Chapter XVII: Part 17

The records of the wars in Ireland in the 16th century show that the petty chieftains of that time had their defensive strongholds constructed in the "freshwater lochs" of the country, and there is record evidence of a similar system in the western parts of Scotland. The archaeological researches of the past fifty years have shown that such artificial constructions in lakes were used as defensive dwellings by the Celtic people from an early period to medieval times (see CRANNOG). Similar researches have also established the fact that in prehistoric times nearly all the lakes of Switzerland, and many in the adjoining countries--in Savoy and the north of Italy, in Austria and Hungary and in Mecklenburg and Pomerania--were peopled, so to speak, by lake-dwelling communities, living in villages constructed on platforms supported by piles at varying distances from the shores. The principal groups are those in the Lakes of Bourget, Geneva, Neuchâtel, Bienne, Zürich and Constance lying to the north of the Alps, and in the Lakes Maggiore, Varese, Iseo and Garda lying to the south of that mountain range. Many smaller lakes, however, contain them, and they are also found in peat moors on the sites of ancient lakes now drained or silted up, as at Laibach in Carniola. In some of the larger lakes the number of settlements has been very great. Fifty are enumerated in the Lake of Neuchâtel, thirty-two in the Lake of Constance, twenty-four in the Lake of Geneva, and twenty in the Lake of Bienne. The site of the lake dwelling of Wangen, in the Untersee, Lake of Constance, forms a parallelogram more than 700 paces in length by about 120 paces in breadth. The settlement at Morges, one of the largest in the Lake of Geneva, is 1200 ft. long by 150 ft. in breadth. The settlement of Sutz, one of the largest in the Lake of Bienne, extends over six acres, and was connected with the shore by a gangway nearly 100 yds. long and about 40 ft. wide.

The substructure which supported the platforms on which the dwellings were placed was most frequently of piles driven into the bottom of the lake. Less frequently it consisted of a stack of brushwood or fascines built up from the bottom and strengthened by stakes penetrating the mass so as to keep it from spreading. When piles were used they were the rough stems of trees of a length proportioned to the depth of the water, sharpened sometimes by fire and at other times chopped to a point by hatchets. On their level tops the beams supporting the platforms were laid and fastened by wooden pins, or inserted in mortices cut in the heads of the piles. In some cases the whole construction was further steadied and strengthened by cross beams, notched into the piles below the supports of the platform. The platform itself was usually composed of rough layers of unbarked stems, but occasionally it was formed of boards split from larger stems. When the mud was too soft to afford foothold for the piles they were mortised into a framework of tree trunks placed horizontally on the bottom of the lake. On the other hand, when the bottom was rocky so that the piles could not be driven, they were steadied at their bases by being enveloped in a mound of loose stones, in the manner in which the foundations of piers and breakwaters are now constructed. In cases where piles have not been used, as at Niederwil and Wauwyl, the substructure is a mass of fascines or faggots laid parallel and crosswise upon one another with intervening layers of brushwood or of clay and gravel, a few piles here and there being fixed throughout the mass to serve as guides or stays. At Niederwil the platform was formed of split boards, many of which were 2 ft. broad and 2 or 3 in. in thickness.

On these substructures were the huts composing the settlement; for the peculiarity of these lake dwellings is that they were pile villages, or clusters of huts occupying a common platform. The huts themselves were quadrilateral in form. The size of each dwelling is in some cases marked by boards resting edgeways on the platform, like the skirting boards over the flooring of the rooms in a modern house. The walls, which were supported by posts, or by piles of greater length, were formed of wattle-work, coated with clay. The floors were of clay, and in each floor there was a hearth constructed of flat slabs of stone. The roofs were thatched with bark, straw, reeds or rushes. As the superstructures are mostly gone, there is no evidence as to the position and form of the doorways, or the size, number and position of the windows, if there were any. In one case, at Schussenried, the house, which was of an oblong quadrangular form, about 33 by 23 ft., was divided into two rooms by a partition. The outer room, which was the smaller of the two, was entered by a doorway 3 ft. in width facing the south. The access to the inner room was by a similar door through the partition. The walls were formed of split tree-trunks set upright and plastered with clay; and the flooring of similar timbers bedded in clay. In other cases the remains of the gangways or bridges connecting the settlements with the shore have been discovered, but often the village appears to have been accessible only by canoes. Several of these single-tree canoes have been found, one of which is 43 ft. in length and 4 ft. 4 in. in its greatest width. It is impossible to estimate with any degree of certainty the number of separate dwellings of which any of these villages may have consisted, but at Niederwil they stood almost contiguously on the platform, the space between them not exceeding 3 ft. in width. The size of the huts also varied considerably. At Niederwil they were 20 ft. long and 12 ft. wide, while at Robenhausen they were about 27 ft. long by about 22 ft. wide.

The character of the relics shows that in some cases the settlements have been the dwellings of a people using no materials but stone, bone and wood for their implements, ornaments and weapons; in others, of a people using bronze as well as stone and bone; and in others again the occasional use of iron is disclosed. But, though the character of the relics is thus changed, there is no corresponding change in the construction and arrangements of the dwellings. The settlement in the Lake of Moosseedorf, near Bern, affords the most perfect example of a lake dwelling of the Stone age. It was a parallelogram 70 ft. long by 50 ft. wide, supported on piles, and having a gangway built on faggots connecting it with the land. The superstructure had been destroyed by fire. The implements found in the relic bed under it were axe-heads of stone, with their haftings of stag's horn and wood; a flint saw, set in a handle of fir wood and fastened with asphalt; flint flakes and arrow-heads; harpoons of stag's horn with barbs; awls, needles, chisels, fish-hooks and other implements of bone; a comb of yew wood 5 in. long; and a skate made out of the leg bone of a horse. The pottery consisted chiefly of roughly-made vessels, some of which were of large size, others had holes under the rims for suspension, and many were covered with soot, the result of their use as culinary vessels. Burnt wheat, barley and linseed, with many varieties of seeds and fruits, were plentifully mingled with the bones of the stag, the ox, the swine, the sheep and the goat, representing the ordinary food of the inhabitants, while remains of the beaver, the fox, the hare, the dog, the bear, the horse, the elk and the bison were also found.

