Chapter XIX: Part 19

The edition mentioned is the most complete one of Lamartine, but there
are many issues of his separate works. After his death some poems and
_Mémoires inédits_ of his youth were published, and also two volumes
of correspondence, while in 1893 Mlle V. de Lamartine added a volume
of _Lettres_ to him. The change of views above referred to may be
studied in the detached articles of MM. Brunetière, Faguet, Lemaître,
&c., and in the more substantive work of Ch. de Pomairols, _Lamartine_
(1889); E. Deschanel, _Lamartine_ (1893); E. Zyrowski, _Lamartine_
(1896); and perhaps best of all in the Preface to Emile Legouis'
Clarendon Press edition of _Jocelyn_ (1906), where a vigorous effort
is made to combat the idea of Lamartine's sentimentality and
femininity as a poet. (G. Sa.)

LAMB, CHARLES (1775-1834), English essayist and critic, was born in Crown Office Row, Inner Temple, London, on the 10th of February 1775. His father, John Lamb, a Lincolnshire man, who filled the situation of clerk and servant-companion to Samuel Salt, a member of parliament and one of the benchers of the Inner Temple, was successful in obtaining for Charles, the youngest of three surviving children, a presentation to Christ's Hospital, where the boy remained from his eighth to his fifteenth year (1782-1789). Here he had for a schoolfellow Samuel Taylor Coleridge, his senior by rather more than two years, and a close and tender friendship began which lasted for the rest of the lives of both. When the time came for leaving school, where he had learned some Greek and acquired considerable facility in Latin composition, Lamb, after a brief stay at home (probably spent, as his school holidays had often been, over old English authors in Salt's library) was condemned to the labours of the desk--"an inconquerable impediment" in his speech disqualifying him for the clerical profession, which, as the school exhibitions were usually only given to those preparing for the church, thus deprived him of the only means by which he could have obtained a university education. For a short time he was in the office of Joseph Paice, a London merchant, and then for twenty-three weeks, until the 8th of February 1792, he held a small post in the Examiner's Office of the South Sea House, where his brother John was established, a period which, although his age was but sixteen, was to provide him nearly thirty years later with materials for the first of the _Essays of Elia_. On the 5th of April 1792, he entered the Accountant's Office in the East India House, where during the next three and thirty years the hundred official folios of what he used to call his true "works" were produced.

Of the years 1792-1795 we know little. At the end of 1794 he saw much of Coleridge and joined him in writing sonnets in the _Morning Post_, addressed to eminent persons: early in 1795 he met Southey and was much in the company of James White, whom he probably helped in the composition of the _Original Letters of Sir John Falstaff_; and at the end of the year for a short time he became so unhinged mentally as to necessitate confinement in an asylum. The cause, it is probable, was an unsuccessful love affair with Ann Simmons, the Hertfordshire maiden to whom his first sonnets are addressed, whom he would have seen when on his visits as a youth to Blakesware House, near Widford, the country home of the Plumer family, of which Lamb's grandmother, Mary Field, was for many years, until her death in 1792, sole custodian.

It was in the late summer of 1796 that a dreadful calamity came upon the Lambs, which seemed to blight all Lamb's prospects in the very morning of life. On the 22nd of September his sister Mary, "worn down to a state of extreme nervous misery by attention to needlework by day and to her mother at night," was suddenly seized with acute mania, in which she stabbed her mother to the heart. The calm self-mastery and loving self-renunciation which Charles Lamb, by constitution excitable, nervous and self-mistrustful, displayed at this crisis in his own history and in that of those nearest him, will ever give him an imperishable claim to the reverence and affection of all who are capable of appreciating the heroisms of common life. With the help of friends he succeeded in obtaining his sister's release from the lifelong restraint to which she would otherwise have been doomed, on the express condition that he himself should undertake the responsibility for her safe keeping. It proved no light charge: for though no one was capable of affording a more intelligent or affectionate companionship than Mary Lamb during her periods of health, there was ever present the apprehension of the recurrence of her malady; and when from time to time the premonitory symptoms had become unmistakable, there was no alternative but her removal, which took place in quietness and tears. How deeply the whole course of Lamb's domestic life must have been affected by his singular loyalty as a brother needs not to be pointed out.

Lamb's first appearance as an author was made in the year of the great tragedy of his life (1796), when there were published in the volume of _Poems on Various Subjects_ by Coleridge four sonnets by "Mr Charles Lamb of the India House." In the following year he contributed, with Charles Lloyd, a pupil of Coleridge, some pieces in blank verse to the second edition of Coleridge's _Poems_. In 1797 his short summer holiday was spent with Coleridge at Nether Stowey, where he met the Wordsworths, William and Dorothy, and established a friendship with both which only his own death terminated. In 1798, under the influence of Henry Mackenzie's novel _Julie de Roubigné_, he published a short and pathetic prose tale entitled _Rosamund Gray_, in which it is possible to trace beneath disguised conditions references to the misfortunes of the author's own family, and many personal touches; and in the same year he joined Lloyd in a volume of _Blank Verse_, to which Lamb contributed poems occasioned by the death of his mother and his aunt Sarah Lamb, among them being his best-known lyric, "The Old Familiar Faces." In this year, 1798, he achieved the unexpected publicity of an attack by the _Anti-Jacobin_ upon him as an associate of Coleridge and Southey (to whose _Annual Anthology_ he had contributed) in their Jacobin machinations. In 1799, on the death of her father, Mary Lamb came to live again with her brother, their home then being in Pentonville; but it was not until 1800 that they really settled together, their first independent joint home being at Mitre Court Buildings in the Temple, where they lived until 1809. At the end of 1801, or beginning of 1802, appeared Lamb's first play _John Woodvil_, on which he set great store, a slight dramatic piece written in the style of the earlier Elizabethan period and containing some genuine poetry and happy delineation of the gentler emotions, but as a whole deficient in plot, vigour and character; it was held up to ridicule by the _Edinburgh Review_ as a specimen of the rudest condition of the drama, a work by "a man of the age of Thespis." The dramatic spirit, however, was not thus easily quenched in Lamb, and his next effort was a farce, _Mr H----_, the point of which lay in the hero's anxiety to conceal his name "Hogsflesh"; but it did not survive the first night of its appearance at Drury Lane, in December 1806. Its author bore the failure with rare equanimity and good humour--even to joining in the hissing--and soon struck into new and more successful fields of literary exertion. Before, however, passing to these it should be mentioned that he made various efforts to earn money by journalism, partly by humorous articles, partly as dramatic critic, but chiefly as a contributor of sarcastic or funny paragraphs, "sparing neither man nor woman," in the _Morning Post_, principally in 1803.

