Chapter XI: Part 11

AUTHORITIES.--Consult for physiographic descriptions general works on
the United States, exploration, surveys, &c., also paper by George I.
Adams in American Geographical Society, _Bulletin_ 34 (1902), pp.
89-104. On climate see U.S. Department of Agriculture, _Kansas Climate
and Crop Service_ (monthly, since 1887). On soil and agriculture, see
_Biennial Reports_ (Topeka, 1877 seq.) of the State Board of
Agriculture; _Experiment Station Bulletin_ of the Kansas Agricultural
College (Manhattan); and statistics in the United States _Statistical
Abstract_ (annual, Washington), and Federal Census reports. On
manufactures see Federal Census reports; Kansas Bureau of Labor and
Industry, _Annual Report_ (1885 seq.); Kansas Inspector of Coal Mines,
_Annual Report_ (1887 seq.). On administration consult the _State of
Kansas Blue Book_ (Topeka, periodical), and reports of the various
state officers (Treasurer, annual, then biennial since 1877-1878;
Board of Trustees of State Charities and Corrections, biennial,
1877-1878 seq.; State Board of Health, founded 1885, annual, then
biennial reports since 1901-1902; Bureau of Labor Statistics, founded
1885, annual reports; Irrigation Commission, organized 1895, annual
reports, &c.). On taxation see _Report and Bill of the State Tax
Commission, created_ 1901 (Topeka, 1901). On the history of the state,
see A. T. Andreas, _History of Kansas_ (Chicago, 1883; compiled mainly
by J. C. Hebbard); D. W. Wilder's _Annals of Kansas_ (Topeka, 1875 and
later), indispensable for reference; L. W. Spring's _Kansas_ (Boston,
1885, in the American Commonwealth Series); Charles Robinson, _The
Kansas Conflict_ (New York, 1892); Eli Thayer, _The Kansas Crusade_
(New York, 1889); the _Proceedings of the Kansas State Historical
Society_ (Topeka, 1891 seq.), full of the most valuable material; W.
E. Connelley, _Kansas Territorial Governors_ (Topeka, 1900); W. E.
Miller, _The Peopling of Kansas_ (Columbus, O., 1906), a doctoral
dissertation of Columbia University; and for the controversy touching
John Brown, G. W. Brown's _The Truth at Last, Reminiscences of Old
John Brown_ (Rockford, Ill., 1880), and W. E. Connelley, _An Appeal to
the Record ... Refuting ... Things Written for ... Charles Robinson
and G. W. Brown_ (Topeka, 1903). W. C. Webb's _Republican Election
Methods in Kansas, General Election of 1892, and Legislative
Investigations_ (Topeka, 1893) may also be mentioned.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] For the thirty years 1877-1906 the mean rainfall for ten-year
periods was: at Dodge, 22.8 in., 18.4 in. and 22.7 in.; and at
Lawrence, 35.1 in., 39.2 in. and 36.7 in. for the first, second and
third periods respectively.

[2] All subsequent figures in this paragraph for manufactures in 1900
are given for establishments under the "factory system" only, so as
to be comparable with statistics for 1905, which do not include minor
establishments.

[3] According to the state census Kansas had in 1905 a total
population of 1,544,968; nearly 28% lived in cities of 2500 or more
inhabitants; 13 cities had more than 10,000 inhabitants: Kansas City
(67,614). Topeka (37,641), Wichita (31,110), Leavenworth (20,934),
Atchison (18,159), Pittsburg (15,012), Coffeyville (13,196), Fort
Scott (12,248), Parsons (11,720), Lawrence (11,708), Hutchinson
(11,215), Independence (11,206), and Iola (10,287). Other cities of
above 5000 inhabitants each were: Chanute (9704), Emporia (8974),
Winfield (7845), Salina (7829), Ottawa (7727), Arkansas City (7634),
Newton (6601), Galena (6449), Argentine (6053), Junction City (5264)
and Cherryvale (5089).

[4] The English Bill was not a bribe to the degree that it has
usually been considered to be, inasmuch as it "reduced the grant of
land demanded by the Lecompton Ordinance from 23,500,000 acres to
3,500,000 acres, and offered only the normal cession to new states."
But this grant of 3,500,000 acres was conditioned on the acceptance
of the Lecompton Constitution, and Congress made no promise of any
grant if that Constitution were not adopted. The bill was introduced
by William Hayden English (1822-1896), a Democratic representative in
Congress in 1853-1861 (see Frank H. Hodder, "Some Aspects of the
English Bill for the Admission of Kansas," in _Annual Report of the
American Historical Association_ for the Year 1906, i. 201-210).

[5] Terms of actual service in Kansas, not period of commissions. The
appointment was for four years. Reeder was removed, all the others
resigned.

[6] Secretaries of the Territory who served as governors in the
interims of gubernatorial terms or when the governor was absent from
the Territory. In the case of H. S. Walsh several dates cannot be
fixed with exactness.