The settlement of Robenhausen, in the moor which was formerly the bed of the ancient Lake of Pfäffikon, seems to have continued in occupation after the introduction of bronze. The site covers nearly 3 acres, and is estimated to have contained 100,000 piles. In some parts three distinct successions of inhabited platforms have been traced. The first had been destroyed by fire. It is represented at the bottom of the lake by a layer of charcoal mixed with implements of stone and bone and other relics highly carbonized. The second is represented above the bottom by a series of piles with burnt heads, and in the bottom by a layer of charcoal mixed with corn, apples, cloth, bones, pottery and implements of stone and bone, separated from the first layer of charcoal by 3 ft. of peaty sediment intermixed with relics of the occupation of the platform. The piles of the third settlement do not reach down to the shell marl, but are fixed in the layers representing the first and second settlements. They are formed of split oak trunks, while those of the two first settlements are round stems chiefly of soft wood. The huts of this last settlement appear to have had cattle stalls between them, the droppings and litter forming heaps at the lake bottom. The bones of the animals consumed as food at this station were found in such numbers that 5 tons were collected in the construction of a watercourse which crossed the site. Among the wooden objects recovered from the relic beds were tubs, plates, ladles and spoons, a flail for threshing corn, a last for stretching shoes of hide, celt handles, clubs, long-bows of yew, floats and implements of fishing and a dug-out canoe 12 ft. long. No spindle-whorls were found, but there were many varieties of cloth, platted and woven, bundles of yarn and balls of string. Among the tools of bone and stag's horn were awls, needles, harpoons, scraping tools and haftings for stone axe-heads. The implements of stone were chiefly axe-heads and arrow-heads. Of clay and earthenware there were many varieties of domestic dishes, cups and pipkins, and crucibles or melting pots made of clay and horse dung and still retaining the drossy coating of the melted bronze.

The settlement of Auvernier in the Lake of Neuchâtel is one of the richest and most considerable stations of the Bronze age. It has yielded four bronze swords, ten socketed spear-heads, forty celts or axe-heads and sickles, fifty knives, twenty socketed chisels, four hammers and an anvil, sixty rings for the arms and legs, several highly ornate torques or twisted neck rings, and upwards of two hundred hair pins of various sizes up to 16 in. in length, some having spherical heads in which plates of gold were set. Moulds for sickles, lance-heads and bracelets were found cut in stone or made in baked clay. From four to five hundred vessels of pottery finely made and elegantly shaped are indicated by the fragments recovered from the relic bed. The Lac de Bourget, in Savoy, has eight settlements, all of the Bronze age. These have yielded upwards of 4000 implements, weapons and ornaments of bronze, among which were a large proportion of moulds and founders' materials. A few stone implements suggest the transition from stone to bronze; and the occasional occurrence of iron weapons and pottery of Gallo-Roman origin indicates the survival of some of the settlements to Roman times.

The relative antiquity of the earlier settlements of the Stone and Bronze ages is not capable of being deduced from existing evidence. "We may venture to place them," says Dr F. Keller, "in an age when iron and bronze had been long known, but had not come into our districts in such plenty as to be used for the common purposes of household life, at a time when amber had already taken its place as an ornament and had become an object of traffic." It is now considered that the people who erected the lake dwellings of Central Europe were also the people who were spread over the mainland. The forms and the ornamentation of the implements and weapons of stone and bronze found in the lake dwellings are the same as those of the implements and weapons in these materials found in the soil of the adjacent regions, and both groups must therefore be ascribed to the industry of one and the same people. Whether dwelling on the land or dwelling in the lake, they have exhibited so many indications of capacity, intelligence, industry and social organization that they cannot be considered as presenting, even in their Stone age, a very low condition of culture or civilization. Their axes were made of tough stones, sawn from the block and ground to the fitting shape. They were fixed by the butt in a socket of stag's horn, mortised into a handle of wood. Their knives and saws of flint were mounted in wooden handles and fixed with asphalt. They made and used an endless variety of bone tools. Their pottery, though roughly finished, is well made, the vessels often of large size and capable of standing the fire as cooking utensils. For domestic dishes they also made wooden tubs, plates, spoons, ladles and the like. The industries of spinning and weaving were largely practised. They made nets and fishing lines, and used canoes. They practised agriculture, cultivating several varieties of wheat and barley, besides millet and flax. They kept horses, cattle, sheep, goats and swine. Their clothing was partly of linen and partly of woollen fabrics and the skins of their beasts. Their food was nutritious and varied, their dwellings neither unhealthy nor incommodious. They lived in the security and comfort obtained by social organization, and were apparently intelligent, industrious and progressive communities.

There is no indication of an abrupt change from the use of stone to the use of metal such as might have occurred had the knowledge of copper and bronze, and the methods of working them, been introduced through the conquest of the original inhabitants by an alien race of superior culture and civilization. The improved cultural conditions become apparent in the multiplication of the varieties of tools, weapons and ornaments made possible by the more adaptable qualities of the new material; and that the development of the Bronze age culture in the lake dwellings followed the same course as in the surrounding regions where the people dwelt on the dry land is evident from the correspondence of the types of implements, weapons, ornaments and utensils common to both these conditions of life.