In 1807 appeared _Tales founded on the Plays of Shakespeare_, written by Charles and Mary Lamb, in which Charles was responsible for the tragedies and Mary for the comedies; and in 1808, _Specimens of English Dramatic Poets who lived about the time of Shakespeare_, with short but felicitous critical notes. It was this work which laid the foundation of Lamb's reputation as a critic, for it was filled with imaginative understanding of the old playwrights, and a warm, discerning and novel appreciation of their great merits. In the same year, 1808, Mary Lamb, assisted by her brother, published _Poetry for Children_, and a collection of short school-girl tales under the title _Mrs Leicester's School_; and to the same date belongs _The Adventures of Ulysses_, designed by Lamb as a companion to _The Adventures of Telemachus_. In 1810 began to appear Leigh Hunt's quarterly periodical, _The Reflector_, in which Lamb published much (including the fine essays on the tragedies of Shakespeare and on Hogarth) that subsequently appeared in the first collective edition of his _Works_, which he put forth in 1818.

Between 1811, when _The Reflector_ ceased, and 1820, he wrote almost nothing. In these years we may imagine him at his most social period, playing much whist and entertaining his friends on Wednesday or Thursday nights; meanwhile gathering that reputation as a conversationalist or inspirer of conversation in others, which Hazlitt, who was at one time one of Lamb's closest friends, has done so much to celebrate. When in 1818 appeared the _Works_ in two volumes, it may be that Lamb considered his literary career over. Before coming to 1820, and an event which was in reality to be the beginning of that career as it is generally known--the establishment of the _London Magazine_--it should be recorded that in the summer of 1819 Lamb, with his sister's full consent, proposed marriage to Fanny Kelly, the actress, who was then in her thirtieth year. Miss Kelly could not accept, giving as one reason her devotion to her mother. Lamb bore the rebuff with characteristic humour and fortitude.

The establishment of the _London Magazine_ in 1820 stimulated Lamb to the production of a series of new essays (the _Essays of Elia_) which may be said to form the chief corner-stone in the small but classic temple of his fame. The first of these, as it fell out, was a description of the old South Sea House, with which Lamb happened to have associated the name of a "gay light-hearted foreigner" called Elia, who was a clerk in the days of his service there. The pseudonym adopted on this occasion was retained for the subsequent contributions, which appeared collectively in a volume of essays called _Elia_, in 1823. After a career of five years the _London Magazine_ came to an end; and about the same period Lamb's long connexion with the India House terminated, a pension of £450 (£441 net) having been assigned to him. The increased leisure, however, for which he had long sighed, did not prove favourable to literary production, which henceforth was limited to a few trifling contributions to the _New Monthly_ and other serials, and the excavation of gems from the mass of dramatic literature bequeathed to the British Museum by David Garrick, which Lamb laboriously read through in 1827, an occupation which supplied him for a time with the regular hours of work he missed so much. The malady of his sister, which continued to increase with ever shortening intervals of relief, broke in painfully on his lettered ease and comfort; and it is unfortunately impossible to ignore the deteriorating effects of an over-free indulgence in the use of alcohol, and, in early life, tobacco, on a temperament such as his. His removal on account of his sister to the quiet of the country at Enfield, by tending to withdraw him from the stimulating society of the large circle of literary friends who had helped to make his weekly or monthly "at homes" so remarkable, doubtless also tended to intensify his listlessness and helplessness. One of the brightest elements in the closing years of his life was the friendship and companionship of Emma Isola, whom he and his sister had adopted, and whose marriage in 1833 to Edward Moxon, the publisher, though a source of unselfish joy to Lamb, left him more than ever alone. While living at Edmonton, whither he had moved in 1833 so that his sister might have the continual care of Mr and Mrs Walden, who were accustomed to patients of weak intellect, Lamb was overtaken by an attack of erysipelas brought on by an accidental fall as he was walking on the London road. After a few days' illness he died on the 27th of December, 1834. The sudden death of one so widely known, admired and beloved, fell on the public as well as on his own attached circle with all the poignancy of a personal calamity and a private grief. His memory wanted no tribute that affection could bestow, and Wordsworth commemorated in simple and solemn verse the genius, virtues and fraternal devotion of his early friend.