KANSAS CITY, a city and the county-seat of Wyandotte county, Kansas, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Missouri River, at the mouth of the Kansas, altitude about 800 ft. It is separated from its greater neighbour, Kansas City, Missouri, only by the state line, and is the largest city in the state. Pop. (1890), 38,315; (1900), 51,418, of whom 6,377 were foreign-born and 6509 were negroes; (1910 census) 82,331. It is served by the Union Pacific, the Missouri Pacific, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, and the Chicago Great Western railways, and by electric lines connecting with Leavenworth and with Kansas City, Missouri. There are several bridges across the Kansas river. The city covers the low, level bottom-land at the junction of the two rivers, and spreads over the surrounding highlands to the W., the principal residential district. Its plan is regular. The first effective steps toward a city park and boulevard system were taken in 1907, when a board of park commissioners, consisting of three members, was appointed by the mayor. The city has been divided into the South Park District and the North Park District, and at the close of 1908 there were 10 m. of boulevards and parks aggregating 160 acres. A massive steel and concrete toll viaduct, about 1(3/4) m. in length, extends from the bluffs of Kansas City, Kan., across the Kansas valley to the bluffs of Kansas City, Mo., and is used by pedestrians, vehicles and street cars. There is a fine public library building given by Andrew Carnegie. The charities of the city are co-ordinated through the associated charities. Among charitable state-aided institutions are the St Margaret's hospital (Roman Catholic), Bethany hospital (Methodist), a children's home (1893), and, for negroes, the Douglass hospital training school for nurses (1898)--the last the largest private charity of the state. The medical department of the Kansas state university, the other departments of which are in Lawrence, is in Kansas City; and among the other educational institutions of the city are the Western university and industrial school (a co-educational school for negroes), the Kansas City Baptist theological seminary (1902), and the Kansas City university (Methodist Protestant, 1896), which had 454 students in 1908-1909 and comprises Mather college (for liberal arts), Wilson high school (preparatory), a school of elocution and oratory (in Kansas City, Mo.), a Normal School, Kansas City Hahnemann Medical College (in Kansas City, Mo.), and a school of theology. The city is the seat of the Kansas (State) school for the blind. Kansas City is one of the largest cities in the country without a drinking saloon. Industrially the city is important for its stockyards and its meat-packing interests. With the exception of Chicago, it is the largest livestock market in the United States. The product-value of the city's factories in 1905 was $96,473,050; 93.5% consisting of the product of the wholesale slaughtering and meat-packing houses. Especially in the South-west markets Kansas City has an advantage over Chicago, St Louis, and other large packing centres (except St Joseph), not only in freights, but in its situation among the "corn and beef" states; it shares also the extraordinary railway facilities of Kansas City, Missouri. There are various important manufactures, such as soap and candles, subsidiary to the packing industry; and the city has large flour mills, railway and machine shops, and foundries. A large cotton-mill, producing coarse fabrics, was opened in 1907. Natural gas derived from the Kansas fields became available for lighting and heating, and crude oil for fuel, in 1906.

Kansas City was founded in 1886 by the consolidation of "old" Kansas City, Armourdale and Wyandotte (in which Armstrong and Riverview were then included). Of these municipalities Wyandotte, the oldest, was originally settled by the Wyandotte Indians in 1843; it was platted and settled by whites in 1857; and was incorporated as a town in 1858, and as a city in 1859. At Wyandotte were made the first moves for the Territorial organization of Kansas and Nebraska. During the Kansas struggle Wyandotte was a pro-slavery town, while Quindaro (1856), a few miles up the Missouri, was a free-state settlement and Wyandotte's commercial rival until after the Civil War. The convention that framed the constitution, the Wyandotte Constitution, under which Kansas was admitted to the Union, met here in July 1859. "Old" Kansas City was surveyed in 1869 and was incorporated as a city in 1872. Armourdale was laid out in 1880 and incorporated in 1882. The packing interest was first established in 1867; the first large packing plant was that of Armour & Co., which was removed to what is now Kansas City in 1871. Kansas City adopted government by commission in 1909.

KANSAS CITY, a city and port of entry of Jackson county, Missouri, U.S.A., the second in size and importance in the state, situated at the confluence of the Missouri and Kansas rivers, adjoining Kansas City, Kansas, and 235 m. W. by N. of St Louis. Pop. (1890), 132,716; (1900), 163,752, of whom 18,410 were foreign born (German, 4816; Irish, 3507; Swedish, 1869; English, 1863; English-Canadian, 1369; Italian, 1034), and 17,567 were negroes; (1910 census) 248,381. Kansas City, the gateway to the South-west, is one of the leading railway centres of the United States. It is served by the Union Pacific, the Missouri Pacific, the 'Frisco System, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago Great Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago & Alton, the Wabash, the Kansas City Southern, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Leavenworth, Kansas & Western, the Kansas City, Mexico & Orient, the St Louis, Kansas City & Colorado, the Quincy, Omaha & Kansas City, and the St Joseph & Grand Island railways, and by steamboat lines to numerous river ports.

The present retail, office, and wholesale sections were once high bluffs and deep ravines, but through and across these well graded streets were constructed. South and west of this highland, along the Kansas river, is a low, level tract occupied chiefly by railway yards, stock yards, wholesale houses and manufacturing establishments; north and east of the highland is a flat section, the Missouri River bottoms, occupied largely by manufactories, railway yards, grain elevators and homes of employes. Much high and dry "made" land has been reclaimed from the river flood-plain. Two great railway bridges across the Missouri, many smaller bridges across the Kansas, and a great inter-state toll viaduct extending from bluff to bluff across the valley of the latter river, lie within the metropolitan area of the two cities. The streets of the Missouri city are generally wide and excellently paved. The city-hall (1890-1893), the courthouse (1888-1892), and the Federal Building (1892-1900) are the most imposing of the public buildings. A convention hall, 314 ft. long and 198 ft. wide, with a seating capacity of about 15,000, is covered by a steel-frame roof without a column for its support; the exterior of the walls is cut stone and brick. The building was erected within three months, to replace one destroyed by fire, for the National Democratic Convention which met here on the 4th of July 1900. The Public Library with walls of white limestone and Texas granite, contained (1908) 95,000 volumes. The Congregational, the Calvary Baptist, the Second Presbyterian, the Independence Avenue Christian, the Independence Avenue Methodist, and the Second Christian Science churches are the finest church buildings. The board of trade building, the building of the _Star_ newspaper, and several large office buildings (including the Scarritt, Long, and New York Life Insurance buildings) are worthy of mention.