Other classes of prehistoric pile-structures akin to the lake dwellings are the Terremare of Italy and the Terpen of Holland. Both of these are settlements of wooden huts erected on piles, not over the water, but on flat land subject to inundations. The terremare (so named from the marly soil of which they are composed) appear as mounds, sometimes of very considerable extent, which when dug into disclose the remains and relic beds of the ancient settlements. They are most abundant in the plains of northern Italy traversed by the Po and its tributaries, though similar constructions have been found in Hungary in the valley of the Theiss. These pile-villages were often surrounded by an earthen rampart within which the huts were erected in more or less regular order. Many of them present evidence of having been more than once destroyed by fire and reconstructed, while others show one or more reconstructions at higher levels on the same site. The contents of the relic beds indicate that they belong for the most part to the age of bronze, although in some cases they may be referred to the latter part of the Stone age. Their inhabitants practised agriculture and kept the common domestic animals, while their tools, weapons and ornaments were mainly of similar character to those of the contemporary lake dwellers of the adjoining regions. Some of the Italian terremare show quadrangular constructions made like the modern log houses, of undressed tree trunks superposed longitudinally and overlapping at the ends, as at Castione in the province of Parma. A similar mode of construction is found in the pile-village on the banks of the Save, near Donja Dolina in Bosnia, described in 1904 by Dr Truhelka. Here the larger houses had platforms in front of them forming terraces at different levels descending towards the river. There was a cemetery adjacent to the village in which both unburnt and cremated interments occurred, the former predominating. From the general character of the relics this settlement appeared to belong to the early Iron age. The Terpen of Holland appear as mounds somewhat similar to those of the terremare, and were also pile structures, on low or marshy lands subject to inundations from the sea. Unlike the terremare and the lake dwellings they do not seem to belong to the prehistoric ages, but yield indications of occupation in post-Roman and medieval times.

AUTHORITIES.--The materials for the investigation of this singular
phase of prehistoric life were first collected and systematized by Dr
Ferdinand Keller (1800-1881), of Zürich, and printed in _Mittheilungen
der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Zürich_, vols, ix.-xxii., 4to
(1855-1886). The substance of these reports has been issued as a
separate work in England, _The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland and other
parts of Europe_, by Dr Ferdinand Keller, translated and arranged by
John Edward Lee, 2nd ed. (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1878). Other works on
the same subject are Frédéric Troyon, _Habitations lacustres des temps
anciens et modernes_ (Lausanne, 1860); E. Desor, _Les Palafittes ou
constructions lacustres du lac de Neuchâtel_ (Paris, 1865); E. Desor
and L. Favre, _Le Bel Âge du bronze lacustre en Suisse_ (Paris, 1874);
A. Perrin, _Étude préhistorique sur la Savoie spécialement à l'époque
lacustre_ (_Les Palafittes du lac de Bourget_, Paris, 1870); Ernest
Chantre, _Les Palafittes ou constructions lacustres du lac de Paladru_
(Chambery, 1871); Bartolomeo Gastaldi, _Lake Habitations and
prehistoric Remains in the Turbaries and Marl-beds of Northern and
Central Italy_, translated by C. H. Chambers (London, 1865); Sir John
Lubbock (Lord Avebury), _Prehistoric Times_ (4th ed., London, 1878);
Robert Munro, _The Lake-Dwellings of Europe_ (London, 1890), with a
bibliography of the subject. (J. An.)

LAKE GENEVA, a city of Walworth county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., 65 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 2585, of whom 468 were foreign-born; (1905) 3449; (1910) 3079. It is served by the Chicago & Northwestern railway. The city is picturesquely situated on the shores of Lake Geneva (9 m. long and 1½ to 3 m. wide), a beautiful body of remarkably clear water, fed by springs, and encircled by rolling hills covered with thick groves of hardwood trees. The region is famous as a summer resort, particularly for Chicago people. The city is the seat of Oakwood Sanitarium, and at Williams Bay, 6 m. distant, is the Yerkes Observatory of the University of Chicago. Dairying is the most important industrial interest. The first settlement on Lake Geneva was made about 1833. The city was chartered in 1893.

LAKE OF THE WOODS, a lake in the south-west of the province of Ontario, Canada, bordering west on the province of Manitoba, and south on the state of Minnesota. It is of extremely irregular shape, and contains many islands. Its length is 70 m., breadth 10 to 50 m., area 1500 sq. m. It lies in the centre of the Laurentian region between Lakes Winnipeg and Superior, and an area of 36,000 sq. m. drains to it. It collects the waters of many rivers, the chief being Rainy river from the east, draining Rainy Lake. By the Winnipeg river on the north-east it discharges into Lake Winnipeg. At its source Winnipeg river is 1057 ft. above the sea, and drops 347 ft. in its course of 165 m. The scenery both on and around the lake is exceedingly beautiful, and the islands are largely occupied by the summer residences of city merchants. Kenora, a flourishing town at the source of the Winnipeg river, is the centre of the numerous lumbering and mining enterprises of the vicinity.