Charles Lamb is entitled to a place as an essayist beside Montaigne, Sir Thomas Browne, Steele and Addison. He unites many of the characteristics of each of these writers--refined and exquisite humour, a genuine and cordial vein of pleasantry and heart-touching pathos. His fancy is distinguished by great delicacy and tenderness; and even his conceits are imbued with human feeling and passion. He had an extreme and almost exclusive partiality for earlier prose writers, particularly for Fuller, Browne and Burton, as well as for the dramatists of Shakespeare's time; and the care with which he studied them is apparent in all he ever wrote. It shines out conspicuously in his style, which has an antique air and is redolent of the peculiarities of the 17th century. Its quaintness has subjected the author to the charge of affectation, but there is nothing really affected in his writings. His style is not so much an imitation as a reflexion of the older writers; for in spirit he made himself their contemporary. A confirmed habit of studying them in preference to modern literature had made something of their style natural to him; and long experience had rendered it not only easy and familiar but habitual. It was not a masquerade dress he wore, but the costume which showed the man to most advantage. With thought and meaning often profound, though clothed in simple language, every sentence of his essays is pregnant.

He played a considerable part in reviving the dramatic writers of the Shakesperian age; for he preceded Gifford and others in wiping the dust of ages from their works. In his brief comments on each specimen he displays exquisite powers of discrimination: his discernment of the true meaning of his author is almost infallible. His work was a departure in criticism. Former editors had supplied textual criticism and alternative readings: Lamb's object was to show how our ancestors felt when they placed themselves by the power of imagination in trying situations, in the conflicts of duty or passion or the strife of contending duties; what sorts of loves and enmities theirs were.

As a poet Lamb is not entitled to so high a place as that which can be claimed for him as essayist and critic. His dependence on Elizabethan models is here also manifest, but in such a way as to bring into all the greater prominence his native deficiency in "the accomplishment of verse." Yet it is impossible, once having read, ever to forget the tenderness and grace of such poems as "Hester," "The Old Familiar Faces," and the lines "On an infant dying as soon as born" or the quaint humour of "A Farewell to Tobacco." As a letter writer Lamb ranks very high, and when in a nonsensical mood there is none to touch him.

Editions and memoirs of Lamb are numerous. The _Letters_, with a
sketch of his life by Sir Thomas Noon Talfourd, appeared in 1837; the
_Final Memorials of Charles Lamb_ by the same hand, after Mary Lamb's
death, in 1848; Barry Cornwall's _Charles Lamb: A Memoir_, in 1866. Mr
P. Fitzgerald's _Charles Lamb: his Friends, his Haunts and his Books_
(1866); W. Carew Hazlitt's _Mary and Charles Lamb_ (1874). Mr
Fitzgerald and Mr Hazlitt have also both edited the _Letters_, and Mr
Fitzgerald brought Talfourd to date with an edition of Lamb's works in
1870-1876. Later and fuller editions are those of Canon Ainger in 12
volumes, Mr Macdonald in 12 volumes and Mr E. V. Lucas in 7 volumes,
to which in 1905 was added _The Life of Charles Lamb_, in 2 volumes.
(E. V. L.)

LAMB (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. _Lamm_), the young of sheep. The Paschal Lamb or Agnus Dei is used as a symbol of Jesus Christ, the Lamb of God (John i. 29), and "lamb," like "flock," is often used figuratively of the members of a Christian church or community, with an allusion to Jesus' charge to Peter (John xxi. 15). The "lamb and flag" is an heraldic emblem, the dexter fore-leg of the lamb supporting a staff bearing a banner charged with the St George's cross. This was one of the crests of the Knights Templars, used on seals as early as 1241; it was adopted as a badge or crest by the Middle Temple, the Inner Temple using another crest of the Templars, the winged horse or Pegasus. The old Tangier regiment, now the Queen's Royal West Surrey Regiment, bore a Paschal Lamb as its badge. From their colonel, Percy Kirke (q.v.), they were known as Kirke's Lambs. The exaggerated reputation of the regiment for brutality, both in Tangier and in England after Sedgmoor, lent irony to the nickname.

LAMBALLE, MARIE THÉRÈSE LOUISE OF SAVOY-CARIGNANO, PRINCESSE DE (1749-1792), fourth daughter of Louis Victor of Carignano (d. 1774) (great-grandfather of King Charles Albert of Sardinia), and of Christine Henriette of Hesse-Rheinfels-Rothenburg, was born at Turin on the 8th of September 1749. In 1767 she was married to Louis Alexandre Stanislaus de Bourbon, prince of Lamballe, son of the duke of Penthièvre, a grandson of Louis XIV.'s natural son the count of Toulouse. Her husband dying the following year, she retired with her father-in-law to Rambouillet, where she lived until the marriage of the dauphin, when she returned to court. Marie Antoinette, charmed by her gentle and naïve manners, singled her out for a companion and confidante. The impetuous character of the dauphiness found in Madame de Lamballe that submissive temperament which yields to force of environment, and the two became fast friends. After her accession Marie Antoinette, in spite of the king's opposition, had her appointed superintendent of the royal household. Between 1776 and 1785 the comtesse de Polignac succeeded in supplanting her; but when the queen tired of the avarice of the Polignacs, she turned again to Madame de Lamballe. From 1785 to the Revolution she was Marie Antoinette's closest friend and the pliant instrument of her caprices. She came with the queen to the Tuileries and as her salon served as a meeting-place for the queen and the members of the Assembly whom she wished to gain over, the people believed her to be the soul of all the intrigues. After a visit to England in 1791 to appeal for help for the royal family she made her will and returned to the Tuileries, where she continued her services to the queen until the 10th of August, when she shared her imprisonment in the Temple. On the 19th of August she was transferred to La Force, and having refused to take the oath against the monarchy, she was on the 3rd of September delivered over to the fury of the populace, after which her head was placed on a pike and carried before the windows of the queen.

