiger-skin.

See E. W. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (1872).

JUAN MANUEL, DON (1282-1349), infante of Castile, son of the infante Don Manuel and Beatrix of Savoy, and grandson of St Ferdinand, was born at Escalona on the 5th of May 1282. His father died in 1284, and the young prince was educated at the court of his cousin, Sancho IV., with whom his precocious ability made him a favourite. In 1294 he was appointed _adelantado_ of Murcia and in his fourteenth year served against the Moors at Granada. In 1304 he was entrusted by the queen-mother, Doña Maria de Molina, to conduct political negotiations with James II. of Aragon on behalf of her son, Ferdinand IV., then under age. His diplomacy was successful and his marriage to James II.'s daughter, Constantina, added to his prestige. On the death of Ferdinand IV. and of the regents who governed in the name of Alphonso XI., Don Juan Manuel acted as guardian of the king who was proclaimed of age in 1325. His ambitious design of continuing to exercise the royal power was defeated by Alphonso XI., who married the ex-regent's daughter Constanza, and removed his father-in-law from the scene by nominating him _adelantado mayor de la frontera_. Alphonso XI.'s repudiation of Constanza, whom he imprisoned at Toro, drove Don Juan Manuel into opposition, and a long period of civil war followed. On the death of his wife Constantina in 1327, Don Juan Manuel strengthened his position by marrying Doña Blanca de la Cerda; he secured the support of Juan Nuñez, _alférez_ of Castile, by arranging a marriage between him and Maria, daughter of Don Juan el Tuerto; he won over Portugal by promising the hand of his daughter, the ex-queen Constanza, to the infante of that kingdom, and he entered into alliance with Mahomet III. of Granada. This formidable coalition compelled Alphonso XI. to sue for terms, which he accepted in 1328 without any serious intention of complying with them; but he was compelled to release Doña Constanza. War speedily broke out anew, and lasted till 1331 when Alphonso XI. invited Juan Manuel and Juan Nuñez to a banquet at Villahumbrales with the intention, it was believed, of assassinating them; the plot failed, and Don Juan Manuel joined forces with Peter IV. of Aragon. He was besieged by Alphonso XI. at Garci-Nuñez, whence he escaped on the 30th of July 1336, fled into exile, and kept the rebellion alive till 1338, when he made his peace with the king. He proved his loyalty by serving in further expeditions against the Moors of Granada and Africa, and died a tranquil death in the first half of 1349.

Distinguished as an astute politician, Don Juan Manuel is an author of the highest eminence, and, considering the circumstances of his stormy life, his voluminousness is remarkable. The _Libro de los sabios_, a treatise called _Engeños de Guerra_ and the _Libro de cantares_, a collection of verses, were composed between 1320 and 1327; but they have disappeared together with the _Libro de la caballería_ (written during the winter of 1326), and the _Reglas como se debe trovar_, a metrical treatise assigned to 1328-1334. Of his surviving writings, Juan Manuel's _Crónica abreviada_ was compiled between 1319 and 1325, while the _Libro de la caza_ must have been written between 1320 and 1329; and during this period of nine years the _Crónica de España_, the _Crónica complida_, and the _Tratado sobre las armas_ were produced. The _Libro del caballero et del escudero_ was finished before the end of 1326; the first book of the _Libro de los estados_ was finished on the 22nd of May 1330, while the second was begun five days later; the first book of _El Conde Lucanor_ was written in 1328, the second in 1330, and the fourth is dated 12th of June 1335. We are unable to assign to any precise date the devout _Tractado_ on the Virgin, dedicated to the prior of the monastery at Peñafiel, to which Don Juan Manuel bequeathed his manuscripts; but it seems probable that the _Libro de los frailes predicadores_ is slightly later than the _Libro de los estados_; that the _Libro de los castigos_ (left unfinished, and therefore known by the alternative title of _Libro infinido_) was written not later than 1333, and that the treatise _De las maneras de amor_ was composed between 1334 and 1337.