LAKE PLACID, a village in Essex county, New York, U.S.A., on the W. shore of Mirror Lake, near the S. end of Lake Placid, about 42 m. N.W. of Ticonderoga. Pop. (1905) 1514; (1910) 1682. The village is served by the Delaware & Hudson railway. The region is one of the most attractive in the Adirondacks, and is a much frequented summer resort. There are four good golf courses here, and the village has a well-built club house, called the "Neighborhood House." The village lies on the narrow strip of land (about 1/3 m.) between Mirror Lake (about 1 m. long, N. and S., and 1/3 m. wide), and Lake Placid, about 5 m. long (N.N.E. by S.S.W.), and about 1½ m. (maximum) broad; its altitude is 1864 ft. The lake is roughly divided, from N. to S. by three islands--Moose, the largest, and Hawk, both privately owned, and Buck--and is a beautiful sheet of water in a picturesque setting of forests and heavily wooded hills and mountains. Among the principal peaks in the vicinity are Whiteface Mountain (4871 ft.), about 3 m. N.W. of the N. end of the lake; McKenzie Mountain (3872 ft.), about 1 m. to the W., and Pulpit Mountain (2658 ft.), on the E. shore. The summit of Whiteface Mountain commands a fine view, with Gothic (4738 ft.), Saddleback (4530 ft.), Basin (4825 ft.), Marcy (5344 ft.), and McIntyre (5210 ft.) mountains about 10 m. to the S. and Lake Champlain to the E., and to the N.E. may be seen, on clear days, the spires of Montreal. In the valleys E. and S. are the headwaters of the famous Ausable river. About 2 m. E. of the village, at North Elba, is the grave of the abolitionist, John Brown, with its huge boulder monument, and near it is another monument which bears the names of the 20 persons who bought the John Brown farm and gave it to the state. The railway to the village was completed in 1893. The village was incorporated in 1900.

LAKEWOOD, a village of Ocean county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the township of Lakewood, 59 m. S. by W. of New York city, and 8 m. from the coast, on the Central Railroad of New Jersey. Pop. (1900) of the township, including the village, 3094; (1905) 4265; (1910) 5149. Lakewood is a fashionable health and winter resort, and is situated in the midst of a pine forest, with two small lakes, and many charming walks and drives. In the village there are a number of fine residences, large hotels, a library and a hospital. The winter temperature is 10-12° F. warmer than in New York. The township of Lakewood was incorporated in 1892.

LAKH (from the Sans. _laksha_, one hundred thousand), a term used in British India, in a colloquial sense to signify a lakh of rupees (written 1,00,000), which at the face value of the rupee would be worth £10,000, but now is worth only £6666. The term is also largely used in trade returns. A hundred lakhs make a crore.

LAKHIMPUR, a district of British India in the extreme east of the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. Area, 4529 sq. m. It lies along both banks of the Brahmaputra for about 400 m.; it is bounded N. by the Daphla, Miri, Abor and Mishmi hills, E. by the Mishmi and Kachin hills, S. by the watershed of the Patkai range and the Lohit branch of the Brahmaputra, and W. by the districts of Darrang and Sibsagar. The Brahmaputra is navigable for steamers in all seasons as far as Dibrugarh, in the rainy season as far as Sadiya; its navigable tributaries within the district are the Subansiri, Dibru and Dihing. The deputy-commissioner in charge exercises political control over numerous tribes beyond the inner surveyed border. The most important of these tribes are the Miris, Abors, Mishmis, Khamtis, Kachins and Nagas. In 1901 the population was 371,396, an increase of 46% in the decade. The district has enjoyed remarkable and continuous prosperity. At each successive census the percentage of increase has been over 40, the present population being more than three times as great as that of 1872. This increase is chiefly due to the numerous tea gardens and to the coal mines and other enterprises of the Assam Railways and Trading Company. Lakhimpur was the first district into which tea cultivation was introduced by the government, and the Assam Company began operations here in 1840. The railway, known as the Dibru-Sadiya line, runs from Dibrugarh to Makum, with two branches to Talap and Margherita, and has been connected across the hills with the Assam-Bengal railway. The coal is of excellent quality, and is exported by river as far as Calcutta. The chief oil-wells are at Digboi. The oil is refined at Margherita, producing a good quality of kerosene oil and first-class paraffin, with wax and other by-products. The company also manufactures bricks and pipes of various kinds. Another industry is cutting timber, for the manufacture of tea-chests, &c.

Lakhimpur figures largely in the annals of Assam as the region where
successive invaders from the east first reached the Brahmaputra. The
Bara Bhuiyas, originally from the western provinces of India, were
driven out by the Chutias (a Shan race), and these in their turn gave
place to their more powerful brethren, the Ahoms, in the 13th century.
The Burmese, who had ruined the native kingdoms, at the end of the
18th century, were in 1825 expelled by the British, who placed the
southern part of the country, together with Sibsagar under the rule of
Raja Purandhar Singh; but it was not till 1838 that the whole was
taken under direct British administration. The headquarters are at
Dibrugarh.

See _Lakhimpur District Gazetteer_ (Calcutta, 1905).

LAKSHMI (Sans. for "mark," "sign," generally used in composition with _punya_, "prosperous"; hence "good sign," "good fortune"), in Hindu mythology, the wife of Vishnu worshipped as the goddess of love, beauty and prosperity. She has many other names, the chief being _Loka mata_ ("mother of the world"), _Padma_ ("the lotus"), _Padma laya_ ("she who dwells on a lotus") and _Jaladhija_ ("the ocean-born"). She is represented as of a bright golden colour and seated on a lotus. She is said to have been born from the sea of milk when it was churned from ambrosia. Many quaint myths surround her birth. In the Rig Veda her name does not occur as a goddess.

LALAING, JACQUES DE (c. 1420-1453), Flemish knight, was originally in the service of the duke of Cleves and afterwards in that of the duke of Burgundy, Philip III., the Good, gaining great renown by his prowess in the tiltyard. The duke of Burgundy entrusted him with embassies to the pope and the king of France (1451), and subsequently sent him to put down the revolt of the inhabitants of Ghent, in which expedition he was killed. His biography, _Le Livre des faits de messire Jacques de Lalaing_, which has been published several times, is mainly the work of the Burgundian herald and chronicler Jean le Fèvre, better known as _Toison d'or_; the Flemish historiographer Georges Chastellain and the herald Charolais also took part in its compilation.