See George Bertin, _Madame de Lamballe_ (Paris, 1888); Austin Dobson,
_Four Frenchwomen_ (1890); B. C. Hardy, _Princesse de Lamballe_
(1908); Comte de Lescure, _La Princesse de Lamballe ... d'après des
documents inédits_ (1864); some letters of the princess published by
Ch. Schmidt in _La Révolution française_ (vol. xxxix., 1900); L.
Lambeau, _Essais sur la mort de madame la princesse de Lamballe_
(1902); Sir F. Montefiore, _The Princesse de Lamballe_ (1896). _The
Secret Memoirs of the Royal Family of France ... now first published
from the Journal, Letters and Conversations of the Princesse de
Lamballe_ (London, 2 vols., 1826) have since appeared in various
editions in English and in French. They are attributed to Catherine
Hyde, Marchioness Govion-Broglio-Solari, and are apocryphal.

LAMBALLE, a town of north-western France, in the department of Côtes-du-Nord, on the Gouessant 13 m. E.S.E. of St Brieuc by rail. Pop. (1906) 4347. Crowning the eminence on which the town is built is a beautiful Gothic church (13th and 14th centuries), once the chapel of the castle of the counts of Penthièvre. La Noue, the famous Huguenot leader, was mortally wounded in 1591 in the siege of the castle, which was dismantled in 1626 by Richelieu. Of the other buildings, the church of St Martin (11th, 15th and 16th centuries) is the chief. Lamballe has an important _haras_ (depot for stallions) and carries on trade in grain, tanning and leather-dressing; earthenware is manufactured in the environs. Lamballe was the capital of the territory of the counts of Penthièvre, who in 1569 were made dukes.

LAMBAYEQUE, a coast department of northern Peru, bounded N. by Piura, E. and S. by Cajamarca and Libertad. Area, 4614 sq. m. Pop. (1906 estimate) 93,070. It belongs to the arid region of the coast, and is settled along the river valleys where irrigation is possible. It is one of the chief sugar-producing departments of Peru, and in some valleys, especially near Ferreñafe, rice is largely produced. Four railways connect its principal producing centres with the small ports of Eten and Pimentel, viz.: Eten to Ferreñafe, 27 m.; Eten to Cayalti, 23 m.; Pimentel to Lambayeque, 15 m.; and Chiclayo to Pátapo, 15 m. The principal towns are Chiclayo, the departmental capital, with a population (1906 estimate) of 10,500, Ferreñafe 6000, and Lambayeque 4500.

LAMBEAUX, JEF (JOSEPH MARIE THOMAS), (1852-1908), Belgian sculptor, was born at Antwerp. He studied at the Antwerp Academy of Fine Arts, and was a pupil of Jean Geefs. His first work, "War," was exhibited in 1871, and was followed by a long series of humorous groups, including "Children dancing," "Say 'Good Morning,'" "The Lucky Number" and "An Accident" (1875). He then went to Paris, where he executed for the Belgian salons "The Beggar" and "The Blind Pauper," and produced "The Kiss" (1881), generally regarded as his masterpiece. After visiting Italy, where he was much impressed by the works of Jean Bologne, he showed a strong predilection for effects of force and motion. Other notable works are his fountain at Antwerp (1886), "Robbing the Eagle's Eyrie" (1890), "Drunkenness" (1893), "The Triumph of Woman," "The Bitten Faun" (which created a great stir at the Exposition Universelle at Liége in 1905), and "The Human Passions," a colossal marble bas-relief, elaborated from a sketch exhibited in 1889. Of his numerous busts may be mentioned those of Hendrik Conscience, and of Charles Bals, the burgomaster of Brussels. He died on the 6th of June 1908.

LAMBERMONT, AUGUSTE, BARON (1819-1905), Belgian statesman, was born at Dion-le-Val in Brabant on the 25th of March 1819. He came of a family of small farmer proprietors, who had held land during three centuries. He was intended for the priesthood and entered the seminary of Floreffe, but his energies claimed a more active sphere. He left the monastery for Louvain University. Here he studied law, and also prepared himself for the military examinations. At that juncture the first Carlist war broke out, and Lambermont hastened to the scene of action. His services were accepted (April 1838) and he was entrusted with the command of two small cannon. He also acted as A.D.C. to Colonel Durando. He greatly distinguished himself, and for his intrepidity on one occasion he was decorated with the Cross of the highest military Order of St Ferdinand. Returning to Belgium he entered the Ministry for Foreign Affairs in 1842. He served in this department sixty-three years. He was closely associated with several of the most important questions in Belgian history during the last half of the 19th century--notably the freeing of the Scheldt. He was one of the very first Belgians to see the importance of developing the trade of their country, and at his own request he was attached to the commercial branch of the foreign office. The tolls imposed by the Dutch on navigation on the Scheldt strangled Belgian trade, for Antwerp was the only port of the country. The Dutch had the right to make this levy under treaties going back to the treaty of Munster in 1648, and they clung to it still more tenaciously after Belgium separated herself in 1830-1831 from the united kingdom of the Netherlands--the London conference in 1839 fixing the toll payable to Holland at 1.50 florins (3s.) per ton. From 1856 to 1863 Lambermont devoted most of his energies to the removal of this impediment. In 1856 he drew up a plan of action, and he prosecuted it with untiring perseverance until he saw it embodied in an international convention seven years later. Twenty-one powers and states attended a conference held on the question at Brussels in 1863, and on the 15th of July the treaty freeing the Scheldt was signed. For this achievement Lambermont was made a baron. Among other important conferences in which Lambermont took a leading part were those of Brussels (1874) on the usages of war, Berlin (1884-1885) on Africa and the Congo region, and Brussels (1890) on Central African Affairs and the Slave Trade. He was joint reporter with Baron de Courcel of the Berlin conference in 1884-1885, and on several occasions he was chosen as arbitrator by one or other of the great European powers. But his great achievement was the freeing of the Scheldt, and in token of its gratitude the city of Antwerp erected a fine monument to his memory. He died on the 7th of March 1905.