Kansas City has over 2000 acres in public parks; but Swope Park, containing 1354 acres, lies south of the city limits. The others are distributed with a design to give each section a recreation ground within easy walking distance, and all (including Swope) are connected by parkways, boulevards and street-car lines. The Paseo Parkway, 250 ft. wide, extends from N. to S. through the centre of the city for a distance of 2(1/2) m., and adjoining it near its middle is the Parade, or principal playground. The city has eight cemeteries, the largest of which are Union, Elmwood, Mt Washington, St Mary's and Forest Hill. The charitable institutions and professional schools included in 1908 about thirty hospitals, several children's homes and homes for the aged, an industrial home, the Kansas City school of law, the University medical college, and the Scarritt training school. The city has an excellent public school system. A Methodist Episcopal institutional church, admirably equipped, was opened in 1906. The city has a juvenile court, and maintains a free employment bureau.

Kansas City is primarily a commercial centre, and its trade in livestock, grain and agricultural implements is especially large. The annual pure-bred livestock show is of national importance. The city's factory product increased from $23,588,653 in 1900 to $35,573,049 in 1905, or 50.8%. Natural gas and crude petroleum from Kansas fields became of industrial importance about 1906. Natural gas is used to light the residence streets and to heat many of the residences.

Kansas City is one of the few cities in the United States empowered to frame its own charter. The first was adopted in 1875 and the second in 1889. In 1905 a new charter, drawn on the lines of the model "municipal program" advocated by the National Municipal League, was submitted to popular vote, but was defeated by the influence of the saloons and other special interests. The charter of 1908 is a revision of this proposed charter of 1905 with the objectionable features eliminated; it was adopted by a large majority vote. Under the provisions of the charter of 1908 the people elect a mayor, city treasurer, city comptroller, and judges of the municipal court, each for a term of two years. The legislative body is the common council composed of two houses, each having as many members as there are wards in the city--14 in 1908. The members of the lower house are elected, one by each ward, in the spring of each even numbered year. The upper house members are elected by the city at large and serve four years. A board of public works, board of park commissioners, board of fire and water commissioners, a board of civil service, a city counsellor, a city auditor, a city assessor, a purchasing agent, and subordinate officers, are appointed by the mayor, without confirmation by the common council. A non-partisan board composed of citizens who must not be physicians has general control of the city's hospitals and health department. A new hospital at a cost of half a million dollars was completed in 1908. The charter provides for a referendum vote on franchises, which may be ordered by the council or by petition of the people, the signatures of 20% of the registered voters being sufficient to force such election. Public work may be prevented by remonstrance of interested property owners except in certain instances, when the city, by vote of the people, may overrule all remonstrances. A civic league attempts to give a non-partisan estimate of all municipal candidates. The juvenile court, the arts and tenement commissions, the municipal employment bureau, and a park board are provided for by the charter. All the members of the city board of election commissioners and a majority of the police board are appointed by the governor of the state; and the police control the grant of liquor licences. The city is supplied with water drawn from the Missouri river above the mouth of the Kansas or Kaw (which is used as a sewer by Kansas City, Kan.); the main pumping station and settling basins being at Quindaro, several miles up the river in Kansas; whence the water is carried beneath the Kansas, through a tunnel, to a high-pressure distributing station in the west bottoms. The waterworks (direct pressure system) were acquired by the city in 1895. All other public services are in private hands. The street-railway service is based on a universal 5-cent transfer throughout the metropolitan area. Some of the first overhead electric trolleys used in the United States were used here in 1885.

The first permanent settlement within the present limits of Kansas City, which took its name from Kansas river,[1] was established by French fur traders about 1821. Westport, a little inland town--platted 1833, a city 1857, merged in Kansas City in 1899--now a fashionable residence district of Kansas City--was a rival of Independence in the Santa Fe trade which she gained almost _in toto_ in 1844 when the great Missouri flood (the greatest the river has known) destroyed the river landing utilized by Independence. Meanwhile, what is now Kansas City, and was then Westport Landing, being on the river where a swift current wore a rocky shore, steadily increased in importance and overshadowed Westport. But in 1838 lots were surveyed and the name changed to the Town of Kansas. It was officially organized in part in 1847, formally incorporated as a town in 1850, chartered under its present name in 1853, re-chartered in 1875, in 1889 and in 1908. Before 1850 it was practically the exclusive eastern terminus on the river for the Santa Fe trade,[2] and a great outfitting point for Californian emigrants. The history of this border trade is full of picturesque colour. During the Civil War both Independence and Westport were the scene of battles; Kansas City escaped, but her trade went to Leavenworth, where it had the protection of an army post and a quiet frontier. After the war the railways came, taking away the traffic to Santa Fe, and other cities farther up the Missouri river took over the trade to its upper valley. In 1866 Kansas City was entered by the first railway from St Louis; 1867 saw the beginning of the packing industry; in 1869 a railway bridge across the Missouri assured it predominance over Leavenworth and St Joseph; and since that time--save for a depression shortly after 1890, following a real-estate boom--the material progress of the city has been remarkable; the population increased from 4418 in 1860 to 32,260 in 1870, 55,785 in 1880, and 132,716 in 1890.

See T. S. Case (ed.), _History of Kansas City, Missouri_ (Syracuse,
1888); William Griffith, _History of Kansas City_ (Kansas City, 1900);
for industrial history, the _Greater Kansas City Yearbook_ (1907
seq.); for all features of municipal interest, the _Kansas City
Annual_ (Kansas City, 1907 seq.), prepared for the Business Men's
League.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] "Kansas"--in archaic variants of spelling and pronunciation,
"Kansaw," and still called, locally and colloquially, the "Kaw."

[2] Before Kansas City, first Old Franklin (opposite Boonville), then
Ft. Osage, Liberty, Sibley, Lexington, Independence and Westport had
successively been abandoned as terminals, as the transfer-point from
boat to prairie caravan was moved steadily up the Missouri. Whisky,
groceries, prints and notions were staples sent to Santa Fe; wool,
buffalo robes and dried buffalo meat, Mexican silver coin, gold and
silver dust and ore came in return. In 1860 the trade employed 3000
wagons and 7000 men, and amounted to millions of dollars in value.

