Chapter I: Part 1

Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

ARTICLE JUTE: "The use of C. olitorius for the latter purpose dates
from very ancient times, if it may be identified ..." 'if it'
amended from 'it if'.

ARTICLE KASHI: "Sir George Birdwood wisely considers that 'the art
of glazing earthenware has, in Persia ..." 'earthenware' amended
from 'eathenware'.

ARTICLE KASHMIRI: "... a poem on Saiva philosophy by a woman named
Lalladevi, is said to be the oldest work in the language which has
survived." 'philosophy' amended from 'philosopy'.

ARTICLE KAZAN: "Kazan lies 650 m. E. from Moscow by rail and 253 m.
E. of Nizhniy-Novgorod by the Volga." 'm.' missing.

ARTICLE KAZERUN: "... of the city on a huge mound are ruins of
buildings with underground chambers, popularly known as Kal'eh i
Gabr ..." 'huge' amended from 'hugh'.

ARTICLE KEARNEY: "... where the city was planned. Kearney became a
town in 1873, a city of the second class and the county seat in
1874, and a city of the first class in 1901." 'where' amended from
'or' and 'planned' amended from 'platted'.

ARTICLE KEENE: "and as responsible for the commercial treaty
between England and Spain in 1750, was in high reputation at the
time; it was chartered as a city in 1874." 'commercial' amended
from 'commerical'.

ARTICLE KELLGREN, JOHAN HENRIK: "Of his minor poems written before
that date the most important are the charming spring-song Vinterns
valde lyktar, and the satirical Mina lojen and Man eger ej snille
for det man ar galen." 'satirical' amended from 'satrical'.

ARTICLE KELLS: "The most notable is St Columbkille's house,
originally an oratory, but afterwards converted into a church, the
chancel of which was in existence in 1752." 'originally' amended
from 'orginally'.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XV, SLICE VI

Justinian II. to Kells

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

JUSTINIAN II. KARAMAN
JUSTIN MARTYR KARAMANIA
JUTE KARAMNASA
JUTERBOG KARA MUSTAFA
JUTES KARAMZIN, NIKOLAI MIKHAILOVICH
JUTIGALPA KARA SEA
JUTLAND KARASU-BAZAR
JUTURNA KARATEGHIN
JUVENAL KARAULI
JUVENCUS, GAIUS AQUILINUS KAREN
JUVENILE OFFENDERS KAREN-NI
JUVENTAS KARIKAL
JUXON, WILLIAM KARLI
K KARLOWITZ
K2 KARLSKRONA
KA'BA, KAABA KARLSRUHE
KABARDIA KARLSTAD
KABBA KARLSTADT
KABBABISH KARMA
KABBALAH KARMAN, JOZSEF
KABINDA KARNAK
KABIR KARNAL
KABUL KAROLYI, ALOYS
KABUL RIVER KAROSS
KABYLES KARR, JEAN BAPTISTE ALPHONSE
KACH GANDAVA KARRER, FELIX
KACHIN HILLS KARROO
KADUR KARS (province of Russia)
KAEMPFER, ENGELBRECHT KARS (town of Russia)
KAFFA KARSHI
KAFFIR BREAD KARST
KAFFIRS KARSTEN, KARL JOHANN BERNHARD
KAFFRARIA KARTIKEYA
KAFIRISTAN KARUN
KAGERA KARWAR
KAHLUR KARWI
KAHN, GUSTAVE KARYOGAMY
KAHNIS, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST KASAI
K'AI-FENG FU KASBEK
KAILAS KASHAN
KAIN KASHGAR
KAIRA KASHI
KAIRAWAN KASHMIR
KAISERSLAUTERN KASHMIRI
KAISERSWERTH KASHUBES
KAITHAL KASIMOV
KAKAPO KASSA
KAKAR KASSALA
KALA-AZAR KASSASSIN
KALABAGH KASSITES
KALACH KASTAMUNI
KALAHANDI KASTORIA
KALAHARI DESERT KASUR
KALAMATA KATAGUM
KALAMAZOO KATANGA
KALAPUYA KATER, HENRY
KALAT KATHA
KALAT-I-GHILZAI KATHIAWAR
KALB, JOHANN KATKOV, MICHAEL NIKIFOROVICH
KALCKREUTH, FRIEDRICH ADOLF KATMANDU
KALCKREUTH, LEOPOLD KATO, TAKA-AKIRA
KALEIDOSCOPE KATRINE, LOCH
KALERGIS, DIMITRI KATSENA
KALEWALA KATSURA, TARO
KALGAN KATTERFELTO, GUSTAVUS
KALGOORLIE KATTOWITZ
KALI KATWA
KALIDASA KATYDID
KALIMPONG KAUFBEUREN
KALINGA KAUFFMANN, [MARIA ANNA] ANGELICA
KALINJAR KAUFMANN, CONSTANTINE PETROVICH
KALIR [QALIR], ELEAZER KAUKAUNA
KALISCH, ISIDOR KAULBACH, WILHELM VON
KALISCH, MARCUS KAUNITZ-RIETBURG, WENZEL ANTON
KALISPEL KAUP, JOHANN JAKOB
KALISZ (government of Poland) KAURI PINE
KALISZ (town of Poland) KAVA
KALK KAVADH
KALKAS KAVALA
KALKBRENNER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM KAVANAGH, ARTHUR MACMORROUGH
KALLAY, BENJAMIN VON KAVANAGH, JULIA
KALMAR KAVASS
KALMUCK KAVIRONDO
KALNOKY, GUSTAV SIEGMUND KAW
KALOCSA KAWARDHA
KALPI KAY, JOHN
KALUGA (government of Russia) KAY, JOSEPH
KALUGA (town of Russia) KAYAK
KALYAN KAYASTH
KAMA KAYE, SIR JOHN WILLIAM
KAMALA KAYSER, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH EMANUEL
KAMCHATKA KAY-SHUTTLEWORTH, SIR JAMES PHILLIPS
KAME KAZALA
KAMENETS PODOLSKIY KAZAN (government of Russia)
KAMENZ KAZAN (town of Russia)
KAMES, HENRY HOME KAZERUN
KAMMIN KAZINCZY, FERENCZ
KAMPEN KAZVIN
KAMPTEE KEAN, EDMUND
KAMRUP KEANE, JOHN JOSEPH
KAMYSHIN KEARNEY
KANAKA KEARNY, PHILIP
KANARA KEARNY
KANARESE KEARY, ANNIE
KANARIS, CONSTANTINE KEATE, JOHN
KANAUJ KEATS, JOHN
KANDAHAR KEBLE, JOHN
KANDI KECSKEMET
KANDY KEDDAH
KANE, ELISHA KENT KEDGEREE
KANE (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) KEEL
KANGAROO KEELEY, MARY ANNE
KANGAROO-RAT KEELING ISLANDS
KANGAVAR KEEL-MOULDING
KANGRA KEENE, CHARLES SAMUEL
KANISHKA KEENE, LAURA
KANKAKEE KEENE (New Hampshire, U.S.A.)
KANKER KEEP, ROBERT PORTER
KANO KEEP
KANSAS KEEWATIN
KANSAS CITY (Kansas, U.S.A.) KEF
KANSAS CITY (Missouri, U.S.A.) KEHL
KANSK KEIGHLEY
KAN-SUH KEI ISLANDS
KANT, IMMANUEL KEIM, KARL THEODOR
KANURI KEITH (old Scottish family)
KAOLIN KEITH, FRANCIS EDWARD JAMES
KAPUNDA KEITH, GEORGE
KAPURTHALA KEITH, GEORGE KEITH ELPHINSTONE
KARACHI KEITH (burgh of Scotland)
KARAGEORGE KEJ
KARA-HISSAR KEKULE, FRIEDRICH AUGUST
KARA-HISSAR SHARKI KELLER, ALBERT
KARAISKAKIS, GEORGES KELLER, GOTTFRIED
KARAJICH, VUK STEFANOVICH KELLER, HELEN ADAMS
KARA-KALPAKS KELLERMANN, FRANCOIS CHRISTOPHE DE
KARAKORUM KELLGREN, JOHAN HENRIK
KARA-KUL KELLOGG, CLARA LOUISE
KARA-KUM KELLS