LALANDE, JOSEPH JÉRÔME LEFRANÇAIS DE (1732-1807), French astronomer, was born at Bourg (department of Ain), on the 11th of July 1732. His parents sent him to Paris to study law; but the accident of lodging in the Hôtel Cluny, where J. N. Delisle had his observatory, drew him to astronomy, and he became the zealous and favoured pupil of both Delisle and Pierre Lemonnier. He, however, completed his legal studies, and was about to return to Bourg to practise there as an advocate, when Lemonnier obtained permission to send him to Berlin, to make observations on the lunar parallax in concert with those of N. L. Lacaille at the Cape of Good Hope. The successful execution of his task procured for him, before he was twenty-one, admission to the Academy of Berlin, and the post of adjunct astronomer to that of Paris. He now devoted himself to the improvement of the planetary theory, publishing in 1759 a corrected edition of Halley's tables, with a history of the celebrated comet whose return in that year he had aided Clairault to calculate. In 1762 J. N. Delisle resigned in his favour the chair of astronomy in the Collège de France, the duties of which were discharged by Lalande for forty-six years. His house became an astronomical seminary, and amongst his pupils were J. B. J. Delambre, G. Piazzi, P. Mechain, and his own nephew Michel Lalande. By his publications in connexion with the transit of 1769 he won great and, in a measure, deserved fame. But his love of notoriety and impetuous temper compromised the respect due to his scientific zeal, though these faults were partially balanced by his generosity and benevolence. He died on the 4th of April 1807.

Although his investigations were conducted with diligence rather than
genius, the career of Lalande must be regarded as of eminent service
to astronomy. As a lecturer and writer he gave to the science
unexampled popularity; his planetary tables, into which he introduced
corrections for mutual perturbations, were the best available up to
the end of the 18th century; and the Lalande prize, instituted by him
in 1802 for the chief astronomical performance of each year, still
testifies to his enthusiasm for his favourite pursuit. Amongst his
voluminous works are _Traité d'astronomie_ (2 vols., 1764; enlarged
edition, 4 vols., 1771-1781; 3rd ed., 3 vols., 1792); _Histoire
céleste française_ (1801), giving the places of 50,000 stars;
_Bibliographie astronomique_ (1803), with a history of astronomy from
1781 to 1802; _Astronomie des dames_ (1785); _Abrégé de navigation_
(1793); _Voyage d'un françois en Italie_ (1769), a valuable record of
his travels in 1765-1766. He communicated above one hundred and fifty
papers to the Paris Academy of Sciences, edited the _Connoissance des
temps_ (1759-1774), and again (1794-1807), and wrote the concluding 2
vols. of the 2nd edition of Montucla's _Histoire des mathématiques_
(1802).

See _Mémoires de l'Institut_, t. viii. (1807) (J. B. J. Delambre);
Delambre, _Hist. de l'astr. au XVIII^e siècle_, p. 547; _Magazin
encyclopédique_, ii. 288 (1810) (Mme de Salm); J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de
l'astr. moderne_, t. iii. (ed. 1785); J. Mädler, _Geschichte der
Himmelskunde_, ii. 141; R. Wolf, _Gesch. der Astronomie_; J. J.
Lalande, _Bibl. astr._ p. 428; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog. Lit.
Handwörterbuch_; M. Marie, _Hist. des sciences_, ix. 35.

LALÍN, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Pontevedra. Pop. (1900) 16,238. Lalín is the centre of the trade in agricultural products of the fertile highlands between the Deza and Arnego rivers. The local industries are tanning and the manufacture of paper. Near Lalín are the ruins of the Gothic abbey of Carboeiro.

LA LINEA, or LA LINEA DE LA CONCEPCION, a town of Spain, in the province of Cadiz, between Gibraltar and San Roque. Pop. (1900) 31,802. La Linea, which derives its name from the _line_ or boundary dividing Spanish territory from the district of Gibraltar, is a town of comparatively modern date and was formerly looked upon as a suburb of San Roque. It is now a distinct frontier post and headquarters of the Spanish commandant of the lines of Gibraltar. The fortifications erected here in the 16th century were dismantled by the British in 1810, to prevent the landing of French invaders, and all the existing buildings are modern. They include barracks, casinos, a theatre and a bull-ring, much frequented by the inhabitants and garrison of Gibraltar. La Linea has some trade in cereals, fruit and vegetables; it is the residence of large numbers of labourers employed in Gibraltar.

LALITPUR, a town of British India, in Jhansi district, United Provinces. Pop. (1901) 11,560. It has a station on the Great Indian Peninsula railway, and a large trade in oil-seeds, hides and _ghi_. It contains several beautiful Hindu and Jain temples. It was formerly the headquarters of a district of the same name, which was incorporated with that of Jhansi in 1891. The Bundela chiefs of Lalitpur were among those who most eagerly joined the Mutiny, and it was only after a severe struggle that the district was pacified.