The historical summaries, pious dissertations and miscellaneous writings are of secondary interest. The _Libro del caballero et del escudero_ is on another plane; it is no doubt suggested by Lull's _Libre del orde de cavalleria_, but the points of resemblance have been exaggerated; the morbid mysticism of Lull is rejected, and the carefully finished style justifies the special pride which the author took in this performance. The influence of Lull's Blanquerna is likewise visible in the _Libro de los estados_; but there are marked divergences of substance which go to prove Don Juan Manuel's acquaintance with some version (not yet identified) of the Barlaam and Josaphat legend. Nothing is more striking than the curious and varied erudition of the turbulent prince who weaves his personal experiences with historical or legendary incidents, with reminiscences of Aesop and Phaedrus, with the _Disciplina clericalis_, with _Kalilah and Dimnah_, with countless Oriental traditions, and with all the material of anecdotic literature which he embodies in the _Libro de patronio_, best known by the title of _El Conde Lucanor_ (the name Lucanor being taken from the prose _Tristan_). This work (also entitled the _Libro de enxemplos_) was first printed by Gonzalo Argote de Molina at Seville in 1575, and it revealed Don Juan Manuel as a master in the art of prose composition, and as the predecessor of Boccaccio in the province of romantic narrative. The _Cento novelle antiche_ are earlier in date, but these anonymous tales, derived from popular stories diffused throughout the world, lack the personal character which Don Juan lends to all he touches. They are simple, unadorned variants of folk-lore items; _El Conde Lucanor_ is essentially the production of a conscious artist, deliberative and selective in his methods. Don Juan Manuel has not Boccaccio's festive fancy nor his constructive skill; he is too persistently didactic and concerned to point a moral; but he excels in knowledge of human nature, in the faculty of ironical presentation, in tolerant wisdom and in luminous conciseness. He naturalizes the Eastern apologue in Spain, and by the laconic picturesqueness of his expression imports a new quality into Spanish prose which attains its full development in the hands of Juan de Valdés and Cervantes. Some of his themes are utilized for dramatic purposes by Lope de Vega in _La Pobreza estimada_, by Ruiz de Alarcón in _La Prueba de las promesas_, by Calderón in _La Vida es sueño_, and by Cañizares in _Don Juan de Espina en Milán_: there is an evident, though remote, relation between the tale of the _mancebo que casó con una mujer muy fuerte y muy brava_ and _The Taming of the Shrew_; and a more direct connexion exists between some of Don Juan Manuel's _enxemplos_ and some of Anderson's fairy tales.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Obras_, edited by P. de Gayangos in the _Biblioteca de
autores Españoles_, vol. li.; _El Conde Lucanor_ (Leipzig, 1900),
edited by H. Knust and A. Hirschfeld; _Libro de la caza_ (Halle,
1880), edited by G. Baist; _El Libro del caballero et del escudero_,
edited by S. Gräfenberg in _Romanische Forschungen_, vol. vi.; _La
crónica complida_, edited by G. Baist in _Romanische Forschungen_,
vol. vi.; G. Baist, _Alter und Textueberlieferung der Schriften Don
Juan Manuels_ (Halle, 1880); F. Hanssen, _Notas á la versificación de
D. Juan Manuel_ (Santiago de Chile, 1902). The _Conde Lucanor_ has
been translated by J. Eichendorff into German (1840), by A. Puibusque
into French (1854) and by J. York into English (1868). (J. F. K.)

JUAREZ, BENITO PABLO (1806-1872), president of Mexico, was born near Ixtlan, in the state of Oajaca, Mexico, on the 21st of March 1806, of full Indian blood. Early left in poverty by the death of his father, he received from a charitable friar a good general education, and afterwards the means of studying law. Beginning to practise in 1834, Juarez speedily rose to professional distinction, and in the stormy political life of his time took a prominent part as an exponent of liberal views. In 1832 he sat in the state legislature; in 1846 he was one of a legislative triumvirate for his native state and a deputy to the republican congress, and from 1847 to 1852 he was governor of Oajaca. Banished in 1853 by Santa Anna, he returned to Mexico in 1855, and joined Alvarez, who, after Santa Anna's defeat, made him minister of justice. Under Comonfort, who then succeeded Alvarez, Juarez was governor of Oajaca (1855-57), and in 1857 chief justice and secretary of the interior; and, when Comonfort was unconstitutionally replaced by Zuloaga in 1858, the chief justice, in virtue of his office, claimed to be legal president of the republic. It was not, however, till the beginning of 1861 that he succeeded in finally defeating the unconstitutional party and in being duly elected president by congress. His decree of July 1861, suspending for two years all payments on public debts of every kind, led to the landing in Mexico of English, Spanish and French troops. The first two powers were soon induced to withdraw their forces; but the French remained, declared war in 1862, placed Maximilian upon the throne as emperor, and drove Juarez and his adherents to the northern limits of the republic. Juarez maintained an obstinate resistance, which resulted in final success. In 1867 Maximilian was taken at Querétaro, and shot; and in August Juarez was once more elected president. His term of office was far from tranquil; discontented generals stirred up ceaseless revolts and insurrections; and, though he was re-elected in 1871, his popularity seemed to be on the wane. He died of apoplexy in the city of Mexico on the 18th of July 1872. He was a statesman of integrity, ability and determination, whose good qualities are too apt to be overlooked in consequence of his connexion with the unhappy fate of Maximilian.

JUBA, the name of two kings of Numidia.