LAMBERT, DANIEL (1770-1809), an Englishman famous for his great size, was born near Leicester on the 13th of March 1770, the son of the keeper of the jail, to which post he succeeded in 1791. About this time his size and weight increased enormously, and though he had led an active and athletic life he weighed in 1793 thirty-two stone (448 lb.). In 1806 he resolved to profit by his notoriety, and resigning his office went up to London and exhibited himself. He died on the 21st of July 1809, and at the time measured 5 ft. 11 in. in height and weighed 52¾ stone (739 lb.). His waistcoat, now in the Kings Lynn Museum, measures 102 in. round the waist. His coffin contained 112 ft. of elm and was built on wheels. His name has been used as a synonym for immensity. George Meredith describes London as the "Daniel Lambert of cities," and Herbert Spencer uses the phrase "a Daniel Lambert of learning." His enormous proportions were depicted on a number of tavern signs, but the best portrait of him, a large mezzotint, is preserved at the British Museum in Lyson's _Collectanea_.

LAMBERT, FRANCIS (c. 1486-1530), Protestant reformer, was the son of a papal official at Avignon, where he was born between 1485 and 1487. At the age of 15 he entered the Franciscan monastery at Avignon, and after 1517 he was an itinerant preacher, travelling through France, Italy and Switzerland. His study of the Scriptures shook his faith in Roman Catholic theology, and by 1522 he had abandoned his order, and became known to the leaders of the Reformation in Switzerland and Germany. He did not, however, identify himself either with Zwinglianism or Lutheranism; he disputed with Zwingli at Zürich in 1522, and then made his way to Eisenach and Wittenberg, where he married in 1523. He returned to Strassburg in 1524, being anxious to spread the doctrines of the Reformation among the French-speaking population of the neighbourhood. By the Germans he was distrusted, and in 1526 his activities were prohibited by the city of Strassburg. He was, however, befriended by Jacob Sturm, who recommended him to the Landgraf Philip of Hesse, the most liberal of the German reforming princes. With Philip's encouragement he drafted that scheme of ecclesiastical reform for which he is famous. Its basis was essentially democratic and congregational, though it provided for the government of the whole church by means of a synod. Pastors were to be elected by the congregation, and the whole system of canon-law was repudiated. This scheme was submitted by Philip to a synod at Homburg; but Luther intervened and persuaded the Landgraf to abandon it. It was far too democratic to commend itself to the Lutherans, who had by this time bound the Lutheran cause to the support of princes rather than to that of the people. Philip continued to favour Lambert, who was appointed professor and head of the theological faculty in the Landgraf's new university of Marburg. Patrick Hamilton (q.v.), the Scottish martyr, was one of his pupils; and it was at Lambert's instigation that Hamilton composed his _Loci communes_, or _Patrick's Pleas_ as they were popularly called in Scotland. Lambert was also one of the divines who took part in the great conference of Marburg in 1529; he had long wavered between the Lutheran and the Zwinglian view of the Lord's Supper, but at this conference he definitely adopted the Zwinglian view. He died of the plague on the 18th of April 1530, and was buried at Marburg.

A catalogue of Lambert's writings is given in Haag's _La France
protestante_. See also lives of Lambert by Baum (Strassburg, 1840); F.
W. Hessencamp (Elberfeld, 1860), Stieve (Breslau, 1867) and Louis
Ruffet (Paris, 1873); Lorimer, _Life of Patrick Hamilton_ (1857); A.
L. Richter, _Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des 16. Jahrh_.
(Weimar, 1846); Hessencamp, _Hessische Kirchenordnungen im Zeitalter
der Reformation_; Philip of _Hesse's Correspondence with Bucer_, ed.
M. Lenz; Lindsay, _Hist. Reformation_; _Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie_. (A. F. P.)

LAMBERT, JOHANN HEINRICH (1728-1777), German physicist, mathematician and astronomer, was born at Mulhausen, Alsace, on the 26th of August 1728. He was the son of a tailor; and the slight elementary instruction he obtained at the free school of his native town was supplemented by his own private reading. He became book-keeper at Montbéliard ironworks, and subsequently (1745) secretary to Professor Iselin, the editor of a newspaper at Basel, who three years later recommended him as private tutor to the family of Count A. von Salis of Coire. Coming thus into virtual possession of a good library, Lambert had peculiar opportunities for improving himself in his literary and scientific studies. In 1759, after completing with his pupils a tour of two years' duration through Göttingen, Utrecht, Paris, Marseilles and Turin, he resigned his tutorship and settled at Augsburg. Munich, Erlangen, Coire and Leipzig became for brief successive intervals his home. In 1764 he removed to Berlin, where he received many favours at the hand of Frederick the Great and was elected a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin, and in 1774 edited the Berlin _Ephemeris_. He died of consumption on the 25th of September 1777. His publications show him to have been a man of original and active mind with a singular facility in applying mathematics to practical questions.