KANSK, a town of eastern Siberia, in the government of Yeniseisk, 151 m. by rail E. of Krasnoyarsk, on the Kan River, a tributary of the Yenisei, and on the Siberian highway. Pop. (1897), 7504. It is the chief town of a district in which gold is found, but lies on low ground subject to inundation by the river.

KAN-SUH, a north-western province of China, bounded N. by Mongolia, E. by Shen-si, S. by Szech'uen, W. by Tibet and N.W. by Turkestan. The boundary on the N. remains undefined, but the province may be said to occupy the territory lying between 32 deg. 30'40 deg. N., and 108 deg. and 98 deg. 20' E., and to contain about 260,000 sq. m. The population is estimated at 9,800,000. Western Kan-suh is mountainous, and largely a wilderness of sand and snow, but east of the Hwang-ho the country is cultivated. The principal river is the Hwang-ho, and in the mountains to the south of Lan-chow Fu rises the Wei-ho, which traverses Shen-si and flows into the Hwang-ho at Tung-kwan. The chief products of Kan-suh are cloth, horse hides, a kind of curd like butter which is known by the Mongols under the name of _wuta_, musk, plums, onions, dates, sweet melons and medicines. (See CHINA.)

KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804), German philosopher, was born at Konigsberg on the 22nd of April 1724. His grandfather was an emigrant from Scotland, and the name Cant is not uncommon in the north of Scotland, whence the family is said to have come. His father was a saddler in Konigsberg, then a stronghold of Pietism, to the strong influence of which Kant was subjected in his early years. In his tenth year he was entered at the Collegium Fredericianum with the definite view of studying theology. His inclination at this time was towards classics, and he was recognized, with his school-fellow, David Ruhnken, as among the most promising classical scholars of the college. His taste for the greater Latin authors, particularly Lucretius, was never lost, and he acquired at school an unusual facility in Latin composition. With Greek authors he does not appear to have been equally familiar. During his university course, which began in 1740, Kant was principally attracted towards mathematics and physics. The lectures on classics do not seem to have satisfied him, and, though he attended courses on theology, and even preached on one or two occasions, he appears finally to have given up the intention of entering the Church. The last years of his university studies were much disturbed by poverty. His father died in 1746, and for nine years he was compelled to earn his own living as a private tutor. Although he disliked the life and was not specially qualified for it--as he used to say regarding the excellent precepts of his _Padagogik_, he was never able to apply them--yet he added to his other accomplishments a grace and polish which he displayed ever afterwards to a degree somewhat unusual in a philosopher by profession.

In 1755 Kant became tutor in the family of Count Kayserling. By the kindness of a friend named Richter, he was enabled to resume his university career, and in the autumn of that year he graduated as doctor and qualified as privatdocent. For fifteen years he continued to labour in this position, his fame as writer and lecturer steadily increasing. Though twice he failed to obtain a professorship at Konigsberg, he steadily refused appointments elsewhere. The only academic preferment received by him during the lengthy probation was the post of under-librarian (1766). His lectures, at first mainly upon physics, gradually expanded until nearly all descriptions of philosophy were included under them.

In 1770 he obtained the chair of logic and metaphysics at Konigsberg, and delivered as his inaugural address the dissertation _De mundi sensibilis et intelligibilis forma et principiis_. Eleven years later appeared the _Kritik of Pure Reason_, the work towards which he had been steadily advancing, and of which all his later writings are developments. In 1783 he published the _Prolegomena_, intended as an introduction to the _Kritik_, which had been found to stand in need of some explanatory comment. A second edition of the _Kritik_, with some modifications, appeared in 1787, after which it remained unaltered.

In spite of its frequent obscurity, its novel terminology, and its declared opposition to prevailing systems, the Kantian philosophy made rapid progress in Germany. In the course of ten or twelve years from the publication of the _Kritik of Pure Reason_, it was expounded in all the leading universities, and it even penetrated into the schools of the Church of Rome. Such men as J. Schulz in Konigsberg, J. G. Kiesewetter in Berlin, Jakob in Halle, Born and A. L. Heydenreich in Leipzig, K. L. Reinhold and E. Schmid in Jena, Buhle in Gottingen, Tennemann in Marburg, and Snell in Giessen, with many others, made it the basis of their philosophical teaching, while theologians like Tieftrunk, Staudlin, and Ammon eagerly applied it to Christian doctrine and morality. Young men flocked to Konigsberg as to a shrine of philosophy. The Prussian Government even undertook the expense of their support. Kant was hailed by some as a second Messiah. He was consulted as an oracle on all questions of casuistry--as, for example, on the lawfulness of inoculation for the small-pox. This universal homage for a long time left Kant unaffected; it was only in his later years that he spoke of his system as the limit of philosophy, and resented all further progress. He still pursued his quiet round of lecturing and authorship, and contributed from time to time papers to the literary journals. Of these, among the most remarkable was his review of Herder's _Philosophy of History_, which greatly exasperated that author, and led to a violent act of retaliation some years after in his _Metakritik of Pure Reason_. Schiller at this period in vain sought to engage Kant upon his _Horen_. He remained true to the _Berlin Journal_, in which most of his criticisms appeared.