JUBA I. (1st century B.C.), son and successor of Hiempsal, king of Numidia. During the civil wars at Rome he sided with Pompey, partly from gratitude because he had reinstated his father on his throne (Appian, _B.C._, i. 80), and partly from enmity to Caesar, who had insulted him at Rome by pulling his beard (Suet., _Caesar_, 71). Further, C. Scribonius Curio, Caesar's general in Africa, had openly proposed, 50 B.C., when tribune of the plebs, that Numidia should be sold to colonists, and the king reduced to a private station. In 49 Juba inflicted on the Caesarean army a crushing defeat, in which Curio was slain (Vell. Pat. ii. 54; Caesar, _B.C._ ii. 40). Juba's attention was distracted by a counter invasion of his territories by Bocchus the younger and Sittius; but, finding that his lieutenant Sabura was able to defend his interests, he rejoined the Pompeians with a large force, and shared the defeat at Thapsus. Fleeing from the field with the Roman general M. Petreius, he wandered about as a fugitive. At length, in despair, Juba killed Petreius, and sought the aid of a slave in despatching himself (46). Juba was a thorough savage; brave, treacherous, insolent and cruel. (See NUMIDIA.)

JUBA II., son of the above. On the death of his father in 46 B.C. he was carried to Rome to grace Caesar's triumph. He seems to have received a good education under the care of Augustus who, in 29, after Mark Antony's death, gave him the hand of Cleopatra Selene, daughter of Antony and Cleopatra, and placed him on his father's throne. In 25, however, he transferred him from Numidia to Mauretania, to which was added a part of Gaetulia (see NUMIDIA). Juba seems to have reigned in considerable prosperity, though in A.D. 6 the Gaetulians rose in a revolt of sufficient importance to afford the surname Gaetulicus to Cornelius Lentulus Cossus, the Roman general who helped to suppress it. The date of Juba's death is by no means certain; it has been put between A.D. 19 and 24 (Strabo, xvii. 828; Dio Cassius, li. 15; liii. 26; Plutarch, _Ant._ 87; _Caesar_, 55). Juba, according to Pliny, who constantly refers to him, is mainly memorable for his writings. He has been called the African Varro.

He wrote many historical and geographical works, of which some seem to
have been voluminous and of considerable value on account of the
sources to which their author had access: (1) [Greek: Rhômaikê
historia]; (2) [Greek: Assyriaka]; (3) [Greek: Libyka]; (4) _De Arabia
sive De expeditione arabica_; (5) _Physiologa_; (6) _De Euphorbia
herba_; (7) [Greek: Peri opou]; (8) [Greek: Peri graphikês] ([Greek:
Peri zôgraphôn]); (9) [Greek: Theatrikê historia]; (10) [Greek:
Homoiotêtes]; (11) [Greek: Peri phthoras lexeôs]; (12) [Greek:
Epigramma].

Fragments and life in Müller, _Frag. Hist. Graec._, vol. iii.; see
also Sevin, _Mém. de l'Acad. des Inscriptions_, vol. iv.; Hullemann,
_De vita et scriptis Jubae_ (1846). For the denarii of Juba II. found
in 1908 at El Ksar on the coast of Morocco see Dieudonné in _Revue
Numism_. (1908), pp. 350 seq. They are interesting mainly as throwing
light on the chronology of the reign.

JUBA, or JUB, a river of East Africa, exceeding 1000 m. in length, rising on the S.E. border of the Abyssinian highlands and flowing S. across the Galla and Somali countries to the sea. It is formed by the junction of three streams, all having their source in the mountain range N.E. of Lake Rudolf which is the water-parting between the Nile basin and the rivers flowing to the Indian Ocean.

Of the three headstreams, the Web, the Ganale and the Daua, the Ganale
(or Ganana) is the central river and the true upper course of the
Juba. It has two chief branches, the Black and the Great Ganale. The
last-named, the most remote source of the river, rises in 7° 30´ N.,
38° E. at an altitude of about 7500 ft., the crest of the mountains
reaching another 2500 ft. In its upper course it flows over a rocky
bed with a swift current and many rapids. The banks are clothed with
dense jungle and the hills beyond with thorn-bush. Lower down the
river has formed a narrow valley, 1500 to 2000 ft. below the general
level of the country. Leaving the higher mountains in about 5° 15´ N.,
40° E., the Ganale enters a large slightly undulating grass plain
which extends south of the valley of the Daua and occupies all the
country eastward to the junction of the two rivers. In this plain the
Ganale makes a semicircular sweep northward before resuming its
general S.-E. course. East of 42° E. in 4° 12´ N. it is joined by the
Web on the left or eastern bank, and about 10 m. lower down the Daua
enters on the right bank.

The Web rises in the mountain chain a little S. and E. of the sources
of the Ganale, and some 40 m. from its source passes, first, through a
cañon 500 ft. deep, and then through a series of remarkable
underground caves hollowed out of a quartz mountain and, with their
arches and white columns, presenting the appearance of a pillared
temple. The Daua (or Dawa) is formed by the mountain torrents which
have their rise S. and W. of the Ganale and is of similar character to
that river. It has few feeders and none of any size. The descent to
the open country is somewhat abrupt. In its middle course the Daua has
cut a deep narrow valley through the plain; lower down it bends N.E.
to its junction with the Ganale. The river is not deep and can be
forded in many places; the banks are fringed with thick bush and
dom-palms. At the junction of the Ganale and the Web the river is
swift-flowing and 85 yards across; just below the Daua confluence it
is 200 yds. wide, the altitude here--300 m. in a direct line from the
source of the Ganale--being only 590 ft.