JUSTINIAN II., RHINOTMETUS (669-711), East Roman emperor 685-695 and 704-711, succeeded his father Constantine IV., at the age of sixteen. His reign was unhappy both at home and abroad. After a successful invasion he made a truce with the Arabs, which admitted them to the joint possession of Armenia, Iberia and Cyprus, while by removing 12,000 Christian Maronites from their native Lebanon, he gave the Arabs a command over Asia Minor of which they took advantage in 692 by conquering all Armenia. In 688 Justinian decisively defeated the Bulgarians. Meanwhile the bitter dissensions caused in the Church by the emperor, his bloody persecution of the Manichaeans, and the rapacity with which, through his creatures Stephanus and Theodatus, he extorted the means of gratifying his sumptuous tastes and his mania for erecting costly buildings, drove his subjects into rebellion. In 695 they rose under Leontius, and, after cutting off the emperor's nose (whence his surname), banished him to Cherson in the Crimea. Leontius, after a reign of three years, was in turn dethroned and imprisoned by Tiberius Absimarus, who next assumed the purple. Justinian meanwhile had escaped from Cherson and married Theodora, sister of Busirus, khan of the Khazars. Compelled, however, by the intrigues of Tiberius, to quit his new home, he fled to Terbelis, king of the Bulgarians. With an army of 15,000 horsemen Justinian suddenly pounced upon Constantinople, slew his rivals Leontius and Tiberius, with thousands of their partisans, and once more ascended the throne in 704. His second reign was marked by an unsuccessful war against Terbelis, by Arab victories in Asia Minor, by devastating expeditions sent against his own cities of Ravenna and Cherson, where he inflicted horrible punishment upon the disaffected nobles and refugees, and by the same cruel rapacity towards his subjects. Conspiracies again broke out: Bardanes, surnamed Philippicus, assumed the purple, and Justinian, the last of the house of Heraclius, was assassinated in Asia Minor, December 711.

See E. Gibbon, _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed. Bury,
1896), v. 179-183; J. B. Bury, _The Later Roman Empire_ (1889), ii.
320-330, 358-367.

JUSTIN MARTYR, one of the earliest and ablest Christian apologists, was born about 100 at Flavia Neapolis (anc. _Sichem_), now Nablus, in Palestinian Syria (Samaria). His parents, according to his own account, were Pagans (_Dial. c. Tryph._ 28). He describes the course of his religious development in the introduction to the dialogue with the Jew Trypho, in which he relates how chance intercourse with an aged stranger brought him to know the truth. Though this narrative is a mixture of truth and fiction, it may be said with certainty that a thorough study of the philosophy of Peripatetics and Pythagoreans, Stoics and Platonists, brought home to Justin the conviction that true knowledge was not to be found in them. On the other hand, he came to look upon the Old Testament prophets as approved by their antiquity, sanctity, mystery and prophecies to be interpreters of the truth. To this, as he tells us in another place (_Apol._ ii. 12), must be added the deep impression produced upon him by the life and death of Christ. His conversion apparently took place at Ephesus; there, at any rate, he places his decisive interview with the old man, and there he had those discussions with Jews and converts to Judaism, the results of which he in later years set down in his _Dialogue_. After his conversion he retained his philosopher's cloak (Euseb., _Hist. Eccl._ iv. 11. 8), the distinctive badge of the wandering professional teacher of philosophy, and went about from place to place discussing the truths of Christianity in the hope of bringing educated Pagans, as he himself had been brought, through philosophy to Christ. In Rome he made a fairly long stay, giving lectures in a class-room of his own, though not without opposition from his fellow-teachers. Among his opponents was the Cynic Crescentius (_Apol._ ii. 13). Eusebius (_Hist. Eccl._ iv. 16. 7-8) concludes somewhat hastily, from the statement of Justin and his disciple Tatian (_Orat. ad Graec._ 19), that the accusation of Justin before the authorities, which led to his death, was due to Crescentius. But we know, from the undoubtedly genuine _Acta SS Justini et sociorum_, that Justin suffered the death of a martyr under the prefect Rusticus between 163 and 167.

