Chapter X: Act 1867: every British ship going to other countries where lemon or (1)

lime juice cannot be obtained was required to take sufficient to give
1 oz. to every member of the crew daily. Of this juice it requires
about 13,000 lemons to yield l pipe (108 gallons). Sicilian juice in
November yields about 9 oz. of crude citric acid per gallon, but only
6 oz. if the fruit is collected in April. The crude juice was formerly
exported to England, and was often adulterated with sea-water, but is
now almost entirely replaced by lime juice. A concentrated lemon juice
for the manufacture of citric acid is prepared in considerable
quantities, chiefly at Messina and Palermo, by boiling down the crude
juice in copper vessels over an open fire until its specific gravity
is about 1.239, seven to ten pipes of raw making only one of
concentrated lemon juice. "Lemon juice" for use on shipboard is
prepared also from the fruits of limes and Bergamot oranges. It is
said to be sometimes adulterated with sulphuric acid on arrival in
England.

The lemon used in medicine is described in the British pharmacopoeia
as being the fruit of _Citrus medica_, var. Limonum. The preparations
of lemon peel are of small importance. From the fresh peel is obtained
the _oleum limonis_ (dose ½-3 minims), which has the characters of its
class. It contains a terpene known as citrene or limonene, which also
occurs in orange peel: and citral, the aldehyde of geraniol, which is
the chief constituent of oil of roses. Of much importance is the
_succus limonis_ or lemon juice, 1 oz. of which contains about 40
grains of free citric acid, besides the citrate of potassium (.25%)
and malic acid, free and combined. Ten per cent. of alcohol must be
added to lemon juice if it is to be kept. From it are prepared the
_syrupus limonis_ (dose ½-2 drachms), which consists of sugar, lemon
juice and an alcoholic extract of lemon peel, and also citric acid
itself. Lemon juice is practically impure citric acid (q.v.).

_Essence or Essential Oil of Lemon._--The essential oil contained in
the rind of the lemon occurs in commerce as a distinct article. It is
manufactured chiefly in Sicily, at Reggio in Calabria, and at Mentone
and Nice in France. The small and irregularly shaped fruits are
employed while still green, in which state the yield of oil is greater
than when they are quite ripe. In Sicily and Calabria the oil is
extracted in November and December as follows. A workman cuts three
longitudinal slices off each lemon, leaving a three-cornered central
core having a small portion of rind at the apex and base. These pieces
are then divided transversely and cast on one side, and the strips of
peel are thrown in another place. Next day the pieces of peel are
deprived of their oil by pressing four or five times successively the
outer surface of the peel (zest or flavedo) bent into a convex shape,
against a flat sponge held in the palm of the left hand and wrapped
round the forefinger. The oil vesicles in the rind, which are ruptured
more easily in the fresh fruit than in the state in which lemons are
imported, yield up their oil to the sponge, which when saturated is
squeezed into an earthen vessel furnished with a spout and capable of
holding about three pints. After a time the oil separates from the
watery liquid which accompanies it, and is then decanted. By this
process four hundred fruits yield 9 to 14 oz. of essence. The prisms
of pulp are afterwards expressed to obtain lemon juice, and then
distilled to obtain the small quantity of volatile oil they contain.
At Mentone and Nice a different process is adopted. The lemons are
placed in an _écuelle à piquer_, a shallow basin of pewter about 8½
in. in diameter, having i a lip for pouring on one side and a closed
tube at the bottom about 5 in. long and 1 in. in diameter. A number of
stout brass pins stand up about half an inch from the bottom of the
vessel. The workman rubs a lemon over these pins, which rupture the
oil vesicles, and the oil collects in the tube, which when it becomes
full is emptied into another vessel that it may separate from the
aqueous liquid mixed with it. When filtered it is known as _Essence de
citron au zeste_, or, in the English market, as perfumers' essence of
lemon, inferior qualities being distinguished as druggists' essence of
lemon. An additional product is obtained by immersing the scarified
lemons in warm water and separating the oil which floats off. _Essence
de citron distillée_ is obtained by rubbing the surface of fresh
lemons (or of those which have been submitted to the action of the
_écuelle à piquer_) on a coarse grater of tinned iron, and distilling
the grated peel. The oil so obtained is colourless, and of inferior
fragrance, and is sold at a lower price, while that obtained by the
cold processes has a yellow colour and powerful odour.