Below the Daua the river, now known as the Juba, receives no tributary
of importance. It first flows in a valley bounded, especially towards
the west, by the escarpments of a high plateau, and containing the
towns of Lugh (in 3° 50´ N., the centre of active trade), Bardera, 387
m. above the mouth, and Saranli--the last two on opposite sides of the
stream, in 2° 20´ N., a crossing-place for caravans. Beyond 1° 45´ N.
the country becomes more level and the course of the river very
tortuous. On the west a series of small lakes and backwaters receives
water from the Juba during the rains. Just south of the equator
channels from the long, branching Lake Deshekwama or Hardinge, fed by
the Lakdera river, enter from the west, and in 0° 15´ S. the Juba
enters the sea across a dangerous bar, which has only one fathom of
water at high tide.

From its mouth to 20 m. above Bardera, where at 2° 35´ N. rapids occur, the Juba is navigable by shallow-draught steamers, having a general depth of from 4 to 12 ft., though shallower in places. Just above its mouth it is a fine stream 250 yds. wide, with a current of 2½ knots. Below the mountainous region of the headstreams the Juba and its tributaries flow through a country generally arid away from the banks of the streams. The soil is sandy, covered either with thorn-scrub or rank grass, which in the rainy season affords herbage for the herds of cattle, sheep and camels owned by the Boran Gallas and the Somali who inhabit the district. But by the banks of the lower river the character of the country changes. In this district, known as Gosha, are considerable tracts of forest, and the level of flood water is higher than much of the surrounding land. This low-lying fertile belt stretches along the river for about 300 m., but is not more than a mile or two wide. In the river valley maize, rice, cotton and other crops are cultivated. From Gobwen, a trading settlement about 3 m. above the mouth of the Juba, a road runs S.W. to the seaport of Kismayu, 10 m. distant.

The lower Juba was ascended in 1865 in a steamer by Baron Karl von der Decken, who was murdered by Somali at Bardera, but the river system remained otherwise almost unknown until after 1890. In 1891 a survey of its lower course was executed by Captain F. G. Dundas of the British navy, while in 1892-1893 its headstreams were explored by the Italian officers, Captains Vittorio, Bottego and Grixoni, the former of whom disproved the supposed connexion of the Omo (see RUDOLF, LAKE) with the Juba system. It has since been further explored by Prince Eugenio Ruspoli, by Bottego's second expedition (1895), by Donaldson Smith, A. E. Butter, Captain P. Maud of the British army, and others. The river, from its mouth to the confluence of the Daua and Ganale, forms the frontier between the British East Africa protectorate and Italian Somaliland; and from that point to about 4° 20´ N. the Daua is the boundary between British and Abyssinian territory.

JUBBULPORE, or JABALPUR, a city, district, and division of British India in the Central Provinces. The city is 616 m. N.E. of Bombay by rail, and 220 m. S.W. of Allahabad. Pop. (1901), 90,316. The numerous gorges in the neighbouring rocks have been taken advantage of to surround the city with a series of lakes, which, shaded by fine trees and bordered by fantastic crags, add much beauty to the suburbs. The city itself is modern, and is laid out in wide and regular streets. A streamlet separates the civil station and cantonment from the native quarter; but, though the climate is mild, a swampy hollow beneath renders the site unhealthy for Europeans. Formerly the capital of the Saugor and Nerbudda territories, Jubbulpore is now the headquarters of a brigade in the 5th division of the southern army. It is also one of the most important railway centres in India, being the junction of the Great Indian Peninsula and the East Indian systems. It has a steam cotton-mill. The government college educates for the science course of the Allahabad University, and also contains law and engineering classes; there are three aided high schools, a law class, an engineering class and normal schools for male and female teachers. A native association, established in 1869, supports an orphanage, with help from government. A zenana mission manages 13 schools for girls. Waterworks were constructed in 1882.

The DISTRICT OF JUBBULPORE lies on the watershed between the Nerbudda and the Son, but mostly within the valley of the former river, which here runs through the famous gorge known as the Marble rocks, and falls 30 ft. over a rocky ledge (the _Dhuan dhar_, or "misty shoot"). Area, 3912 sq. m. It consists of a long narrow plain running north-east and south-west, and shut in on all sides by highlands. This plain, which forms an offshoot from the great valley of the Nerbudda, is covered in its western and southern portions by a rich alluvial deposit of black cotton-soil. At Jubbulpore city the soil is sandy, and water plentiful near the surface. The north and east belong to the Ganges and Jumna basins, the south and west to the Nerbudda basin. In 1901 the population was 680,585, showing a decrease of 9% since 1891, due to the results of famine. The principal crops are wheat, rice, pulse and oil-seeds. A good deal of iron-smelting with charcoal is carried on in the forests, manganese ore is found, and limestone is extensively quarried. The district is traversed by the main railway from Bombay to Calcutta, and by new branches of two other lines which meet at Katni junction. Jubbulpore suffered severely in the famine of 1896-1897, the distress being aggravated by immigration from the adjoining native states. Fortunately the famine of 1900 was less severely felt.