In 1792 Kant, in the full height of his reputation, was involved in a collision with the Government on the question of his religious doctrines. Naturally his philosophy had excited the declared opposition of all adherents of historical Christianity, since its plain tendency was towards a moral rationalism, and it could not be reconciled to the literal doctrines of the Lutheran Church. It would have been much better to permit his exposition of the philosophy of religion to enjoy the same literary rights as his earlier works, since Kant could not be interdicted without first silencing a multitude of theologians who were at least equally separated from positive Christianity. The Government, however, judged otherwise; and after the first part of his book, _On Religion within the Limits of Reason alone_, had appeared in the _Berlin Journal_, the publication of the remainder, which treats in a more rationalizing style of the peculiarities of Christianity, was forbidden. Kant, thus shut out from Berlin, availed himself of his local privilege, and, with the sanction of the theological faculty of his own university, published the full work in Konigsberg. The Government, probably influenced as much by hatred and fear of the French Revolution, of which Kant was supposed to be a partisan, as by love of orthodoxy, resented the act; and a secret cabinet order was received by him intimating the displeasure of the king, Frederick William II., and exacting a pledge not to lecture or write at all on religious subjects in future. With this mandate Kant, after a struggle, complied, and kept his engagement till 1797, when the death of the king, according to his construction of his promise, set him free. This incident, however, produced a very unfavourable effect on his spirits. He withdrew in 1794 from society; next year he gave up all his classes but one public lecture on logic or metaphysics; and in 1797, before the removal of the interdict on his theological teaching, he ceased altogether his public labours, after an academic course of forty-two years. He previously, in the same year, finished his treatises on the _Metaphysics of Ethics_, which, with his _Anthropology_, completed in 1798, were the last considerable works that he revised with his own hand. His _Lectures on Logic_, on _Physical Geography_, on _Paedagogics_, were edited during his lifetime by his friends and pupils. By way of asserting his right to resume theological disquisition, he also issued in 1798 his _Strife of the Faculties_, in which all the strongest points of his work on religion were urged afresh, and the correspondence that had passed between himself and his censors was given to the world.

From the date of his retirement from the chair Kant declined in strength, and gave tokens of intellectual decay. His memory began to fail, and a large work at which he wrought night and day, on the connexion between physics and metaphysics, was found to be only a repetition of his already published doctrines. After 1802, finding himself attacked with a weakness in the limbs attended with frequent fits of falling, he mitigated the Spartan severity of his life, and consented to receive medical advice. A constant restlessness oppressed him; his sight gave way; his conversation became an extraordinary mixture of metaphors; and it was only at intervals that gleams of his former power broke out, especially when some old chord of association was struck in natural science or physical geography. A few days before his decease, with a great effort he thanked his medical attendant for his visits in the words, "I have not yet lost my feeling for humanity." On the 12th of February 1804 he died, having almost completed his eightieth year. His stature was small, and his appearance feeble. He was little more than five feet high; his breast was almost concave, and, like Schleiermacher, he was deformed in the right shoulder. His senses were quick and delicate; and, though of weak constitution, he escaped by strict regimen all serious illness.

His life was arranged with mechanical regularity; and, as he never married, he kept the habits of his studious youth to old age. His man-servant, who awoke him summer and winter at five o'clock, testified that he had not once failed in thirty years to respond to the call. After rising he studied for two hours, then lectured other two, and spent the rest of the forenoon, till one, at his desk. He then dined at a restaurant, which he frequently changed, to avoid the influx of strangers, who crowded to see and hear him. This was his only regular meal; and he often prolonged the conversation till late in the afternoon. He then walked out for at least an hour in all weathers, and spent the evening in lighter reading, except an hour or two devoted to the preparation of his next day's lectures, after which he retired between nine and ten to rest. In his earlier years he often spent his evenings in general society, where his knowledge and conversational talents made him the life of every party. He was especially intimate with the families of two English merchants of the name of Green and Motherby, where he found many opportunities of meeting ship-captains, and other travelled persons, and thus gratifying his passion for physical geography. This social circle included also the celebrated J. G. Hamann, the friend of Herder and Jacobi, who was thus a mediator between Kant and these philosophical adversaries.

Kant's reading was of the most extensive and miscellaneous kind. He cared comparatively little for the history of speculation, but his acquaintance with books of science, general history, travels and belles lettres was boundless. He was well versed in English literature, chiefly of the age of Queen Anne, and had read English philosophy from Locke to Hume, and the Scottish school. He was at home in Voltaire and Rousseau, but had little or no acquaintance with the French sensational philosophy. He was familiar with all German literature up to the date of his _Kritik_, but ceased to follow it in its great development by Goethe and Schiller. It was his habit to obtain books in sheets from his publishers Kanter and Nicolovius; and he read over for many years all the new works in their catalogue, in order to keep abreast of universal knowledge. He was fond of newspapers and works on politics; and this was the only kind of reading that could interrupt his studies in philosophy.

As a lecturer, Kant avoided altogether that rigid style in which his books were written. He sat behind a low desk, with a few jottings on slips of paper, or textbooks marked on the margin, before him, and delivered an extemporaneous address, opening up the subject by partial glimpses, and with many anecdotes or familiar illustrations, till a complete idea of it was presented. His voice was extremely weak, but sometimes rose into eloquence, and always commanded perfect silence. Though kind to his students, he refused to remit their fees, as this, he thought, would discourage independence. It was another principle that his chief exertions should be bestowed on the intermediate class of talent, as the geniuses would help themselves, and the dunces were beyond remedy.

Simple, honourable, truthful, kind-hearted and high-minded as Kant was in all moral respects, he was somewhat deficient in the region of sentiment. He had little enthusiasm for the beauties of nature, and indeed never sailed out into the Baltic, or travelled more than 40 miles from Konigsberg. Music he disregarded, and all poetry that was more than sententious prose. His ethics have been reproached with some justice as setting up too low an ideal for the female sex. Though faithful in a high degree to the duties of friendship, he could not bear to visit his friends in sickness, and after their death he repressed all allusion to their memory. His engrossing intellectual labours no doubt tended somewhat to harden his character; and in his zeal for rectitude of purpose he forgot the part which affection and sentiment must ever play in the human constitution.

On the 12th of February 1904, the hundredth anniversary of Kant's death, a Kantian society (_Kantgesellschaft_) was formed at Halle under the leadership of Professor H. Vaihinger to promote Kantian studies. In 1909 it had an annual membership of 191; it supports the periodical _Kantstudien_ (founded 1896; see BIBLIOGRAPHY, _ad init._).