Essence of lemon is chiefly brought from Messina and Palermo packed in
copper bottles holding 25 to 50 kilogrammes or more, and sometimes in
tinned bottles of smaller size. It is said to be rarely found in a
state of purity in commerce, almost all that comes into the market
being diluted with the cheaper distilled oil. This fact may be
considered as proved by the price at which the essence of lemon is
sold in England, this being less than it costs the manufacturer to
make it. When long kept the essence deposits a white greasy
stearoptene, apparently identical with the bergaptene obtained from
the essential oil of the Bergamot orange. The chief constituent of oil
of lemon is the terpene, C10H16, boiling at 348°.8 Fahr., which, like
oil of turpentine, readily yields crystals of terpin, C10H163OH2, but
differs in yielding the crystalline compound, C10H16 + 2Cl, oil of
turpentine forming one having the formula C10H16 + HCl. Oil of lemons
also contains, according to Tilden, another hydrocarbon, C10H16,
boiling at 3.20° Fahr., a small amount of _cymene_, and a compound
acetic ether, C2H3O·C10H17O. The natural essence of lemon not being
wholly soluble in rectified spirit of wine, an essence for culinary
purposes is sometimes prepared by digesting 6 oz of lemon peel in one
pint of pure alcohol of 95%, and, when the rind has become brittle,
which takes place in about two and a half hours, powdering it and
percolating the alcohol through it. This article is known as "lemon
flavour."

The name lemon is also applied to some other fruits. The Java lemon is the fruit of _Citrus javanica_, the pear lemon of a variety of _C. Limetta_, and the pearl lemon of _C. margarita_. The fruit of a passion-flower, _Passiflora laurifolia_, is sometimes known as the water-lemon, and that of a Berberidaceous plant, _Podophyllum peltatum_, as the wild lemon. In France and Germany the lemon is known as the citron, and hence much confusion arises concerning the fruits referred to in different works. The essential oil known as oil of cedrat is usually a factitious article instead of being prepared, as its name implies, from the citron (Fr. _cédratier_). An essential oil is also prepared from _C. Lumia_, at Squillace in Calabria, and has an odour like that of Bergamot but less powerful.

1, Flowering shoot.
2, Fruit.
3, Same cut transversely.
4, Seed.
5, Seed cut lengthwise.
6, Seed cut transversely.
7, Superficial view of portion of rind showing oil glands.]

The sour lime is _Citrus acida_, generally regarded as a var. (_acida_) of _C. medica_. It is a native of India, ascending to about 4000 ft. in the mountains, and occurring as a small, much-branched thorny bush. The small flowers are white or tinged with pink on the outside; the fruit is small and generally round, with a thin, light green or lemon-yellow bitter rind, and a very sour, somewhat bitter juicy pulp. It is extensively cultivated throughout the West Indies, especially in Dominica, Montserrat and Jamaica, the approximate annual value of the exports from these islands being respectively £45,000, £6000 and £6000. The plants are grown from seed in nurseries and planted out about 200 to the acre. They begin to bear from about the third year, but full crops are not produced until the trees are six or seven years old. The ripe yellow fruit is gathered as it falls. The fruit is bruised by hand in a funnel-shaped vessel known as an _écuelle_, with a hollow stem; by rolling the fruit on a number of points on the side of the funnel the oil cells in the rind are broken and the oil collects in the hollow stem--this is the essential oil or essence of limes. The fruits are then taken to the mill, sorted, washed and passed through rollers and exposed to two squeezings. Two-thirds of the juice is expressed by the first squeezing, is strained at once, done up in puncheons and exported as raw juice. The product of the second squeezing, together with the juice extracted by a subsequent squeezing in a press, is strained and evaporated down to make concentrated juice; ten gallons of the raw juice yield one gallon of the concentrated juice. The raw juice is used for preparations of lime juice cordial, the concentrated for manufactures of citric acid.