The early history of Jubbulpore is unknown; but inscriptions record
the existence during the 11th and 12th centuries of a local line of
princes of that Haihai race which is closely connected with the
history of Gondwana. In the 16th century the Gond raja of Garha Mandla
extended his power over fifty-two districts, including the present
Jubbulpore. During the minority of his grandson, Asaf Khan, the
viceroy of Kara Manikpur, conquered the Garha principality and held it
at first as an independent chief. Eventually he submitted to the
emperor Akbar. The Delhi power, however, enjoyed little more than a
nominal supremacy; and the princes of Garha Mandla maintained a
practical independence until their subjugation by the Mahratta
governors of Saugor in 1781. In 1798 the peshwa granted the Nerbudda
valley to the Bhonsla princes of Nagpur, who continued to hold the
district until the British occupied it in 1818.

The DIVISION OF JUBBULPORE lies mainly among the Vindhyan and Satpura hill systems. It comprises the five following districts: Jubbulpore, Saugor, Damoh, Seoni and Mandla. Area, 18,950 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 2,081,499.

JUBÉ, the French architectural term (taken from the imperative of Lat. _jubere_, to order) for the chancel or choir screen, which in England is known as the rood-screen (see ROOD). Above the screen was a gallery or loft, from which the words "Jube Domine benedicere" were spoken by the deacon before the reading of the Gospel, and hence probably the name. One of the finest _jubés_ in France is that of the church of the Madeleine at Troyes, in rich flamboyant Gothic. A later example, of the Renaissance period, c. 1600, is in the church of St Étienne du Mont, Paris. In the Low Countries there are many fine examples in marble, of which one of the most perfect from Bois-le-Duc is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

JUBILEE (or JUBILE), YEAR OF, in the Bible, the name applied in the Holiness section of the Priestly Code of the Hexateuch (Lev. xxv.) to the observance of every 50th year, determined by the lapse of seven seven-year periods as a year of perfect rest, when there was to be no sowing, nor even gathering of the natural products of the field and the vine. At the beginning of the jubilee-year the liberation of all Israelitish slaves and the restoration of ancestral possessions was to be proclaimed. As regards the meaning of the name "jubilee" (Heb. _yobel_) modern scholars are agreed that it signifies "ram" or "ram's horn." "Year of jubilee" would then mean the year that is inaugurated by the blowing of the ram's horn (Lev. xxv. 9).

According to Lev. xxv. 8-12, at the completion of seven sabbaths of years (i.e. 7 × 7 = 49 years) the trumpet of the jubilee is to be sounded "throughout the land" on the 10th day of the seventh month (Tisri 10), the great Day of Atonement. The 50th year thus announced is to be "hallowed," i.e. liberty[1] is to be proclaimed everywhere to everyone, and the people are to return "every man unto his possession and unto his family." As in the sabbatical year, there is to be no sowing, nor reaping that which grows of itself, nor gathering of grapes.

As regards _real property_ (Lev. xxv. 13-34) the law is that if any Hebrew under pressure of necessity shall alienate his property he is to get for it a sum of money reckoned according to the number of harvests to be reaped between the date of alienation and the first jubilee-year: should he or any relation desire to redeem the property before the jubilee this can always be done be repaying the value of the harvests between the redemption and the jubilee.

This legal enactment, though it is not found (nor anything like it) in the earlier collections of laws, is evidently based on (or modified from) an ancient custom which conferred on a near kinsman the right of pre-emption as well as of buying back (cf. Jer. xxxii. 6 sqq.). The tendency to impose checks upon the alienation of landed property was exceptionally strong in Israel. The fundamental principle is that the land is a sacred possession belonging to Yahweh. As such it is not to be alienated from Yahweh's people, to whom it was originally assigned. In Ezekiel's restoration programme "crown lands presented by the 'prince' to any of his officials revert to the crown in the year of liberty (? jubilee year)"; only to his sons may any portion of his inheritance be alienated in perpetuity (Ezek. xlvi. 16-18; cf. Code of Hammurabi, § 38 seq.).

The same rule applies to dwelling-houses of unwalled villages; the case is different, however, as regards dwelling-houses in walled cities. These may be redeemed within a year after transfer, but if not redeemed within that period they continue permanently in possession of the purchaser, and this may well be an echo of ancient practice. An exception to this last rule is made for the houses of the Levites in the Levitical cities.