His mathematical discoveries were extended and overshadowed by his contemporaries. His development of the equation x^m + px = q in an infinite series was extended by Leonhard Euler, and particularly by Joseph Louis Lagrange. In 1761 he proved the irrationality of [pi]; a simpler proof was given somewhat later by Legendre. The introduction of hyperbolic functions into trigonometry was also due to him. His geometrical discoveries are of great value, his _Die freie Perspective_ (1759-1774) being a work of great merit. Astronomy was also enriched by his investigations, and he was led to several remarkable theorems on conics which bear his name. The most important are: (1) To express the time of describing an elliptic arc under the Newtonian law of gravitation in terms of the focal distances of the initial and final points, and the length of the chord joining them. (2) A theorem relating to the apparent curvature of the geocentric path of a comet.

Lambert's most important work, _Pyrometrie_ (Berlin, 1779), is a
systematic treatise on heat, containing the records and full
discussion of many of his own experiments. Worthy of special notice
also are _Photometria_ (Augsburg, 1760), _Insigniores orbitae
cometarum proprietates_ (Augsburg, 1761), and _Beiträge zum Gebrauche
der Mathematik und deren Anwendung_ (4 vols., Berlin, 1765-1772).

The _Memoirs_ of the Berlin Academy from 1761 to 1784 contain many of
his papers, which treat of such subjects as resistance of fluids,
magnetism, comets, probabilities, the problem of three bodies,
meteorology, &c. In the _Acta Helvetica_ (1752-1760) and in the _Nova
acta erudita_ (1763-1769) several of his contributions appear. In
Bode's _Jahrbuch_ (1776-1780) he discusses nutation, aberration of
light, Saturn's rings and comets; in the _Nova acta Helvetica_ (1787)
he has a long paper "Sur le son des corps élastiques," in Bernoulli
and Hindenburg's _Magazin_ (1787-1788) he treats of the roots of
equation and of parallel lines; and in Hindenburg's _Archiv_
(1798-1799) he writes on optics and perspective. Many of these pieces
were published posthumously. Recognized as among the first
mathematicians of his day, he was also widely known for the
universality and depth of his philological and philosophical
knowledge. The most valuable of his logical and philosophical memoirs
were published collectively in 2 vols. (1782).

See Huber's _Lambert nach seinem Leben und Wirken_; M. Chasles,
_Geschichte der Geometrie_; and Baensch, Lamberts _Philosophie und
seine Stellung zu Kant_ (1902).

LAMBERT [_alias_ NICHOLSON], JOHN (d. 1538), English Protestant martyr, was born at Norwich and educated at Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. and was admitted in 1521 a fellow of Queen's College on the nomination of Catherine of Aragon. After acting for some years as a "mass-priest," his views were unsettled by the arguments of Bilney and Arthur; and episcopal persecution compelled him, according to his own account, to assume the name Lambert instead of Nicholson. He likewise removed to Antwerp, where he became chaplain to the English factory, and formed a friendship with Frith and Tyndale. Returning to England in 1531, he came under the notice of Archbishop Warham, who questioned him closely on his religious beliefs. Warham's death in August 1532 relieved Lambert from immediate danger, and he earned a living for some years by teaching Latin and Greek near the Stocks Market in London. The duke of Norfolk and other reactionaries accused him of heresy in 1536, but reforming tendencies were still in the ascendant, and Lambert escaped. In 1538, however, the reaction had begun, and Lambert was its first victim. He singled himself out for persecution by denying the Real Presence: and Henry VIII., who had just rejected the Lutheran proposals for a theological union, was in no mood to tolerate worse heresies. Lambert had challenged some views expressed by Dr John Taylor, afterwards bishop of Lincoln; and Cranmer as archbishop condemned Lambert's opinions. He appealed to the king as supreme head of the Church, and on the 16th of November Henry heard the case in person before a large assembly of spiritual and temporal peers. For five hours Lambert disputed with the king and ten bishops; and then, as he boldly denied that the Eucharist was the body of Christ, he was condemned to death by Cromwell as vicegerent. Henry's condescension and patience produced a great impression on his Catholic subjects; but Cromwell is said by Foxe to have asked Lambert's pardon before his execution, and Cranmer eventually adopted the views he condemned in Lambert. Lambert was burnt at Smithfield on the 22nd of November.

See _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._; Foxe's _Acts and Monuments_;
Froude, _History_; Dixon, _Church History_; Gairdner, _Lollardy and
the Reformation_, _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ and authorities there cited.
(A. F. P.)

LAMBERT, JOHN (1619-1694), English general in the Great Rebellion, was born at Calton Hall, Kirkby Malham, in the West Riding of Yorkshire. His family was of ancient lineage, and long settled in the county. He studied law, but did not make it his profession. In 1639 he married Frances, daughter of Sir William Lister. At the opening of the Civil War he took up arms for the parliament, and in September 1642 was appointed a captain of horse in the army commanded by Ferdinando, Lord Fairfax. A year later he had become colonel of a regiment of horse, and he distinguished himself at the siege of Hull in October, 1643. Early in 1644 he did good service at the battles of Nantwich and Bradford. At Marston Moor Lambert's own regiment was routed by the charge of Goring's horse; but he cut his way through with a few troops and joined Cromwell on the other side of the field. When the New Model army was formed in the beginning of 1645, Colonel Lambert was appointed to succeed Fairfax in command of the northern forces. General Poyntz, however, soon replaced him, and under this officer he served in the Yorkshire campaign of 1645, receiving a wound before Pontefract. In 1646 he was given a regiment in the New Model, serving with Fairfax in the west of England, and he was a commissioner, with Cromwell and others, for the surrender of Oxford in the same year. "It is evident," says C. H. Firth (_Dict. Nat. Biog._), "that he was from the first regarded as an officer of exceptional capacity and specially selected for semi-political employments."