LALLY, THOMAS ARTHUR, COMTE DE, Baron de Tollendal (1702-1766), French general, was born at Romans, Dauphiné, in January 1702, being the son of Sir Gerard O'Lally, an Irish Jacobite who married a French lady of noble family, from whom the son inherited his titles. Entering the French army in 1721 he served in the war of 1734 against Austria; he was present at Dettingen (1743), and commanded the regiment de Lally in the famous Irish brigade at Fontenoy (May 1745). He was made a brigadier on the field by Louis XV. He had previously been mixed up in several Jacobite plots, and in 1745 accompanied Charles Edward to Scotland, serving as aide-de-camp at the battle of Falkirk (January 1746). Escaping to France, he served with Marshal Saxe in the Low Countries, and at the capture of Maestricht (1748) was made a _maréchal de camp_. When war broke out with England in 1756 Lally was given the command of a French expedition to India. He reached Pondicherry in April 1758, and at the outset met with some trifling military success. He was a man of courage and a capable general; but his pride and ferocity made him disliked by his officers and hated by his soldiers, while he regarded the natives as slaves, despised their assistance, and trampled on their traditions of caste. In consequence everything went wrong with him. He was unsuccessful in an attack on Tanjore, and had to retire from the siege of Madras (1758) owing to the timely arrival of the British fleet. He was defeated by Sir Eyre Coote at Wandiwash (1760), and besieged in Pondicherry and forced to capitulate (1761). He was sent as a prisoner of war to England. While in London, he heard that he was accused in France of treachery, and insisted, against advice, on returning on parole to stand his trial. He was kept prisoner for nearly two years before the trial began; then, after many painful delays, he was sentenced to death (May 6, 1766), and three days later beheaded. Louis XV. tried to throw the responsibility for what was undoubtedly a judicial murder on his ministers and the public, but his policy needed a scapegoat, and he was probably well content not to exercise his authority to save an almost friendless foreigner.

See G. B. Malleson, _The Career of Count Lally_ (1865); "Z's" (the
marquis de Lally-Tollendal) article in the _Biographie Michaud_; and
Voltaire's _Oeuvres complètes_. The legal documents are preserved in
the Bibliothèque Nationale.

LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GÉRARD, MARQUIS DE (1751-1830), was born at Paris on the 5th of March 1751. He was the legitimized son of the comte de Lally and only discovered the secret of his birth on the day of his father's execution, when he resolved to devote himself to clearing his father's memory. He was supported by Voltaire, and in 1778 succeeded in persuading Louis XVI. to annul the decree which had sentenced the comte de Lally; but the parlement of Rouen, to which the case was referred back, in 1784 again decided in favour of Lally's guilt. The case was retried by other courts, but Lally's innocence was never fully admitted by the French judges. In 1779 Lally-Tollendal bought the office of _Grand bailli_ of Étampes, and in 1789 was a deputy to the states-general for the _noblesse_ of Paris. He played some part in the early stages of the Revolution, but was too conservative to be in sympathy with all even of its earlier developments. He threw himself into opposition to the "tyranny" of Mirabeau, and condemned the epidemic of renunciation which in the session of the 4th of August 1789 destroyed the traditional institutions of France. Later in the year he emigrated to England. During the trial of Louis XVI. by the National Convention (1793) he offered to defend the king, but was not allowed to return to France. He did not return till the time of the Consulate. Louis XVIII. created him a peer of France, and in 1816 he became a member of the French Academy. From that time until his death, on the 11th of March 1830, he devoted himself to philanthropic work, especially identifying himself with prison reform.

See his _Plaidoyer pour Louis XVI._ (London, 1793); Lally-Tollendal
was also in part responsible for the _Mémoires_, attributed to Joseph
Weber, concerning Marie Antoinette (1804); he further edited the
article on his father in the _Biographie Michaud_; see also Arnault,
_Discours prononcé aux funérailles de M. le marquis de Lally-Tollendal
le 13 mars 1830_ (Paris); Gauthier de Brecy, _Nécrologie de M. le
marquis de Lally-Tollendal_ (Paris, undated); Voltaire, _Oeuvres
complètes_ (Paris, 1889), in which see the analytical table of
contents, vol. ii.

LALO, EDOUARD (1823-1892), French composer, was born at Lille, on the 27th of January 1823. He began his musical studies at the conservatoire at Lille, and in Paris attended the violin classes of Habeneck. For several years Lalo led a modest and retired existence, playing the viola in the quartet party organized by Armingaud and Jacquard, and in composing chamber music. His early works include two trios, a quartet, and several pieces for violin and pianoforte. In 1867 he took part in an operatic competition, an opera from his pen, entitled _Fiesque_, obtaining the third place out of forty-three. This work was accepted for production at the Paris Opéra, but delays occurred, and nothing was done. _Fiesque_ was next offered to the Théâtre de la Monnaie, Brussels, and was about to be produced there when the manager became bankrupt. Thus, when nearly fifty years of age, Lalo found himself in difficulties. _Fiesque_ was never performed, but the composer published the pianoforte score, and eventually employed some of the music in other works. After the Franco-German war French composers found their opportunity in the concert-room. Lalo was one of these, and during the succeeding ten years several interesting works from his pen were produced, among them a sonata for violoncello, a "divertissement" for orchestra, a violin concerto and the _Symphonie Espagnole_ for violin and orchestra, one of his best-known compositions. In the meanwhile he had written a second opera, _Le Roi d'Ys_, which he hoped would be produced at the Opéra. The administration offered him the "scenario" of a ballet instead. Lalo was obliged to be content with this, and set to work with so much energy that he fell ill, the last scenes of the ballet being orchestrated by Gounod. _Namouna_, the ballet in question, was produced at the Opéra in 1882. Six years later, on the 7th of May 1888, _Le Roi d'Ys_ was brought out at the Opéra Comique, and Lalo was at last enabled to taste the sweets of success. Unfortunately, fame came to him too late in life. A pianoforte concerto and the music to _Néron_, a pantomimic piece played at the Hippodrome in 1891, were his last two works. He had begun a new opera, but had only written the first act when, on the 23rd of April 1892, he died. This opera, _La Jacquerie_, was finished by Arthur Coquard, and was produced in 1895 at Monte Carlo, Aix-les-Bains and finally in Paris. Lalo had distinct originality, discernible in his employment of curious rhythmic devices. His music is ever ingenious and brilliantly effective.

LA MADDALENA, an island 2½ m. from the N.E. coast of Sardinia. Pop. (1901) 8361. Napoleon bombarded it in 1793 without success, and Nelson made it his headquarters for some time. It is now an important naval station of the Italian fleet, the anchorage being good, and is strongly fortified. A bridge and an embankment connect it with Caprera. It appears to have been inhabited in Roman times.