As regards _property in slaves_ (Lev. xxv. 35-55) the Hebrew whom necessity has compelled to sell himself into the service of his brother Hebrew is to be treated as a hired servant and sojourner, and to be released absolutely at the jubilee; non-Hebrew bondmen, on the other hand, are to be bondmen for ever. But the Hebrew who has sold himself to a stranger or sojourner is entitled to freedom at the year of jubilee, and further is at any time redeemable by any of his kindred--the redemption price being regulated by the number of years to run between the redemption and the jubilee, according to the ordinary wage of hired servants. Such were the enactments of the Priestly Code--which, of course, represents the latest legislation of the Pentateuch (post-exilic). These enactments, in order to be understood rightly, must be viewed in relation to the earlier similar provisions in connexion with the sabbatical (seventh) year. "The foundations of Lev. xxv. are laid in the ancient provisions of the Book of the Covenant (Exod. xxi. 2 seq.; xxiii. 10 seq.) and in Deuteronomy (xv.). The Book of the Covenant enjoined that the land should lie fallow and Hebrew slaves be liberated in the seventh year; Deuteronomy required in addition the remission of debts" (Benzinger). Deuteronomy, it will be noticed, in accordance with its humanitarian tendency, not only liberates the slave but remits the debt. It is evident that these enactments proved impracticable in real life (cf. Jer. xxxiv. 8 seq.), and so it became necessary in the later legislation of P, represented in the present form of Lev. xxv., to relegate them to the 50th year, the year of jubilee. The latter, however, was a purely theoretic development of the Sabbath idea, which could never have been reduced to practice (its actual observance would have necessitated that for two consecutive years--the 49th and 50th--absolutely nothing could be reaped, while in the 51st only summer fruits could be obtained, sowing being prohibited in the 50th year). That in practice the enactments for the jubilee-year were disregarded is evidenced by the fact that, according to the unanimous testimony of the Talmudists and Rabbins, although the jubilee-years were "reckoned" they were not observed.

The conjecture of Kuenen, supported by Wellhausen, that originally Lev. xxv. 8 seq. had reference to the seventh year is a highly probable one. This may be the case also with Ezek. xlvi. 16-18 (cf. Jer. xxxiv. 14). A later Rabbinical device for evading the provisions of the law was the _prosbul_ (ascribed to Hillel)--i.e. a condition made in the presence of the judge securing to the creditor the right of demanding repayment at any time, irrespective of the year of remission. Further enactments regarding the jubilee are found in Lev. xxvii. 17-25 and Num. xxxvi. 4. (W. R. S.; G. H. Bo.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Heb. _deror_. The same word (_duraru_) is used in the Code of
Hammurabi in the similar enactment that wife, son or daughter sold
into slavery for debt are to be restored to _liberty_ in the fourth
year (§ 117).

JUBILEES, BOOK OF, an apocryphal work of the Old Testament. The Book of Jubilees is the most advanced pre-Christian representative of the Midrashic tendency, which had already been at work in the Old Testament Chronicles. As the chronicler had rewritten the history of Israel and Judah from the standpoint of the Priests' Code, so our author re-edited from the Pharisaic standpoint of his time the history of the world from the creation to the publication of the Law on Sinai. His work constitutes the oldest commentary in the world on Genesis and part of Exodus, an enlarged Targum on these books, in which difficulties in the biblical narration are solved, gaps supplied, dogmatically offensive elements removed and the genuine spirit of later Judaism infused into the primitive history of the world.

_Titles of the Book._--The book is variously entitled. First, it is known as [Greek: ta Iôbêlaia, hoi Iôbêlaioi], Heb. [Hebrew: haiuvalim]. This name is admirably adapted to our book, as it divides into jubilee periods of forty-nine years each the history of the world from the creation to the legislation on Sinai. Secondly, it is frequently designated "The Little Genesis," [Greek: hê leptê Genesis] or [Greek: hê Mikrogenesis], Heb. [Hebrew: bereshit zutta]. This title may have arisen from its dealing more fully with details and minutiae than the biblical work. For the other names by which it is referred to, such as _The Apocalypse of Moses_, _The Testament of Moses_, _The Book of Adam's Daughters_ and the _Life of Adam_, the reader may consult Charles's _The Book of Jubilees_, pp. xvii.-xx.

_Object._--The object of our author was the defence and exposition of Judaism from the Pharisaic standpoint of the 2nd century B.C. against the disintegrating effects of Hellenism. In his elaborate defence of Judaism our author glorifies circumcision and the sabbath, the bulwarks of Judaism, as heavenly ordinances, the sphere of which was so far extended as to embrace Israel on earth. The Law, as a whole, was to our author the realization in time of what was in a sense timeless and eternal. Though revealed in time it was superior to time. Before it had been made known in sundry portions to the fathers, it had been kept in heaven by the angels, and to its observance there was no limit in time or in eternity. Our author next defends Judaism by his glorification of Israel. Whereas the various nations of the Gentiles were subject to angels, Israel was subject to God alone. Israel was God's son, and not only did the nation stand in this relation to God, but also its individual members. Israel received circumcision as a sign that they were the Lord's, and this privilege of circumcision they enjoyed in common with the two highest orders of angels. Hence Israel was to unite with God and these two orders in the observance of the sabbath. Finally the destinies of the world were bound up with Israel. The world was renewed in the creation of the true man Jacob, and its final renewal was to synchronize with the setting-up of God's sanctuary in Zion and the establishment of the Messianic kingdom. In this kingdom the Gentiles had neither part nor lot.