To form an opinion of Justin as a Christian and theologian, we must turn to his _Apology_ and to the _Dialogue_ with the Jew Trypho, for the authenticity of all other extant works attributed to him is disputed with good reason. The _Apology_--it is more correct to speak of one _Apology_ than of two, for the second is only a continuation of the first, and dependent upon it--was written in Rome about 150. In the first part Justin defends his fellow-believers against the charge of atheism and hostility to the state. He then draws a positive demonstration of the truth of his religion from the effects of the new faith, and especially from the excellence of its moral teaching, and concludes with a comparison of Christian and Pagan doctrines, in which the latter are set down with naive confidence as the work of demons. As the main support of his proof of the truth of Christianity appears his detailed demonstration that the prophecies of the old dispensation, which are older than the Pagan poets and philosophers, have found their fulfilment in Christianity. A third part shows, from the practices of their religious worship, that the Christians had in truth dedicated themselves to God. The whole closes with an appeal to the princes, with a reference to the edict issued by Hadrian in favour of the Christians. In the so-called _Second Apology_, Justin takes occasion from the trial of a Christian recently held in Rome to argue that the innocence of the Christians was proved by the very persecutions.

Even as a Christian Justin always remained a philosopher. By his conscious recognition of the Greek philosophy as a preparation for the truths of the Christian religion, he appears as the first and most distinguished in the long list of those who have endeavoured to reconcile Christian with non-Christian culture. Christianity consists for him in the doctrines, guaranteed by the manifestation of the Logos in the person of Christ, of God, righteousness and immortality, truths which have been to a certain extent foreshadowed in the monotheistic religious philosophies. In this process the conviction of the reconciliation of the sinner with God, of the salvation of the world and the individual through Christ, fell into the background before the vindication of supernatural truths intellectually conceived. Thus Justin may give the impression of having rationalized Christianity, and of not having given it its full value as a religion of salvation. It must not, however, be forgotten that Justin is here speaking as the apologist of Christianity to an educated Pagan public, on whose philosophical view of life he had to base his arguments, and from whom he could not expect an intimate comprehension of the religious position of Christians. That he himself had a thorough comprehension of it he showed in the _Dialogue_ with the Jew Trypho. Here, where he had to deal with the Judaism that believed in a Messiah, he was far better able to do justice to Christianity as a revelation; and so we find that the arguments of this work are much more completely in harmony with primitive Christian theology than those of the _Apology_. He also displays in this work a considerable knowledge of the Rabbinical writings and a skilful polemical method which was surpassed by none of the later anti-Jewish writers.

Justin is a most valuable authority for the life of the Christian Church in the middle of the 2nd century. While we have elsewhere no connected account of this, Justin's _Apology_ contains a few paragraphs (61 seq.), which give a vivid description of the public worship of the Church and its method of celebrating the sacraments (Baptism and the Eucharist). And from this it is clear that though, as a theologian, Justin wished to go his own way, as a believing Christian he was ready to make his standpoint that of the Church and its baptismal confession of faith. His works are also of great value for the history of the New Testament writings. He knows of no canon of the New Testament, i.e. no fixed and inclusive collection of the apostolic writings. His sources for the teachings of Jesus are the "Memoirs of the Apostles," by which are probably to be understood the Synoptic Gospels (without the Gospel according to St John), which, according to his account, were read along with the prophetic writings at the public services. From his writings we derive the impression of an amiable personality, who is honestly at pains to arrive at an understanding with his opponents. As a theologian, he is of wide sympathies; as a writer, he is often diffuse and somewhat dull. There are not many traces of any particular literary influence of his writings upon the Christian Church, and this need not surprise us. The Church as a whole took but little interest in apologetics and polemics, nay, had at times even an instinctive feeling that in these controversies that which she held holy might easily suffer loss. Thus Justin's writings were not much read, and at the present time both the _Apology_ and the _Dialogue_ are preserved in but a single MS. (cod. Paris, 450, A.D. 1364).

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The editions of Robert Etienne (Stephanus) (1551); H.
Sylburg (1593); F. Morel (1615); Prudentius Maranuis (1742) are
superseded by J. C. T. Otto, _Justini philosophi et martyris opera
quae feruntur omnia_ (3rd ed. 5 vols., Jena, 1876-1881). This edition
contains besides the _Apologies_ (vol. i.) and the _Dialogue_ (vol.
ii.) the following writings: _Speech to the Greeks_ (_Oratio_);
_Address to the Greeks_ (_Cohortatio_): _On the Monarchy of God_;
_Epistle to Diognetus_; _Fragments on the Resurrection and other
Fragments_; _Exposition of the True Faith_; _Epistle to Zenas and
Serenus_; _Refutation of certain Doctrines of Aristotle_; _Questions
and Answers to the Orthodox_; _Questions of Christians to Pagans_;
_Questions of Pagans to Christians_. None of these writings, not even
the _Cohortatio_, which former critics ascribed to Justin, can be
attributed to him. The authenticity of the _Dialogue_ has occasionally
been disputed, but without reason. For a handy edition of the
_Apology_ see G. Kruger, _Die Apologien Justins des Martyrers_ (3rd
ed. Tubingen, 1904). There is a good German translation with a
comprehensive commentary by H. Veil (1894). For English translations
consult the "Oxford Library of the Fathers" and the "Ante-Nicene
Library." Full information about Justin's history and views may be had
from the following monographs: C. Semisch, _Justin der Martyrer_ (2
vols., 1840-1842); J. Donaldson, _A Critical History of Christian
Literature and Doctrine_, vol. 2 (1866); C. E. Freppel, _St Justin_
(3rd ed., 1886); Moritz von Engelhardt, _Das Christentum Justins des
Martyrers_ (1878); T. M. Wehofer, _Die Apologie Justins des
Philosophen und Martyrers in litterarhistorischer Beziehung zum ersten
Male untersucht_ (1897); Alfred Leonhard Feder, _Justins des Martyrers
Lehre von Jesus Christus_ (1906). On the critical questions raised by
the spurious writings consult W. Gaul, _Die Abfassungsverhaltnisse der
pseudo-justinischen Cohortatio ad Graecos_ (1902); Adolf Harnack,
_Diodor von Tarsus. Vier pseudo-justinische Schriften als Eigentum
Diodors nachgewiesen_ (1901). (G. K.)