When the quarrel between the army and the parliament began, Lambert threw himself warmly into the army's cause. He assisted Ireton in drawing up the several addresses and remonstrances issued by the army, both men having had some experience in the law, and being "of a subtle and working brain." Early in August 1647 Lambert was sent by Fairfax as major-general to take charge of the forces in the northern counties. His wise and just managing of affairs in those parts is commended by Whitelocke. He suppressed a mutiny among his troops, kept strict discipline and hunted down the moss-troopers who infested the moorland country.

When the Scottish army under the marquis of Hamilton invaded England in the summer of 1648, Lambert was engaged in suppressing the Royalist rising in his district. The arrival of the Scots obliged him to retreat; but Lambert displayed the greatest energy and did not cease to harass the invaders till Cromwell came up from Wales and with him destroyed the Scottish army in the three days' fighting from Preston to Warrington. After the battle Lambert's cavalry headed the chase, pursuing the defeated army _à outrance_, and finally surrounded it at Uttoxeter, where Hamilton surrendered to Lambert on the 25th of August. He then led the advance of Cromwell's army into Scotland, where he was left in charge on Cromwell's return. From December 1648 to March 1649 he was engaged in the siege of Pontefract Castle; Lambert was thus absent from London at the time of Pride's Purge and the trial and execution of the king.

When Cromwell was appointed to the command of the war in Scotland (July 1650), Lambert went with him as major-general and second in command. He was wounded at Musselburgh, but returned to the front in time to take a conspicuous share in the victory of Dunbar. He himself defeated the "Protesters" or "Western Whigs" at Hamilton, on the 1st of December 1650. In July 1651 he was sent into Fife to get in the rear and flank of the Scottish army near Falkirk, and force them to decisive action by cutting off their supplies. This mission, in the course of which Lambert won an important victory at Inverkeithing, was executed with entire success, whereupon Charles II., as Lambert had foreseen, made for England. For the events of the Worcester campaign, which quickly followed, see GREAT REBELLION. Lambert's part in the general plan was carried out most brilliantly, and in the crowning victory of Worcester he commanded the right wing of the English army, and had his horse shot under him. Parliament now conferred on him a grant of lands in Scotland worth £1000 per annum.

In October 1651 Lambert was made a commissioner to settle the affairs of Scotland, and on the death of Ireton he was appointed lord deputy of Ireland (January 1652). He accepted the office with pleasure, and made magnificent preparations; parliament, however, soon afterwards reconstituted the Irish administration and Lambert refused to accept office on the new terms. Henceforward he began to oppose the Rump. In the council of officers he headed the party desiring representative government, as opposed to Harrison who favoured a selected oligarchy of "God-fearing" men, but both hated what remained of the Long parliament, and joined in urging Cromwell to dissolve it by force. At the same time Lambert was consulted by the parliamentary leaders as to the possibility of dismissing Cromwell from his command, and on the 15th of March 1653 Cromwell refused to see him, speaking of him contemptuously as "bottomless Lambert." On the 20th of April, however, Lambert accompanied Cromwell when he dismissed the council of state, on the same day as the forcible expulsion of the parliament. Lambert now favoured the formation of a small executive council, to be followed by an elective parliament whose powers should be limited by a written instrument of government. Being at this time the ruling spirit in the council of state, and the idol of the army, there were some who looked on him as a possible rival of Cromwell for the chief executive power, while the royalists for a short time had hopes of his support. He was invited, with Cromwell, Harrison and Desborough, to sit in the nominated parliament of 1653; and when the unpopularity of that assembly increased, Cromwell drew nearer to Lambert. In November 1653 Lambert presided over a meeting of officers, when the question of constitutional settlement was discussed, and a proposal made for the forcible expulsion of the nominated parliament. On the 1st of December he urged Cromwell to assume the title of king, which the latter refused. On the 12th the parliament resigned its powers into Cromwell's hands, and on the 13th Lambert obtained the consent of the officers to the Instrument of Government (q.v.), in the framing of which he had taken a leading part. He was one of the seven officers nominated to seats in the council created by the Instrument. In the foreign policy of the protectorate he was the most clamorous of those who called for alliance with Spain and war with France in 1653, and he firmly withstood Cromwell's design for an expedition to the West Indies.

In the debates in parliament on the Instrument of Government in 1654 Lambert proposed that the office of protector should be made hereditary, but was defeated by a majority which included members of Cromwell's family. In the parliament of this year, and again in 1656, Lord Lambert, as he was now styled, sat as member for the West Riding. He was one of the major-generals appointed in August 1655 to command the militia in the ten districts into which it was proposed to divide England, and who were to be responsible for the maintenance of order and the administration of the law in their several districts. Lambert took a prominent part in the committee of council which drew up instructions to the major-generals, and he was probably the originator, and certainly the organizer, of the system of police which these officers were to control. Gardiner conjectures that it was through divergence of opinion between the protector and Lambert in connexion with these "instructions" that the estrangement between the two men began. At all events, although Lambert had himself at an earlier date requested Cromwell to take the royal dignity, when the proposal to declare Oliver king was started in parliament (February 1657) he at once declared strongly against it. A hundred officers headed by Fleetwood and Lambert waited on the protector, and begged him to put a stop to the proceedings. Lambert was not convinced by Cromwell's arguments, and their complete estrangement, personal as well as political, followed. On his refusal to take the oath of allegiance to the protector, Lambert was deprived of his commissions, receiving, however, a pension of £2000 a year. He retired to his garden at Wimbledon, and appeared no more in public during Oliver Cromwell's lifetime; but shortly before his death Cromwell sought a reconciliation, and Lambert and his wife visited him at Whitehall.