_Versions: Greek, Syriac, Ethiopic and Latin._--Numerous fragments of
the Greek Version have come down to us in Justin Martyr, Origen,
Diodorus of Antioch, Isidore of Alexandria, Epiphanius, John of
Malala, Syncellus and others. This version was the parent of the
Ethiopic and Latin. The Ethiopic Version is most accurate and
trustworthy, and indeed, as a rule, slavishly literal. It has
naturally suffered from the corruptions incident to transmission
through MSS. Thus dittographies are frequent and lacunae of occasional
occurrence, but the version is singularly free from the glosses and
corrections of unscrupulous scribes. The Latin Version, of which about
one-fourth has been preserved, is where it exists of almost equal
value with the Ethiopic. It has, however, suffered more at the hands
of correctors. Notwithstanding, it attests a long array of passages in
which it preserves the true text over against corruptions or omissions
in the Ethiopic Version. Finally, as regards the Syriac Version, the
evidence for its existence is not conclusive. It is based on the fact
that a British Museum MS. contains a Syriac fragment entitled "Names
of the wives of the Patriarchs according to the Hebrew Book of
Jubilees."

_The Ethiopic and Latin Versions: Translations from the Greek._--The
Ethiopic Version is translated from the Greek, for Greek words such as
[Greek: drys, balanos, lips], &c., are transliterated in the Greek.
Secondly, many passages must be retranslated into Greek before we can
discover the source of the various corruptions. And finally, proper
names are transliterated as they appear in Greek and not in Hebrew.
That the Latin is also a translation from the Greek is no less
obvious. Thus in xxxix. 12 _timoris_ = [Greek: deilias], corrupt for
[Greek: douleias]; in xxxviii. 13 _honorem_ = [Greek: timên], but
[Greek: timên] should here have been rendered by _tributum_, as the
Ethiopic and the context require; in xxxii. 26, _celavit_ = [Greek:
ekrypse], corrupt for [Greek: egrapse] (so Ethiopic).

_The Greek a Translation from the Hebrew._--The early date of our
book--the 2nd century B.C.--and its place of composition speak for a
Semitic original, and the evidence bearing on this subject is
conclusive. But the question at once arises, was the original Aramaic
or Hebrew? Certain proper names in the Latin Version ending in -_in_
seem to bespeak an Aramaic original, as Cettin, Filistin, &c. But
since in all these cases the Ethiopic transliterations end in -_m_ and
not in -_n_, it is not improbable that the Aramaism in the Latin
Version is due to the translator, who, it has been concluded on other
grounds, was a Palestinian Jew.[1] The grounds, on the other hand, for
a Hebrew original are weighty and numerous. (1) A work which claims to
be from the hand of Moses would naturally be in Hebrew, for Hebrew
according to our author was the sacred and national language. (2) The
revival of the national spirit of a nation is universally, so far as
we know, accompanied by a revival of the national language. (3) The
text must be retranslated into Hebrew in order to explain
unintelligible expressions and restore the true text. One instance
will sufficiently illustrate this statement. In xliii. 11 a certain
Ethiopic expression = [Greek: en emoi], which is a mistranslation of
[Hebrew: bi]; for [Hebrew: bi] in this context, as we know from the
parallel passage in Gen. xliv. 18, which our text reproduces almost
verbally, = [Greek: deomai]. We might observe here that our text
attests the presence of dittographies already existing in the Hebrew
text. (4) Hebraisms survive in the Ethiopic and Latin Versions. In the
former nûha in iv. 4, is a corrupt transliteration of [Hebrew: na]. In
the Latin eligere in te in xxii. 10 is a reproduction of [Hebrew:
behar be] and _in qua ... in ipsa_ in xix. 8 = [Hebrew: ba ... asher].
This idiom could, of course, be explained on the hypothesis of an
Aramaic original. (5) Many paronomasiae discover themselves on
retranslation into Hebrew.

_Textual Affinities._--A minute study of the text shows that it
attests an independent form of the Hebrew text of the Pentateuch. Thus
it agrees at times with the Samaritan, or Septuagint, or Syriac, or
Vulgate, or even with Onkelos against all the rest. To be more exact,
our book represents some form of the Hebrew text of the Pentateuch
midway between the forms presupposed by the Septuagint and the Syriac;
for it agrees more frequently with the Septuagint, or with
combinations into which the Septuagint enters, than with any other
single authority, or with any combination excluding the Septuagint.
Next to the Septuagint it agrees most often with the Syriac or with
combinations into which the Syriac enters. On the other hand, its
independence of the Septuagint is shown in a large number of passages,
where it has the support of the Samaritan and Massoretic, or of these
with various combinations of the Syriac Vulgate and Onkelos. From
these and other considerations we may conclude that the textual
evidence points to the composition of our book at some period between
250 B.C. and A.D. 100, and at a time nearer the earlier date than the
later.