JUTE, a vegetable fibre now occupying a position in the manufacturing scale inferior only to cotton and flax. The term jute appears to have been first used in 1746, when the captain of the "Wake" noted in his log that he had sent on shore "60 bales of gunney with all the jute rope" (_New Eng. Dict. s.v._). In 1795 W. Roxburgh sent to the directors of the East India Company a bale of the fibre which he described as "the jute of the natives." Importations of the substance had been made at earlier times under the name of _pat_, an East Indian native term by which the fibre continued to be spoken of in England till the early years of the 19th century, when it was supplanted by the name it now bears. This modern name appears to be derived from _jhot_ or _jhout_ (Sansk. _jhat_), the vernacular name by which the substance is known in the Cuttack district, where the East India Company had extensive roperies when Roxburgh first used the term.

The fibre is obtained from two species of _Corchorus_ (nat. ord. _Tiliaceae_), _C. capsularis_ and _C. olitorius_, the products of both being so essentially alike that neither in commerce nor agriculture is any distinction made between them. These and various other species of _Corchorus_ are natives of Bengal, where they have been cultivated from very remote times for economic purposes, although there is reason to believe that the cultivation did not originate in the northern parts of India. The two species cultivated for jute fibre are in all respects very similar to each other, except in their fructification and the relatively greater size attained by _C. capsularis_. They are annual plants from 5 to 10 ft. high, with a cylindrical stalk as thick as a man's finger, and hardly branching except near the top. The light-green leaves are from 4 to 5 in. long by 1(1/2) in. broad above the base, and taper upward into a fine point; the edges are serrated; the two lower teeth are drawn out into bristle-like points. The small whitish-yellow flowers are produced in clusters of two or three opposite the leaves.

The capsules or seed-pods in the case of _C. capsularis_ are globular, rough and wrinkled, while in _C. olitorius_ they are slender, quill-like cylinders (about 2 in. long), a very marked distinction, as may be noted from fig. 1, in which a and b show the capsules of _C. capsularis_ and _C. olitorius_ respectively. Fig. 2 represents a flowering top of _C. olitorius_.

Both species are cultivated in India, not only on account of their fibre, but also for the sake of their leaves, which are there extensively used as a pot-herb. The use of _C. olitorius_ for the latter purpose dates from very ancient times, if it may be identified, as some suppose, with the mallows ([Hebrew: maluah]) mentioned in Job xxx. 4; hence the name Jew's mallow. It is certain that the Greeks used this plant as a pot-herb; and by many other nations around the shores of the Mediterranean this use of it was, and is still, common. Throughout Bengal the name by which the plants when used as edible vegetables are recognized is _nalita_; when on the other hand they are spoken of as fibre-producers it is generally under the name _pat_. The cultivation of _C. capsularis_ is most prevalent in central and eastern Bengal, while in the neighbourhood of Calcutta, where, however, the area under cultivation is limited, _C. olitorius_ is principally grown. The fibre known as China jute or Tien-tsin jute is the product of another plant, _Abutilon Avicennae_, a member of the Mallow family.

_Cultivation and Cropping._--Attempts have been made to grow the jute plant in America, Egypt, Africa and other places, but up to the present the fibre has proved much inferior to that obtained from plants grown in India. Here the cultivation of the plant extends from the Hugli through eastern and northern Bengal. The successful cultivation of the plant demands a hot, moist climate, with a fair amount of rain. Too much rain at the beginning of the season is detrimental to the growth, while a very dry season is disastrous. The climate of eastern and northern Bengal appears to be ideal for the growth of the plant.

The quality of the fibre and the produce per acre depend in a measure on the preparation of the soil. The ground should be ploughed about four times and all weeds removed. The seed is then sown broadcast as in the case of flax. It is only within quite recent years that any attention has been paid to the selection of the seed. The following extract from _Capital_ (Jan. 17, 1907) indicates the new interest taken in it.

"Jute seed experiments are being continued and the report for 1906 has
been issued. The object of these experiments is, of course, to obtain
a better class of jute seed by growing plants, especially for no other
purpose than to obtain their seed. The agricultural department has
about 300 maunds (25,000 lb.) of selected seed for distribution this
year. The selling price is to be _Rs._ 10 per maund. The agricultural
department of the government of Bengal are now fully alive to the
importance of fostering the jute industry by showing conclusively that
attention to scientific agriculture will make two maunds of jute grow
where only one maund grew before. Let them go on (as they will) till
all the ryots are thoroughly indoctrinated into the new system."

The time of sowing extends from the middle of March to the middle of June, while the reaping, which depends upon the time of sowing and upon the weather, is performed from the end of June to the middle of October. The crop is said to be ready for gathering when the flowers appear; if gathered before, the fibre is weak, while if left until the seed is ripe, the fibre is stronger, but is coarser and lacks the characteristic lustre.

The fibre is separated from the stalks by a process of retting similar to that for flax and hemp. In certain districts of Bengal it is the practice to stack the crop for a few days previous to retting in order to allow the leaves to dry and to drop off the stalks. It is stated that the colour of the fibre is darkened if the leaves are allowed to remain on during the process of retting. It is also thought that the drying of the plants before retting facilitates the separation of the fibre. Any simple operation which improves the colour of the fibre or shortens the operation of retting is worthy of consideration. The benefits to be derived from the above process, however, cannot be great, for the bundles are usually taken direct to the pools and streams. The period necessary for the completion of the retting process varies according to the temperature and to the properties of the water, and may occupy from two days to a month. After the first few days of immersion the stalks are examined daily to test the progress of the retting. When the fibres are easily separated from the stalk, the operation is complete and the bundles should be withdrawn. The following description of the retting of jute is taken from Royle's _Fibrous Plants of India_:--

"The proper point being attained, the native operator, standing up to
his middle in water, takes as many of the sticks in his hands as he
can grasp, and removing a small portion of the bark from the ends next
the roots, and grasping them together, he strips off the whole with a
little management from end to end, without breaking either stem or
fibre. Having prepared a certain quantity into this half state, he
next proceeds to wash off: this is done by taking a large handful;
swinging it round his head he dashes it repeatedly against the surface
of the water, drawing it through towards him, so as to wash off the
impurities; then, with a dexterous throw he fans it out on the surface
of the water and carefully picks off all remaining black spots. It is
now wrung out so as to remove as much water as possible, and then hung
up on lines prepared on the spot, to dry in the sun."

The separated fibre is then made up into bundles ready for sending to one of the jute presses. The jute is carefully sorted into different qualities, and then each lot is subjected to an enormous hydraulic pressure from which it emerges in the shape of the well-known bales, each weighing 400 lb.