When Richard Cromwell was proclaimed protector his chief difficulty lay with the army, over which he exercised no effective control. Lambert, though holding no military commission, was the most popular of the old Cromwellian generals with the rank and file of the army, and it was very generally believed that he would instal himself in Oliver's seat of power. Richard's adherents tried to conciliate him, and the royalist leaders made overtures to him, even proposing that Charles II. should marry Lambert's daughter. Lambert at first gave a lukewarm support to Richard Cromwell, and took no part in the intrigues of the officers at Fleetwood's residence, Wallingford House. He was a member of the parliament which met in January 1659, and when it was dissolved in April under compulsion of Fleetwood and Desborough, he was restored to his commands. He headed the deputation to Lenthall in May inviting the return of the Rump, which led to the tame retirement of Richard Cromwell into obscurity; and he was appointed a member of the committee of safety and of the council of state. When the parliament, desirous of controlling the power of the army, withheld from Fleetwood the right of nominating officers, Lambert was named one of a council of seven charged with this duty. The parliament's evident distrust of the soldiers caused much discontent in the army; while the entire absence of real authority encouraged the royalists to make overt attempts to restore Charles II., the most serious of which, under Sir George Booth and the earl of Derby, was crushed by Lambert near Chester on the 19th of August. He promoted a petition from his army that Fleetwood might be made lord-general and himself major-general. The republican party in the House took offence. The Commons (October 12th, 1659) cashiered Lambert and other officers, and retained Fleetwood as chief of a military council under the authority of the speaker. On the next day Lambert caused the doors of the House to be shut and the members kept out. On the 26th a "committee of safety" was appointed, of which he was a member. He was also appointed major-general of all the forces in England and Scotland, Fleetwood being general. Lambert was now sent with a large force to meet Monk, who was in command of the English forces in Scotland, and either negotiate with him or force him to terms. Monk, however, set his army in motion southward. Lambert's army began to melt away, and he was kept in suspense by Monk till his whole army fell from him and he returned to London almost alone. Monk marched to London unopposed. The "excluded" Presbyterian members were recalled. Lambert was sent to the Tower (March 3rd, 1660), from which he escaped a month later. He tried to rekindle the civil war in favour of the Commonwealth, but was speedily recaptured and sent back to the Tower (April 24th). On the Restoration he was exempted from danger of life by an address of both Houses to the king, but the next parliament (1662) charged him with high treason. Thenceforward for the rest of his life Lambert remained in custody in Guernsey. He died in 1694.

Lambert would have left a better name in history if he had been a
cavalier. His genial, ardent and excitable nature, easily raised and
easily depressed, was more akin to the royalist than to the puritan
spirit. Vain and sometimes overbearing, as well as ambitious, he
believed that Cromwell could not stand without him; and when Cromwell
was dead, he imagined himself entitled and fitted to succeed him. Yet
his ambition was less selfish than that of Monk. Lambert is accused of
no ill faith, no want of generosity, no cold and calculating policy.
As a soldier he was far more than a fighting general and possessed
many of the qualities of a great general. He was, moreover, an able
writer and speaker, and an accomplished negotiator and took pleasure
in quiet and domestic pursuits. He learnt his love of gardening from
Lord Fairfax, who was also his master in the art of war. He painted
flowers, besides cultivating them, and incurred the blame of Mrs
Hutchinson by "dressing his flowers in his garden and working at the
needle with his wife and his maids." He made no special profession of
religion; but no imputation is cast upon his moral character by his
detractors. It has been said that he became a Roman Catholic before
his death.

LAMBERT OF HERSFELD (d. c. 1088), German chronicler, was probably a Thuringian by birth and became a monk in the Benedictine abbey of Hersfeld in 1058. As he was ordained priest at Aschaffenburg he is sometimes called Lambert of Aschaffenburg, or Schafnaburg. He made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and visited various monasteries of his order; but he is famous as the author of some _Annales_. From the creation of the world until about 1040 these _Annales_ are a jejune copy of other annals, but from 1040 to their conclusion in 1077 they are interesting for the history of Germany and the papacy. The important events during the earlier part of the reign of the emperor Henry IV., including the visit to Canossa and the battle of Hohenburg, are vividly described. Their tone is hostile to Henry IV. and friendly to the papacy; their Latin style is excellent. The _Annales_ were first published in 1525 and are printed in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica_, Bände iii. and v. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.). Formerly Lambert's reputation for accuracy and impartiality was very high, but both qualities have been somewhat discredited.

Lambert is also regarded as the author of the _Historia
Hersfeldensis_, the extant fragments of which are published in Band v.
of the _Monumenta_ of a _Vita Lulli_, Lullus, archbishop of Mainz,
being the founder of the abbey of Hersfeld; and of a _Carmen de bello
Saxonico_. His _Opera_ have been edited with an introduction by O.
Holder-Egger (Hanover, 1894).

See H. Delbrück, _Über die Glaubwürdigkeit Lamberts von Hersfeld_
(Bonn, 1873); A. Eigenbrodt, _Lampert von Hersfeld und die neuere
Quellenforschung_ (Cassel, 1896); L. von Ranke, _Zur Kritik
frankisch-deutscher Reichsannalisten_ (Berlin, 1854); W. Wattenbach,
_Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen_ Band ii. (Berlin, 1906) and A.
Potthast, _Bibliotheca Historica_ (Berlin, 1896).