THE WRITINGS OF KANT

No other thinker of modern times has been throughout his work so
penetrated with the fundamental conceptions of physical science; no
other has been able to hold with such firmness the balance between
empirical and speculative ideas. Beyond all question much of the
influence which the critical philosophy has exercised and continues to
exercise must be ascribed to this characteristic feature in the
training of its great author.

The early writings of Kant are almost without exception on questions
of physical science. It was only by degrees that philosophical
problems began to engage his attention, and that the main portion of
his literary activity was turned towards them. The following are the
most important of the works which bear directly on physical science.

1. _Gedanken von der wahren Schatzung der lebendigen Krafte_ (1747);
an essay dealing with the famous dispute between the Cartesians and
Leibnitzians regarding the expression for the _amount of a force_.
According to the Cartesians, this quantity was directly proportional
to velocity; according to their opponents, it varied with the square
of the velocity. The dispute has now lost its interest, for physicists
have learned to distinguish accurately the two quantities which are
vaguely included under the expression _amount of force_, and
consequently have been able to show in what each party was correct and
in what it was in error. Kant's essay, with some fallacious
explanations and divisions, criticizes acutely the arguments of the
Leibnitzians, and concludes with an attempt to show that both modes of
expression are correct when correctly limited and interpreted.

2. _Whether the Earth in its Revolution has experienced some Change
since the Earliest Times_ (1754; ed. and trans., W. Hastie, 1900,
_Kant's Cosmogony_; cf. Lord Kelvin in _The Age of the Earth_, 1897,
p. 7). In this brief essay Kant throws out a notion which has since
been carried out, in ignorance of Kant's priority, by Delaunay (1865)
and Adams. He points out that the action of the moon in raising the
waters of the earth must have a secondary effect in the slight
retardation of the earth's motion, and refers to a similar cause the
fact that the moon turns always the same face to the earth.

3. _Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels_, published
anonymously in 1755 (4th ed. 1808; republished H. Ebert, 1890). In
this remarkable work Kant, proceeding from the Newtonian conception of
the solar system, extends his consideration to the entire sidereal
system, points out how the whole may be mechanically regarded, and
throws out the important speculation which has since received the
title of the nebular hypothesis. In some details, such e.g. as the
regarding of the motion of the entire solar system as portion of the
general cosmical mechanism, he had predecessors, among others Thomas
Wright of Durham, but the work as a whole contains a wonderfully acute
anticipation of much that was afterwards carried out by Herschel and
Laplace. The hypothesis of the original nebular condition of the
system, with the consequent explanation of the great phenomena of
planetary formations and movements of the satellites and rings, is
unquestionably to be assigned to Kant. (On this question see
discussion in W. Hastie's _Kant's Cosmogony_, as above.)

4. _Meditalionum quarundam de igne succincta delineatio_ (1755): an
inaugural dissertation, containing little beyond the notion that
bodies operate on one another through the medium of a uniformly
diffused, elastic and subtle matter (ether) which is the underlying
substance of heat and light. Both heat and light are regarded as
vibrations of this diffused ether.

5. _On the Causes of Earthquakes_ (1755); _Description of the
Earthquake of 1755_ (1756); _Consideration of some Recently
Experienced Earthquakes_ (1756).

6. _Explanatory Remarks on the Theory of the Winds_ (1756). In this
brief tract, Kant, apparently in entire ignorance of the explanation
given in 1735 by Hadley, points out how the varying velocity of
rotation of the successive zones of the earth's surface furnishes a
key to the phenomena of periodic winds. His theory is in almost entire
agreement with that now received. See the parallel statements from
Kant's tract and Dove's essay on the influence of the rotation of the
earth on the flow of its atmosphere (1835), given in Zollner's work,
_Ueber die Natur der Cometen_, pp. 477-482.

7. _On the Different Races of Men_ (1775); _Determination of the
Notion of a Human Race_ (1785); _Conjectural Beginning of Human
History_ (1786): three tracts containing some points of interest as
regards the empirical grounds for Kant's doctrine of teleology.
Reference will be made to them in the notice of the _Kritik of
Judgment_.

8. _On the Volcanoes in the Moon_ (1785); _On the Influence of the
Moon on the Weather_ (1794). The second of these contains a remarkable
discussion of the relation between the centre of the moon's figure and
its centre of gravity. From the difference between these Kant is led
to conjecture that the climatic conditions of the side of the moon
turned from us must be altogether unlike those of the face presented
to us. His views have been restated by Hansen.

9. _Lectures on Physical Geography_ (1822): published from notes of
Kant's lectures, with the approval of the author.

Consideration of these works is sufficient to show that Kant's mastery
of the science of his time was complete and thorough, and that his
philosophy is to be dealt with as having throughout a reference to
general scientific conceptions. For more detailed treatment of his
importance in science, reference may be made to Zollner's essay on
"Kant and his Merits on Natural Science" contained in the work on the
_Nature of Comets_ (pp. 426-484); to Dietrich, _Kant and Newton_;
Schultze, _Kant and Darwin_; Reuschle's careful analysis of the
scientific works in the _Deutsche Vierteljahrs-Schrift_ (1868); W.
Hastie's introduction to _Kant's Cosmogony_ (1900), which summarizes
criticism to that date; and articles in _Kant-Studien_ (1896 foll.).

The notice of the philosophical writings of Kant need not be more than
bibliographical, as in the account of his philosophy it will be
necessary to consider at some length the successive stages in the
development of his thought. Arranged chronologically these works are
as follows:--

1755. _Principiorum primorum cognitionis metaphysicae novae
dilucidatio._

1756. _Metaphysicae cum geometria junctae usus in philosophia
naturali, cujus specimen I. continet monadologiam physicam._

1762. _Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren_,
"The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures" (trans. T. K.
Abbott, _Kant's Introduction to Logic and his Essay on the Mistaken
Subtilty of the Figures_, 1885).