The crop naturally depends upon the quality of the soil, and upon the attention which the fibre has received in its various stages; the yield per acre varies in different districts. Three bales per acre, or 1200 lb. is termed a 100% crop, but the usual quantity obtained is about 2.6 bales per acre. Sometimes the crop is stated in lakhs of 100,000 bales each. The crop in 1906 reached nearly 9,000,000 bales, and in 1907 nearly 10,000,000 was reached. The following particulars were issued on the 19th of September 1906 by Messrs. W. F. Souter & Co., Dundee:--

+---------+-----------+---------------+-------------+----------------------+---------------------+--------------+-----------+
| | |Estimated yield| Estimated | Shipment to Europe. | Shipment to America.| Supplies to | Out-turn |
| Year. | Actual | (100% | total +-----------+----------+---------+-----------+ Indian mills |total crop.|
| | acreage. | equal 3 bales | crop. | Jute. | Cuttings.| Jute. | Cuttings. | and local | Bales. |
| | | per acre). | Bales. | Bales. | Bales. | Bales. | Bales. | consumption. | |
+---------+-----------+---------------+-------------+-----------+----------+---------+-----------+--------------+-----------+
|1901--1st| 2,216,500 | 94% = | 6,250,000 | | | | | | |
| Final | 2,249,000 | 96% = | 6,500,000 | 3,528,691 | 54,427 | 295,921 | 426,331 | 3,100,000 = | 7,405,370 |
|1902--1st| 2,200,000 | 80% = | 5,280.000 | | | | | | |
| Final | 2,200,000 | 80% = | 5,280,000 | 2,773,621 | 39,019 | 230,415 | 207,999 | 2,600,000 = | 5,851,054 |
|1903--1st| 2,100,000 | 85% = | 5,400,000 | | | | | | |
| Final | 2,250,000 | 93(3/4)% = | 6,500,000 | 3,161,791 | 59,562 | 329,048 | 236,959 | 3,650,000 = | 7,437,360 |
|1904--1st| 2,700,000 | 87(1/2)% = | 7,100,000 | | | | | | |
| Final | 2,850,000 | 85% = | 7,400,000 | 2,939,940 | 44,002 | 253,882 | 290,854 | 3,475,782 = | 7,004,460 |
|1905--1st| 3,163,500 | 87% = | 8,250,000 | | | | | | |
| Final | 3,145,000 | 87% = | 8,200,000 \| | | | | \ | |
| | | Outlying | 200,000 /| 3,483,315 | 63,118 | 347,974 | 245,044 | 4,018,523 / =| 8,233,358 |
| | | | Madras | 75,384 | | | | | |
|1906--1st| 3,271,400\| 87% = | 8,713,000 | | | | | | |
|Outlying | 67,000/| Madras | 100,000 | | | | | | |
| Final | 3,336,400 | | 8,736,220 | | | | | | |
| (Outlying Districts and Madras, say 250,000 | | | | | | |
| bales additional) | | | | | | |
+---------------------------------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+-----------+--------------+-----------+

Estimated consumption of jute 1906-1907.

In Europe Bales per annum.
Scotland 1,250,000
England 20,000
Ireland 25,000
France 475,000
Belgium 120,000
Germany 750,000
Austria and Bohemia 262,000
Norway and Sweden 62,500
Russia 180,000
Holland 25,000
Spain 90,000
Italy 160,000
------- 3,419,500 bales
In America 600,000
------- 600,000 "
In India--
Mills 3,900,000
Local 500,000
--------- 4,400,000 "
---------------
8,419,500 bales

Statistics of consumption of jute, rejections and cuttings.

+----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Consumption. | 1894. | 1904. | 1906. |
| | Bales. | Bales. | Bales. |
+----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| United Kingdom | 1,200,000 | 1,200,000 | 1,295,000 |
| Continent | 1,100,000 | 1,800,000 | 2,124,500 |
| America | 500,000 | 500,000 | 600,000 |
| Indian mills | 1,500,000 | 2,900,000 | 3,900,000 |
| Local Indian consumption | 500,000 | 500,000 | 500,000 |
| +-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Total jute crop consumption| 4,800,000 | 6,900,000 | 8,419,500 |
+----------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

A number of experiments in jute cultivation were made during 1906, and the report showed that very encouraging results were obtained from land manured with cow-dung. If more scientific attention be given to the cultivation it is quite possible that what is now considered as 100% yield may be exceeded.

_Characteristics._--The characters by which qualities of jute are judged are colour, lustre, softness, strength, length, firmness, uniformity and absence of roots. The best qualities are of a clear whitish-yellow colour, with a fine silky lustre, soft and smooth to the touch, and fine, long and uniform in fibre. When the fibre is intended for goods in the natural colour it is essential that it should be of a light shade and uniform, but if intended for yarns which are to be dyed a dark shade, the colour is not so important. The cultivated plant yields a fibre with a length of from 6 to 10 ft., but in exceptional cases it has been known to reach 14 or 15 ft. in length. The fibre is decidedly inferior to flax and hemp in strength and tenacity; and, owing to a peculiarity in its microscopic structure, by which the walls of the separate cells composing the fibre vary much in thickness at different points, the single strands of fibre are of unequal strength. Recently prepared fibre is always stronger, more lustrous, softer and whiter than such as has been stored for some time--age and exposure rendering it brown in colour and harsh and brittle in quality. Jute, indeed, is much more woody in texture than either flax or hemp, a circumstance which may be easily demonstrated by its behaviour under appropriate reagents; and to that fact is due the change in colour and character it undergoes on exposure to the air. The fibre bleaches with facility, up to a certain point, sufficient to enable it to take brilliant and delicate shades of dye colour, but it is with great difficulty brought to a pure white by bleaching. A very striking and remarkable fact, which has much practical interest, is its highly hygroscopic nature. While in a dry position and atmosphere it may not possess more than 6% of moisture, under damp conditions it will absorb as much as 23%.