LAMAISM, a system of doctrine partly religious, partly political. Religiously it is the corrupt form of Buddhism prevalent in Tibet and Mongolia. It stands in a relationship to primitive Buddhism similar to that in which Roman Catholicism, so long as the temporal power of the pope was still in existence, stood to primitive Christianity. The ethical and metaphysical ideas most conspicuous in the doctrines of Lamaism are not confined to the highlands of central Asia, they are accepted in great measure also in Japan and China. It is the union of these ideas with a hierarchical system, and with the temporal sovereignty of the head of that system in Tibet, which constitutes what is distinctively understood by the term Lamaism. Lamaism has acquired a special interest to the student of comparative history through the instructive parallel which its history presents to that of the Church of Rome.

The "Great Vehicle."

The central point of primitive Buddhism was the doctrine of "Arahatship"--a system of ethical and mental self-culture, in which deliverance was found from all the mysteries and sorrows of life in a change of heart to be reached here on earth. This doctrine seems to have been held very nearly in its original purity from the time when it was propounded by Gotama in the 6th century B.C. to the period in which northern India was conquered by the Huns about the commencement of the Christian era. Soon after that time there arose a school of Buddhist teachers who called their doctrine the "Great Vehicle." It was not in any contradiction to the older doctrine, which they contemptuously called the "Little Vehicle," but included it all, and was based upon it. The distinguishing characteristic of the newer school was the importance which it attached to "Bodhisatship." The older school had taught that Gotama, who had propounded the doctrine of Arahatship, was a Buddha, that only a Buddha is capable of discovering that doctrine, and that a Buddha is a man who by self-denying efforts, continued through many hundreds of different births, has acquired the so-called _Ten Paramitas_ or cardinal virtues in such perfection that he is able, when sin and ignorance have gained the upper hand throughout the world, to save the human race from impending ruin. But until the process of perfection has been completed, until the moment when at last the sage, sitting under the Wisdom tree acquires that particular insight or wisdom which is called Enlightenment or Buddhahood, he is still only a Bodhisat. The link of connexion between the various Bodhisats in the future Buddha's successive births is not a soul which is transferred from body to body, but the _karma_, or character, which each successive Bodhisat inherits from his predecessors in the long chain of existences. Now the older school also held, in the first place, that, when a man had, in this life, attained to Arahatship, his karma would not pass on to any other individual in another life--or in other words, that after Arahatship there would be no rebirth; and, secondly, that four thousand years after the Buddha had proclaimed the _Dhamma_ or doctrine of Arahatship, his teaching would have died away, and another Buddha would be required to bring mankind once more to a knowledge of the truth. The leaders of the Great Vehicle urged their followers to seek to attain, not so much to Arahatship, which would involve only their own salvation, but to Bodhisatship, by the attainment of which they would be conferring the blessings of the Dhamma upon countless multitudes in the long ages of the future. By thus laying stress upon Bodhisatship, rather than upon Arahatship, the new school, though they doubtless merely thought themselves to be carrying the older orthodox doctrines to their logical conclusion, were really changing the central point of Buddhism, and were altering the direction of their mental vision. It was of no avail that they adhered in other respects in the main to the older teaching, that they professed to hold to the same ethical system, that they adhered, except in a few unimportant details, to the old regulations of the order of the Buddhist mendicant recluses. The ancient books, preserved in the _Pali Pitakas_, being mainly occupied with the details of Arahatship, lost their exclusive value in the eyes of those whose attention was being directed to the details of Bodhisatship. And the opinion that every leader in their religious circles, every teacher distinguished among them for his sanctity of life, or for his extensive learning, was a Bodhisat, who might have and who probably had inherited the karma of some great teacher of old, opened the door to a flood of superstitious fancies.

It is worthy of note that the new school found its earliest professors and its greatest expounders in a part of India outside the districts to which the personal influence of Gotama and of his immediate followers had been confined. The home of early Buddhism was round about Kosala and Magadha; in the district, that is to say, north and south of the Ganges between where Allahabad now lies on the west and Rajgir on the east. The home of the Great Vehicle was, at first, in the countries farther to the north and west. Buddhism arose in countries where Sanskrit was never more than a learned tongue, and where the exclusive claims of the Brahmins had never been universally admitted. The Great Vehicle arose in the very stronghold of Brahminism, and among a people to whom Sanskrit, like Latin in the middle ages in Europe, was the literary _lingua franca_. The new literature therefore, which the new movement called forth, was written, and has been preserved, in Sanskrit--its principal books of _Dharma_, or doctrine, being the following nine: (1) _Prajña-paramita_; (2) _Ganda-vyuha_; (3) _Dasa-bhumis-vara_; (4) _Samadhi-raja_; (5) _Lankavatara_; (6) _Saddharma-pundarika_; (7) _Tathagata-guhyaka_; (8) _Lalita-vistara_; (9) _Suvarna-prabhasa_. The date of none of these works is known with any certainty, but it is highly improbable that any one of them is older than the 6th century after the death of Gotama. Copies of all of them were brought to Europe by Mr B. H. Hodgson, and other copies have been received since then; but only one of them has as yet been published in Europe (the _Lalita Vistara_, edited by Lofmann), and only two have been translated into any European language. These are the _Lalita Vistara_, translated into French, through the Tibetan, by M. Foucaux, and the _Saddharma Pundarika_, translated into English by Professor Kern. The former is legendary work, partly in verse, on the life of Gotama, the historical Buddha; and the latter, also partly in verse, is devoted to proving the essential identity of the Great and the Little Vehicles, and the equal authenticity of both as doctrines enunciated by the master himself.