1763. _Versuch den Begriff der negativen Grossen in die Weltweisheit
einzufuhren_, "Attempt to introduce the Notion of Negative Quantities
into Philosophy."

1763. _Der einzig mogliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des
Daseins Gottes_, "The only possible Foundation for a Demonstration of
the Existence of God."

1764. _Beobachtungen uber das Gefuhl des Schonen und Erhabenen_ (Riga,
1771; Konigsberg, 1776).

1764. _Untersuchung uber die Deutlichkeit der Grundsatze der
naturlichen Theologie und Moral_, "Essay on the Evidence (Clearness)
of the Fundamental Propositions of Natural Theology and Ethics."

1766. _Traume eines Geistersehers, erlautert durch Traume der
Metaphysik_, "Dreams of a Ghost-seer (or Clairvoyant), explained by
the Dreams of Metaphysic" (Eng. trans. E. F. Goerwitz, with introd. by
F. Sewall, 1900).

1768. _Von dem ersten Grunde des Unterschiedes der Gegenden im Raum_,
"Foundation for the Distinction of Positions in Space."

The above may all be regarded as belonging to the precritical period
of Kant's development. The following introduce the notions and
principles characteristic of the critical philosophy.

1770. _De mundi sensibilis et intelligibilis forma et principiis._

1781. _Kritik der reinen Vernunft_, "Kritik of Pure Reason" (revised
ed. 1787; ed. Vaihinger, 1881 foll. and B. Erdmann, 1900; Eng. trans.,
F. Max Muller, 1896, 2nd ed. 1907, and J. M. D. Meiklejohn, 1854).

1783. _Prolegomena zu einer jeden kunftigen Metaphysik die als
Wissenschaft wird auftreten konnen_, "Prolegomena to all Future
Metaphysic which may present itself as Science" (ed. B. Erdmann, 1878;
Eng. trans. J. P. Mahaffy and J. H. Bernard, 2nd ed. 1889; Belfort
Bax, 1883 and Paul Carus, 1902; and cf. M. Apel, _Kommentar zu Kants
Prolegomena_, 1908).

1784. _Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte im weltburgerlicher
Absicht_, "Notion of a Universal History in a Cosmopolitan Sense."
With this may be coupled the review of Herder in 1785.

1785. _Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten_, "Foundations of the
Metaphysic of Ethics" (see T. K. Abbott, _Fundamental Principles of
the Metaphysic of Ethics_, 3rd ed. 1907).

1786. _Metaphysische Anfangsgrunde der Naturwissenschaft_,
"Metaphysical Elements of Natural Science" (ed. A. Hofler, 1900;
trans. Belfort Bax, _Prolegomena and Metaphysical Foundations_, 1883).

1788. _Ueber den Gebrauch teleologischer Prinzipien in der
Philosophie_, "On the Employment of Teleological Principles in
Philosophy."

1788. _Kritik der praktischen Vernunft_, "Kritik of Practical Reason"
(trans. T. K. Abbott, ed. 1898).

1790. _Kritik der Urtheilskraft_, "Kritik of Judgment" (trans. with
notes J. H. Bernard, 1892).

1790. _Ueber eine Entdeckung, nach der alle neue Kritik der reinen
Vernunft durch eine altere entbehrlich gemacht werden soll_, "On a
Discovery by which all the recent Critique of Pure Reason is
superseded by a more ancient" (i.e. by Leibnitz's philosophy).

1791. _Ueber die wirklichen Fortschritte der Metaphysik seit Leibnitz
und Wolff_, "On the Real Advances of Metaphysics since Leibnitz and
Wolff"; and _Ueber das Misslingen aller philosophischen Versuche in
der Theodicee_.

1793. _Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft_,
"Religion within the Bounds of Reason only" (Eng. trans. J. W. Semple,
1838).

1794. _Ueber Philosophie uberhaupt_, "On Philosophy generally," and
_Das Ende aller Dinge_.

1795. _Zum ewigen Frieden_ (Eng. trans., M. Campbell Smith, 1903).

1797. _Metaphysische Anfangsgrunde der Rechtslehre_ (trans. W.
Hastie), and _Metaphysische Anfangsgrunde der Tugendlehre_.

1798. _Der Streit der Facultaten_, "Contest of the Faculties."

1798. _Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht_.

_The Kantian Philosophy._[1]

Historians are accustomed to divide the general current of speculation
into epochs or periods marked by the dominance of some single
philosophic conception with its systematic evolution. Perhaps in no
case is the character of an epoch more clearly apparent than in that
of the critical philosophy. The great work of Kant absolutely closed
the lines of speculation along which the philosophical literature of
the 18th century had proceeded, and substituted for them a new and
more comprehensive method of regarding the essential problems of
thought, a method which has prescribed the course of philosophic
speculation in the present age. The critical system has thus a twofold
aspect. It takes up into itself what had characterized the previous
efforts of modern thought, shows the imperfect nature of the
fundamental notions therein employed, and offers a new solution of the
problems to which these notions had been applied. It opens up a new
series of questions upon which subsequent philosophic reflection has
been directed, and gives to them the form, under which it is possible
that they should be fruitfully regarded. A work of this kind is
essentially epoch-making.

In any complete account of the Kantian system it is therefore
necessary that there should be constant reference, on the one hand, to
the peculiar character of the preceding 18th-century philosophy, and,
on the other hand, to the problems left for renewed treatment to more
modern thought. Fortunately the development of the Kantian system
itself furnishes such treatment as is necessary of the former
reference. For the critical philosophy was a work of slow growth. In
the early writings of Kant we are able to trace with great
definiteness the successive stages through which he passed from the
notions of the preceding philosophy to the new and comprehensive
method which gives its special character to the critical work.
Scarcely any great mind, it has been said with justice, ever matured
so slowly. In the early essays we find the principles of the current
philosophies, those of Leibnitz and English empiricism, applied in
various directions to those problems which serve as tests of their
truth and completeness; we note the appearance of the difficulties or
contradictions which manifest the one-sidedness or imperfection of the
principle applied; and we can trace the gradual growth of the new
conceptions which were destined, in the completed system, to take the
place of the earlier method. To understand the Kantian work it is
indispensable to trace the history of its growth in the mind of its
author.