Sir G. Watt, in his _Dictionary of the Economic Products of India_,
mentions the following eleven varieties of jute fibre: Serajganji,
Narainganji, Desi, Deora, Uttariya, Deswal, Bakrabadi, Bhatial,
Karimginji, Mirganji and Jungipuri. There are several other varieties
of minor importance. The first four form the four classes into which
the commercial fibre is divided, and they are commonly known as
Serajgunge, Naraingunge, Daisee and Dowrah. Serajgunge is a soft
fibre, but it is superior in colour, which ranges from white to grey.
Naraingunge is a strong fibre, possesses good spinning qualities, and
is very suitable for good warp yarns. Its colour, which is not so high
as Serajgunge, begins with a cream shade and approaches red at the
roots. All the better class yarns are spun from these two kinds.
Daisee is similar to Serajgunge in softness, is of good quality and of
great length; its drawback is the low colour, and hence it is not so
suitable for using in natural colour. It is, however, a valuable fibre
for carpet yarns, especially for dark yarns. Dowrah is a strong, harsh
and low quality fibre, and is used principally for heavy wefts. Each
class is subdivided according to the quality and colour of the
material, and each class receives a distinctive mark called a baler's
mark. Thus, the finest fibres may be divided as follows:--

Superfine first marks.
Extra fine first marks 1st, 2nd and 3rd numbers.
Superior first marks " " "
Standard " " " " "
Good " " " " "
Ordinary " " " " "
Good second " " " "
Ordinary " " " " "

The lower qualities are, naturally, divided into fewer varieties.

Each baler has his own marks, the fibres of which are guaranteed equal
in equality to some standard mark. It would be impossible to give a
list of the different marks, for there are hundreds, and new marks are
constantly being added. A list of all the principal marks is issued in
book form by the Calcutta Jute Baler's association.

The relative prices of the different classes depend upon the crop,
upon the demand and upon the quality of the fibre; in 1905 the prices
of Daisee jute and First Marks were practically the same, although the
former is always considered inferior to the latter. It does not follow
that a large crop of jute will result in low prices, for the year
1906-1907 was not only a record one for crops, but also for prices. R.
F. C. grade has been as high as L40 per ton, while its lowest recorded
price is L12. Similarly the price for First Marks reached L29, 15s. in
1906 as compared with L9, 5s. per ton in 1897. The following table
shows a few well-known grades with the average prices during December
for the years 1903, 1904, 1905 and 1906.

+-------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| Class. |Dec. 1903.|Dec. 1904.|Dec. 1905.|Dec. 1906.|
+-------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| | L s. d. | L s. d. | L s. d. | L s. d. |
| First marks | 12 15 0 | 16 0 0 | 19 15 0 | 27 15 0 |
| Blacks S C C | 11 2 6 | 14 5 0 | 17 15 0 | 20 15 0 |
| Red S C C | 12 0 0 | 14 17 6 | 18 15 0 | 23 15 0 |
| Native rejections | 8 2 6 | -- | 14 10 0 | 15 17 6 |
| S 4 group | -- | -- | 25 10 0 | 38 0 0 |
| R F block D group | -- | -- | -- | 36 0 0 |
| R F circle D group| 14 10 0 | 16 15 0 | 21 10 0 | -- |
| R F D group | 11 15 0 | 14 2 6 | 17 12 6 | 22 0 0 |
| N B green D | 14 5 0 | -- | 21 0 0 | 32 0 0 |
| Heart T 4 | 14 12 6 | 17 10 0 | 22 10 0 | 34 0 0 |
| Heart T 5 | 14 12 6 | 17 10 0 | 21 0 0 | 31 0 0 |
| Daisee 2 | 12 17 6 | -- | 18 15 0 | 25 10 0 |
| Daisee assortment | 12 10 0 | 14 17 6 | 18 5 0 | -- |
| Mixed cuttings | 4 5 0 | -- | 10 0 0 | 10 0 0 |
+-------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

_Jute Manufacture._--Long before jute came to occupy a prominent place amongst the textile fibres of Europe, it formed the raw material of a large and important industry throughout the regions of Eastern Bengal. The Hindu population made the material up into cordage, paper and cloth, the chief use of the latter being in the manufacture of gunny bags. Indeed, up to 1830-1840 there was little or no competition with hand labour for this class of material. The process of weaving gunnies for bags and other coarse articles by these hand-loom weavers has been described as follows:--

"Seven sticks or chattee weaving-posts, called _tana para_ or warp,
are fixed upon the ground, occupying the length equal to the measure
of the piece to be woven, and a sufficient number of twine or thread
is wound on them as warp called _tana_. The warp is taken up and
removed to the weaving machine. Two pieces of wood are placed at two
ends, which are tied to the _ohari_ and _okher_ or roller; they are
made fast to the _khoti_. The _belut_ or treadle is put into the warp;
next to that is the _sarsul_; a thin piece of wood is laid upon the
warp, called _chupari_ or regulator. There is no sley used in this,
nor is a shuttle necessary; in the room of the latter a stick covered
with thread called _singa_ is thrown into the warp as woof, which is
beaten in by a piece of plank called _beyno_, and as the cloth is
woven it is wound up to the roller. Next to this is a piece of wood
called _khetone_, which is used for smoothing and regulating the woof;
a stick is fastened to the warp to keep the woof straight."

Gunny cloth is woven of numerous qualities, according to the purpose to which it is devoted. Some kinds are made close and dense in texture, for carrying such seed as poppy or rape and sugar; others less close are used for rice, pulses, and seeds of like size, and coarser and opener kinds again are woven for the outer cover of packages and for the sails of country boats. There is a thin close-woven cloth made and used as garments among the females of the aboriginal tribes near the foot of the Himalayas, and in various localities a cloth of pure jute or of jute mixed with cotton is used as a sheet to sleep on, as well as for wearing purposes. To indicate the variety of uses to which jute is applied, the following quotation may be cited from the official report of Hem Chunder Kerr as applying to Midnapur.

"The articles manufactured from jute are principally (1) gunny bags;
(2) string, rope and cord; (3) _kampa_, a net-like bag for carrying
wood or hay on bullocks; (4) _chat_, a strip of stuff for tying bales
of cotton or cloth; (5) _dola_, a swing on which infants are rocked to
sleep; (6) _shika_, a kind of hanging shelf for little earthen pots,
&c.; (7) _dulina_, a floor-cloth; (8) _beera_, a small circular stand
for wooden plates used particularly in _poojahs_; (9) painter's brush
and brush for white-washing; (10) _ghunsi_, a waist-band worn next to
the skin; (11) _gochh-dari_, a hair-band worn by women; (12) _mukbar_,
a net bag used as muzzle for cattle; (13) _parchula_, false hair worn
by players; (14) _rakhi-bandhan_, a slender arm-band worn at the
Rakhi-poornima festival; and (15) _dhup_, small incense sticks burned
at _poojahs_."