_Date._--The book was written between 135 B.C. and the year of Hyrcanus's breach with the Pharisees. This conclusion is drawn from the following facts:--(1) The book was written during the pontificate of the Maccabean family, and not earlier than 135 B.C. For in xxxii. 1 Levi is called a "priest of the Most High God." Now the only high priests who bore this title were the Maccabean, who appear to have assumed it as reviving the order of Melchizedek when they displaced the Zadokite order of Aaron. Jewish tradition ascribes the assumption of this title to John Hyrcanus. It was retained by his successors down to Hyrcanus II. (2) It was written before 96 B.C. or some years earlier in the reign of John Hyrcanus; for since our author is of the strictest sect a Pharisee and at the same time an upholder of the Maccabean pontificate, Jubilees cannot have been written after 96 when the Pharisees and Alexander Jannaeus came to open strife. Nay more, it cannot have been written after the open breach between Hyrcanus and the Pharisees, when the former joined the Sadducean party.

The above conclusions are confirmed by a large mass of other evidence postulating the same date. We may, however, observe that our book points to the period already past--of stress and persecution that preceded the recovery of national independence under the Maccabees, and presupposes as its historical background the most flourishing period of the Maccabean hegemony.

_Author._--Our author was a Pharisee of the straitest sect. He maintained the everlasting validity of the law, he held the strictest views on circumcision, the sabbath, and the duty of shunning all intercourse with the Gentiles; he believed in angels and in a blessed immortality. In the next place he was an upholder of the Maccabean pontificate. He glorifies Levi's successors as high-priests and civil rulers, and applies to them the title assumed by the Maccabean princes, though he does not, like the author of the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, expect the Messiah to come forth from among them. He may have been a priest.

_The Views of the Author on the Messianic Kingdom and the Future Life._--According to our author the Messianic kingdom was to be brought about gradually by the progressive spiritual development of man and a corresponding transformation of nature. Its members were to reach the limit of 1000 years in happiness and peace. During its continuance the powers of evil were to be restrained, and the last judgment was apparently to take place at its close. As regards the doctrine of a future life, our author adopts a position novel for a Palestinian writer. He abandons the hope of a resurrection of the body. The souls of the righteous are to enjoy a blessed immortality after death. This is the earliest attested instance of this expectation in the last two centuries B.C.

LITERATURE.--_Ethiopic Text and Translations_: This text was first
edited by Dillmann from two MSS. in 1859, and in 1895 by R. H. Charles
from four (_The Ethiopic Version of the Hebrew Book of Jubilees ...
with the Hebrew, Syriac, Greek and Latin fragments_). In the latter
edition, the Greek and Latin fragments are printed together with the
Ethiopic. The book was translated into German by Dillmann from one MS.
in Ewald's _Jahrbücher_, vols. ii. and iii. (1850, 1851), and by
Littmann (in Kautzsch's _Apok. und Pseud._ ii. 39-119) from Charles's
Ethiopic text; into English by Schodde (_Bibl. Sacr._ 1885) from
Dillmann's text, and by Charles (_Jewish Quarterly Review_, vols. v.,
vi., vii. (1893-1895) from the text afterwards published in 1895, and
finally in his commentary, _The Book of Jubilees_ (1902). _Critical
Inquiries_: Dillmann, "Das Buch der Jubiläen" (Ewald's _Jahrbücher d.
bibl. Wissensch._ (1851), iii. 72-96); "Pseudepig. des Alten
Testaments," Herzog's _Realencyk._[2] xii. 364-365; "Beiträge aus dem
Buche der Jubiläen zur Kritik des Pentateuch Textes"
(_Sitzungsberichte der Kgl. Preussischen Akad._, 1883); Beer, _Das
Buch der Jubiläen_ (1856); Rönsch, _Das Buch der Jubiläen_ (1874);
Singer, _Das Buch der Jubiläen_ (1898); Bohn, "Die Bedeutung des
Buches der Jubiläen" (_Theol. Stud. und Kritiken_ (1900), pp.
167-184). A full bibliography will be found in Schürer or in R. H.
Charles's commentary, _The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis_
(1902), which deals exhaustively with all the questions treated in
this article. (R. H. C.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] In the Ethiopic Version in xxi. 12 it should be observed that in
the list of the twelve trees suitable for burning on the altar
several are transliterated Aramaic names of trees. But in a late
Hebrew work (2nd century B.C.) the popular names of such objects
would naturally be used. In certain cases the Hebrew may have been
forgotten, or, where the tree was of late introduction, been
non-existent.