Of the two preceding stages of modern philosophy, only the second,
that of Locke and Leibnitz, seems to have influenced practically the
course of Kant's speculation. With the Cartesian movement as a whole
he shows little acquaintance and no sympathy, and his own philosophic
conception is never brought into relation with the systematic
treatment of metaphysical problems characteristic of the Cartesian
method. The fundamental question for philosophic reflection presented
itself to him in the form which it had assumed in the hands of Locke
and his successors in England, of Leibnitz and the Leibnitzian school
in Germany. The transition from the Cartesian movement to this second
stage of modern thought had doubtless been natural and indeed
necessary. Nevertheless the full bearings of the philosophic question
were somewhat obscured by the comparatively limited fashion in which
it was then regarded. The tendency towards what may be technically
called subjectivism, a tendency which differentiates the modern from
the ancient method of speculation, is expressed in Locke and Leibnitz
in a definite and peculiar fashion. However widely the two systems
differ in details, they are at one in a certain fundamental conception
which dominates the whole course of their philosophic construction.
They are throughout individualist, i.e. they accept as given fact the
existence of the concrete, thinking subject, and endeavour to show how
this subject, as an individual conscious being, is related to the
wider universe of which he forms part. In dealing with such a problem,
there are evidently two lines along which investigation may proceed.
It may be asked how the individual mind comes to know himself and the
system of things with which he is connected, how the varied contents
of his experience are to be accounted for, and what certainty attaches
to his subjective consciousness of things. Regarded from the
individualist point of view, this line of inquiry becomes purely
psychological, and the answer may be presented, as it was presented by
Locke, in the fashion of a natural history of the growth of conscious
experience in the mind of the subject. Or, it may be further asked,
how is the individual really connected with the system of things
apparently disclosed to him in conscious experience? what is the
precise significance of the existence which he ascribes both to
himself and to the objects of experience? what is the nature of the
relation between himself as one part of the system, and the system as
a whole? This second inquiry is specifically metaphysical in bearing,
and the kind of answer furnished to it by Leibnitz on the one hand, by
Berkeley on the other, is in fact prescribed or determined beforehand
by the fundamental conception of the individualist method with which
both begin their investigations. So soon as we make clear to ourselves
the essential nature of this method, we are able to discern the
specific difficulties or perplexities arising in the attempt to carry
it out systematically, and thus to note with precision the special
problems presented to Kant at the outset of his philosophic
reflections.

Consider, first, the application of the method on its psychological
side, as it appears in Locke. Starting with the assumption of
conscious experience as the content or filling-in of the individual
mind, Locke proceeds to explain its genesis and nature by reference to
the real universe of things and its mechanical operation upon the
mind. The result of the interaction of mind, i.e. the individual mind,
and the system of things, is conscious experience, consisting of
ideas, which may be variously compounded, divided, compared, or dealt
with by the subjective faculties or powers with which the entity,
Mind, is supposed to be endowed. Matter of fact and matter of
knowledge are thus at a stroke dissevered. The very notion of relation
between mind and things leads at once to the counter notion of the
absolute restriction of mind to its own subjective nature. That Locke
was unable to reconcile these opposed notions is not surprising; that
the difficulties and obscurities of the Essay arise from the
impossibility of reconciling them is evident on the slightest
consideration of the main positions of that work. Of these
difficulties the philosophies of Berkeley and Hume are systematic
treatments. In Berkeley we find the resolute determination to accept
only the one notion, that of mind as restricted to its own conscious
experience, and to attempt by this means to explain the nature of the
external reality to which obscure reference is made. Any success in
the attempt is due only to the fact that Berkeley introduces alongside
of his individualist notion a totally new conception, that of mind
itself as not in the same way one of the matters of conscious
experience, but as capable of reflection upon the whole of experience
and of reference to the supreme mind as the ground of all reality. It
is only in Hume that we have definitely and completely the evolution
of the individualist notion as groundwork of a theory of knowledge;
and it is in his writings, therefore, that we may expect to find the
fundamental difficulty of that notion clearly apparent. It is not a
little remarkable that we should find in Hume, not only the sceptical
dissolution of all fixity of cognition, which is the inevitable result
of the individualist method, but also the clearest consciousness of
the very root of the difficulty. The systematic application of the
doctrine that conscious experience consists only of isolated objects
of knowledge, impressions or ideas, leads Hume to distinguish between
truths reached by analysis and truths which involve real connexion of
the objects of knowledge. The first he is willing to accept without
further inquiry, though it is an error to suppose, as Kant seems to
have supposed, that he regarded mathematical propositions as coming
under this head (see HUME); with respect to the second, he finds
himself, and confesses that he finds himself, hopelessly at fault. No
real connexions between isolated objects of experience are perceived
by us. No single matter of fact necessarily implies the existence of
any other. In short, if the difficulty be put in its ultimate form, no
existence thought as a distinct individual can transcend itself, or
imply relation to any other existence. If the parts of conscious
experience are regarded as so many distinct things, there is no
possibility of connecting them other than contingently, if at all. If
the individual mind be really thought as individual, it is impossible
to explain how it should have knowledge or consciousness at all. "In
short," says Hume, "there are two principles which I cannot render
consistent, nor is it in my power to renounce either of them, viz.
_that all our distinct perceptions are distinct existences, and that
the mind never perceives any real connexion among distinct
existences_. Did our perceptions either inhere in something simple or
individual, or did the mind perceive some real connexion among them,
there would be no difficulty in the case" (App. to _Treatise of Human
Nature_).