The fibre began to receive attention in Great Britain towards the close of the 18th century, and early in the 19th century it was spun into yarn and woven into cloth in the town of Abingdon. It is claimed that this was the first British town to manufacture the material. For years small quantities of jute were imported into Great Britain and other European countries and into America, but it was not until the year 1832 that the fibre may be said to have made any great impression in Great Britain. The first really practical experiments with the fibre were made in this year in Chapelshade Works, Dundee, and these experiments proved to be the foundation of an enormous industry. It is interesting to note that the site of Chapelshade Works was in 1907 cleared for the erection of a large new technical college.

In common with practically all new industries progress was slow for a time, but once the value of the fibre and the cloth produced from it had become known the development was more rapid. The pioneers of the work were confronted with many difficulties; most people condemned the fibre and the cloth, many warps were discarded as unfit for weaving, and any attempt to mix the fibre with flax, tow or hemp was considered a form of deception. The real cause of most of these objections was the fact that suitable machinery and methods of treatment had not been developed for preparing yarns from this useful fibre. Warden in his _Linen Trade_ says:--

"For years after its introduction the principal spinners refused to
have anything to do with jute, and cloth made of it long retained a
tainted reputation. Indeed, it was not until Mr. Rowan got the Dutch
government, about 1838, to substitute jute yarns for those made from
flax in the manufacture of the coffee bagging for their East Indian
possessions, that the jute trade in Dundee got a proper start. That
fortunate circumstance gave an impulse to the spinning of the fibre
which it never lost, and since that period its progress has been truly
astonishing."

The demand for this class of bagging, which is made from fine hessian yarns, is still great. These fine Rio hessian yarns form an important branch of the Dundee trade, and in some weeks during 1906 as many as 1000 bales were despatched to Brazil, besides numerous quantities to other parts of the world.

For many years Great Britain was the only European country engaged in the manufacture of jute, the great seat being Dundee. Gradually, however, the trade began to extend, and now almost every European country is partly engaged in the trade.

The success of the mechanical method of spinning and weaving of jute in Dundee and district led to the introduction of textile machinery into and around Calcutta. The first mill to be run there by power was started in 1854, while by 1872 three others had been established. In the next ten years no fewer than sixteen new mills were erected and equipped with modern machinery from Great Britain, while in 1907 there were thirty-nine mills engaged in the industry. The expansion of the Indian power trade may be gathered from the following particulars of the number of looms and spindles from 1892 to 1906. In one or two cases the number of spindles is obtained approximately by reckoning twenty spindles per loom, which is about the average for the Indian mills.

+-------------+------------+--------------+
| Year. | Looms. | Spindles. |
+-------------+------------+--------------+
| 1892-3 | 8,479 | 177,732 |
| 1893-4 | 9,082 | 189,144 |
| 1894-5 | 9,504 | 197,673 |
| 1895-6 | 10,071 | 212,595 |
| 1896-7 | 12,276 | 254,610 |
| 1897-8 | 12,737 | 271,363 |
| 1898-9 | 13,323 | 277,398 |
| 1899-1900 | 14,021 | 293,218 |
| 1900-01 | 15,242 | 315,264 |
| 1901-02 | 16,059 | 329,300 |
| 1902-03 | 17,091 | 350,120 |
| 1904* | 19,901 | 398,020** |
| 1905* | 21,318 | 426,360** |
| 1906* | 26,799 | 520,980** |
+-------------+------------+--------------+

* End of calendar year, the remainder being taken to the 31st of
March, the end of financial year.

** Approximate number of spindles.

The Calcutta looms are engaged for the most part with a few varieties of the commoner classes of jute fabrics, but the success in this direction has been really remarkable. Dundee, on the other hand, turns out not only the commoner classes of fabrics, but a very large variety of other fabrics. Amongst these may be mentioned the following: Hessian, bagging, tarpaulin, sacking, scrims, Brussels carpets, Wilton carpets, imitation Brussels, and several other types of carpets, rugs and matting, in addition to a large variety of fabrics of which jute forms a part. Calcutta has certainly taken a large part of the trade which Dundee held in its former days, but the continually increasing demands for jute fabrics for new purposes have enabled Dundee to enter new markets and so to take part in the prosperity of the trade.

The development of the trade with countries outside India from 1828 to 1906 may be seen by the following figures of exports:--

Average per year from 1828 to 1832-33 11,800 cwt.
" " " 1833-34 " 1837-38 67,483 "
" " " 1838-39 " 1842-43 117,047 "
" " " 1843-44 " 1847-48 234,055 "
" " " 1848-49 " 1852-53 439,850 "
" " " 1853-54 " 1857-58 710,826 "
" " " 1858-59 " 1862-63 969,724 "
" " " 1863-64 " 1867-68 2,628,110 "
" " " 1868-69 " 1872-73 4,858,162 "
" " " 1873-74 " 1877-78 5,362,267 "
" " " 1878-79 " 1882-83 7,274,000 "
" " " 1883-84 " 1887-88 8,223,859 "
" " " 1888-89 " 1892-93 10,372,991 "
" " " 1893-94 " 1897-98 12,084,292 "
" " " 1898-99 " 1902-03 11,959,189 "
" " " 1903-04 " 1905-06 13,693,090 "

The subjoined table shows the extent of the trade from an agricultural, as well as from a manufacturing, point of view. The difference between the production and the exports represents the native consumption, for very little jute is sent overland. The figures are taken to the 31st of March, the end of the Indian financial year.