Of the authors of these nine works, as of all the older Buddhist works with one or two exceptions, nothing has been ascertained. The founder of the system of the Great Vehicle is, however, often referred to under the name of Nagarjuna, whose probable date is about A.D. 200.

Together with Nagarjuna, other early teachers of the Great Vehicle whose names are known are Vasumitra, Vasubandhu, Aryadeva, Dharmapala and Gunamati--all of whom were looked upon as Bodhisats. As the newer school did not venture so far as to claim as Bodhisats the disciples stated in the older books to have been the contemporaries of Gotama (they being precisely the persons known as Arahats), they attempted to give the appearance of age to the Bodhisat theory by representing the Buddha as being surrounded, not only by his human companions the Arahats, but also by fabulous beings, whom they represented as the Bodhisats existing at that time. In the opening words of each Mahayana treatise a list is given of such Bodhisats, who were beginning, together with the historical Bodhisats, to occupy a position in the Buddhist church of those times similar to that occupied by the saints in the corresponding period of the history of Christianity in the Church of Rome. And these lists of fabulous Bodhisats have now a distinct historical importance. For they grow in length in the later works; and it is often possible by comparing them one with another to fix, not the date, but the comparative age of the books in which they occur. Thus it is a fair inference to draw from the shortness of the list in the opening words of the _Lalita Vistara_, as compared with that in the first sections of the _Saddharma Pundarika_, that the latter work is much the younger of the two, a conclusion supported also by other considerations.

Among the Bodhisats mentioned in the _Saddharma Pundarika_, and not mentioned in the _Lalita Vistara_, as attendant on the Buddha are Mañju-sri and Avalokitesvara. That these saints were already acknowledged by the followers of the Great Vehicle at the beginning of the 5th century is clear from the fact that Fa Hien, who visited India about that time, says that "men of the Great Vehicle" were then worshipping them at Mathura, not far from Delhi (F. H., chap. xvi.). These were supposed to be celestial beings who, inspired by love of the human race, had taken the so-called Great Resolve to become future Buddhas, and who therefore descended from heaven when the actual Buddha was on earth, to pay reverence to him, and to learn of him. The belief in them probably arose out of the doctrine of the older school, which did not deny the existence of the various creations of previous mythology and speculation, but allowed of their actual existence as spiritual beings, and only deprived them of all power over the lives of men, and declared them to be temporary beings liable, like men, to sin and ignorance, and requiring, like men, the salvation of Arahatship. Among them the later Buddhists seem to have placed their numerous Bodhisats; and to have paid especial reverence to Mañju-sri as the personification of wisdom, and to Avalokiteswara as the personification of overruling love. The former was afterwards identified with the mythical first Buddhist missionary, who is supposed to have introduced civilization into Tibet about two hundred and fifty years after the death of the Buddha.

The five mystic trinities.

The way was now open to a rapid fall from the simplicity of early Buddhism, in which men's attention was directed to the various parts of the system of self-culture, to a belief in a whole pantheon of saints or angels, which appealed more strongly to the half-civilized races among whom the Great Vehicle was now professed. A theory sprang up which was supposed to explain the marvellous powers of the Buddhas by representing them as only the outward appearance, the reflection, as it were, or emanation, of ethereal Buddhas dwelling in the skies. These were called _Dhyani Buddhas_, and their number was supposed to be, like that of the Buddhas, innumerable. Only five of them, however, occupied any space in the speculative world in which the ideas of the later Buddhists had now begun to move. But, being Buddhas, they were supposed to have their Bodhisats; and thus out of the five last Buddhas of the earlier teaching there grew up five mystic trinities, each group consisting of one of these five Buddhas, his prototype in heaven the Dhyani Buddha, and his celestial Bodhisat. Among these hypothetical beings, the creations of a sickly scholasticism, hollow abstractions without life or reality, the particular trinity in which the historical Gotama was assigned a subordinate place naturally occupied the most exalted rank. Amitabha, the Dhyani-Buddha of this trinity, soon began to fill the largest place in the minds of the new school; and Avalokiteswara, his Bodhisat, was looked upon with a reverence somewhat less than his former glory. It is needless to add that, under the overpowering influence of these vain imaginations, the earnest moral teachings of Gotama became more and more hidden from view. The imaginary saints grew and flourished. Each new creation, each new step in the theory, demanded another, until the whole sky was filled with forgeries of the brain, and the nobler and simpler lessons of the founder of the religion were hidden beneath the glittering stream of metaphysical subtleties.

Still worse results followed on the change of the earlier point of view. The acute minds of the Buddhist pandits, no longer occupied with the practical lessons of Arahatship, turned their attention, as far as it was not engaged upon their hierarchy of mythological beings, to questions of metaphysical speculation, which, in the earliest Buddhism, are not only discouraged but forbidden. We find long treatises on the nature of being, idealistic dreams which have as little to do with the Bodhisatship that is concerned with the salvation of the world as with the Arahatship that is concerned with the perfect life. Only one lower step was possible, and that was not long in being taken. The animism common alike to the untaught Huns and to their Hindu conquerors, but condemned in early Buddhism, was allowed to revive. As the stronger side of Gotama's teaching was neglected, the debasing belief in rites and ceremonies, and charms and incantations, which had been the especial object of his scorn, began to spread like the Birana weed warmed by a tropical sun in marsh and muddy soil. As in India, after the expulsion of Buddhism, the degrading worship of Siva and his dusky bride had been incorporated into Hinduism from the savage devil worship of Aryan and of non-Aryan tribes, so, as pure Buddhism died away in the north, the _Tantra_ system, a mixture of magic and witchcraft and sorcery, was incorporated into the corrupted Buddhism.

The Tantra system.