+--------+-------------+-------------+--------------+
| Year. | Acres under | Production | Exports by |
| | cultivation.| in cwt. | sea in cwt. |
+--------+-------------+-------------+--------------+
| 1893 | 2,181,334 | 20,419,000 | 10,537,512 |
| 1894 | 2,230,570 | 17,863,000 | 8,690,133 |
| 1895 | 2,275,335 | 21,944,400 | 12,976,791 |
| 1896 | 2,248,593 | 19,825,000 | 12,266,781 |
| 1897 | 2,215,105 | 20,418,000 | 11,464,356 |
| 1898 | 2,159,908 | 24,425,000 | 15,023,325 |
| 1899 | 1,690,739 | 19,050,000 | 9,864,545 |
| 1900 | 2,070,668 | 19,329,000 | 9,725,245 |
| 1901 | 2,102,236 | 23,307,000 | 12,414,552 |
| 1902 | 2,278,205 | 26,564,000 | 14,755,115 |
| 1903 | 2,142,700 | 23,489,000 | 13,036,486 |
| 1904 | 2,275,050 | 25,861,000 | 13,721,447 |
| 1905 | 2,899,700 | 26,429,000 | 12,875,312 |
| 1906 | 3,181,600 | 29,945,000 | 14,581,307 |
+--------+-------------+-------------+--------------+

_Manufacture._--In their general features the spinning and weaving of jute fabrics do not differ essentially as to machinery and processes from those employed in the manufacture of hemp and heavy flax goods. Owing, however, to the woody and brittle nature of the fibre, it has to undergo a preliminary treatment peculiar to itself. The pioneers of the jute industry, who did not understand this necessity, or rather who did not know how the woody and brittle character of the fibre could be remedied, were greatly perplexed by the difficulties they had to encounter, the fibre spinning badly into a hard, rough and hairy yarn owing to the splitting and breaking of the fibre. This peculiarity of jute, coupled also with the fact that the machinery on which it was first spun, although quite suitable for the stronger and more elastic fibres for which it was designed, required certain modifications to suit it to the weaker jute, was the cause of many annoyances and failures in the early days of the trade.

The first process in the manufacture of jute is termed batching. Batch
setting is the first part of this operation; it consists of selecting
the different kinds or qualities of jute for any predetermined kind of
yarn. The number of bales for a batch seldom exceeds twelve, indeed it
is generally about six, and of these there may be three, four or even
more varieties or marks. The "streaks"[1] or "heads" of jute as they
come from the bale are in a hard condition in consequence of having
been subjected to a high hydraulic pressure during baling; it is
therefore necessary to soften them before any further process is
entered. The streaks are sometimes partly softened or crushed by means
of a steam hammer during the process of opening the bale, then taken
to the "strikers-up" where the different varieties are selected and
hung on pins, and then taken to the jute softening machine. The more
general practice, however, is to employ what is termed a "bale
opener," or "jute crusher." The essential parts of one type of bale
opener are three specially shaped rollers, the peripheries of which
contain a number of small knobs. Two of these rollers are supported in
the same horizontal plane of the framework, while the third or top
roller is kept in close contact by means of weights and springs acting
on each end of the arbor. Another type of machine termed the three
pair roller jute opener is illustrated in fig. 3. The layers from the
different bales are laid upon the feed cloth which carries them up to
the rollers, between which the layers are crushed and partly
separated. The proximity of the weighted roller or rollers to the
fixed ones depends upon the thickness of material passing through the
machine. The fibre is delivered by what is called the delivery cloth,
and the batcher usually selects small streaks of about 1(1/2) lb. to 2
lb. weight each and passes them on to the attendant or feeder of the
softening machine. These small streaks are now laid as regularly as
possible upon the feed-cloth of the softening machine, a general view
of which is shown in fig. 4. The fibre passes between a series of
fluted rollers, each pair of which is kept in contact by spiral
springs as shown in the figure. The standard number of pairs is
sixty-three, but different lengths obtain. There is also a difference
in the structure of the flutes, some being straight, and others
spiral, and each pair may or may not contain the same number of
flutes. The springs allow the top rollers of each pair to rise as the
material passes through the machine. Advantage is taken of this slight
upward and downward movement of the top rollers to automatically
regulate the flow of water and oil upon the material. The apparatus
for this function is placed immediately over the 11th and 12th rollers
of the softening machine and an idea of its construction may be
gathered from fig. 5. In many cases the water and oil are applied by
less automatic, but equally effective, means. The main object is to
see that the liquids are distributed evenly while the fibre is passing
through, and to stop the supply when the machine stops or when no
fibre is passing. The uniform moistening of the fibre in this machine
facilitates the subsequent operations, indeed the introduction of this
preliminary process (originally by hand) constituted the first
important step in the practical solution of the difficulties of jute
spinning. The relative quantities of oil and water depend upon the
quality of the batch. Sometimes both whale and mineral oils are used,
but in most cases the whale oil is omitted. About 1 to 1(1/4) gallons
of oil is the usual amount given per bale of 400 lb. of jute, while
the quantity of water per bale varies from 3 to 7 gallons. The
delivery attendants remove the streaks, give them a twist to
facilitate future handling, and place them on what are termed jute
barrows. The streaks are now handed over to the cutters who cut off
the roots, and finally the material is allowed to remain for twelve to
twenty-four hours to allow the mixture of oil and water to thoroughly
spread over the fibre.

When the moisture has spread sufficiently, the material is taken to
the "breaker card," the first machine in the preparing department. A
certain weight of jute, termed a "dollop," is laid upon the feed cloth
for each revolution of the latter. The fibre, which should be arranged
on the sheet as evenly as possible, is carried up by the feed cloth
and passes between the feed roller and the shell on to the large
cylinder. This cylinder, which has a high surface speed, carries part
of the fibre towards the workers and strippers; the surface speed of
the workers being much slower than that of the cylinder. The pins in
the two rollers oppose each other, those of the workers being
"back-set," and this arrangement, combined with the relative angle of
the pins, and the difference in the surface speeds of the two rollers,
results in part of the fibre being broken and carried round by the
worker towards the stripper. This, as its name implies, strips the
fibre off the worker, and carries it round to the cylinder. The pins
of the stripper and cylinder point in the same direction, but since
the surface speed of the cylinder is much greater than the surface
speed of the stripper, it follows that the fibre is combed between the
two, and that part is carried forward by the cylinder to be reworked.
The strippers and workers are in pairs, of which there may be two or
more. After passing the last pair of workers and strippers the fibre
is carried forward towards the doffing roller, the pins of which are
back-set, and the fibre is removed from the cylinder by the doffer,
from which it passes between the drawing and pressing rollers into the
conductor, and finally between the delivery and pressing rollers into
the sliver can. It may be mentioned that more or less breaking takes
place between each pair of rollers, the pins of which are opposed, and
that combing and drawing out obtains between those rollers with pins
pointing in the same direction. The ratio of the surface speeds of the
drawing roller and the feed roller is termed the draft:--

surface speed of drawing roller
------------------------------- = draft.
surface speed of feed roller

In this machine the draft is usually about thirteen.