On some estates citrate of lime is now manufactured in place of
concentrated acid. Distilled oil of limes is prepared by distilling
the juice, but its value is low in comparison with the expressed oil
obtained by hand as described above. Green limes and pickled limes
preserved in brine are largely exported to the United States, and more
recently green limes have been exported to the United Kingdom.
Limalade or preserved limes is an excellent substitute for marmalade.
A spineless form of the lime appeared as a sport in Dominica in 1892,
and is now grown there and elsewhere on a commercial scale. A form
with seedless fruits has also recently been obtained in Dominica and
Trinidad independently. The young leaves of the lime are used for
perfuming the water in finger-glasses, a few being placed in the water
and bruised before use.

LEMONNIER, ANTOINE LOUIS CAMILLE (1844- ), Belgian poet, was born at Ixelles, Brussels, on the 24th of March 1844. He studied law, and then took a clerkship in a government office, which he resigned after three years. Lemonnier inherited Flemish blood from both parents, and with it the animal force and pictorial energy of the Flemish temperament. He published a _Salon de Bruxelles_ in 1863, and again in 1866. His early friendships were chiefly with artists; and he wrote art criticisms with recognized discernment. Taking a house in the hills near Namur, he devoted himself to sport, and developed the intimate sympathy with nature which informs his best work. _Nos Flamands_ (1869) and _Croquis d'automne_ (1870) date from this time. _Paris-Berlin_ (1870), a pamphlet pleading the cause of France, and full of the author's horror of war, had a great success. His capacity as a novelist, in the fresh, humorous description of peasant life, was revealed in _Un Coin de village_ (1879). In _Un Mâle_ (1881) he achieved a different kind of success. It deals with the amours of a poacher and a farmer's daughter, with the forest as a background. Cachaprès, the poacher, seems the very embodiment of the wild life around him. The rejection of _Un Mâle_ by the judges for the quinquennial prize of literature in 1883 made Lemonnier the centre of a school, inaugurated at a banquet given in his honour on the 27th of May 1883. _Le Mort_ (1882), which describes the remorse of two peasants for a murder they have committed, is a masterpiece in its vivid representation of terror. It was remodelled as a tragedy in five acts (Paris, 1899) by its author. _Ceux de la glèbe_ (1889), dedicated to the "children of the soil," was written in 1885. He turned aside from local subjects for some time to produce a series of psychological novels, books of art criticism, &c., of considerable value, but assimilating more closely to French contemporary literature. The most striking of his later novels are: _L'Hystérique_ (1885); _Happe-chair_ (1886), often compared with Zola's _Germinal_; _Le Possédé_ (1890); _La Fin des bourgeois_ (1892); _L'Arche, journal d'une maman_ (1894), a quiet book, quite different from his usual work; _La Faute de Mme Charvet_ (1895); _L'Homme en amour_ (1897); and, with a return to Flemish subjects, _Le Vent dans les moulins_ (1901); _Petit Homme de Dieu_ (1902), and _Comme va le ruisseau_ (1903). In 1888 Lemonnier was prosecuted in Paris for offending against public morals by a story in _Gil Blas_, and was condemned to a fine. In a later prosecution at Brussels he was defended by Edmond Picard, and acquitted; and he was arraigned for a third time, at Bruges, for his _Homme en amour_, but again acquitted. He represents his own case in _Les Deux consciences_ (1902), _L'Île vierge_ (1897) was the first of a trilogy to be called _La Légende de la vie_, which was to trace, under the fortunes of the hero, the pilgrimage of man through sorrow and sacrifice to the conception of the divinity within him. In _Adam et Ève_ (1899), and _Au Coeur frais de la forêt_ (1900), he preached the return to nature as the salvation not only of the individual but of the community. Among his other more important works are _G. Courbet, et ses oeuvres_ (1878); _L'Histoire des Beaux-Arts en Belgique_ 1830-1887 (1887); _En Allemagne_ (1888), dealing especially with the Pinakothek at Munich; _La Belgique_ (1888), an elaborate descriptive work with many illustrations; _La Vie belge_ (1905); and _Alfred Stevens et son oeuvre_ (1906).

Lemonnier spent much time in Paris, and was one of the early contributors to the _Mercure de France_. He began to write at a time when Belgian letters lacked style; and with much toil, and some initial extravagances, he created a medium for the expression of his ideas. He explained something of the process in a preface contributed to Gustave Abel's _Labeur de la prose_ (1902). His prose is magnificent and sonorous, but abounds in neologisms and strange metaphors.

See the _Revue de Belgique_ (15th February 1903), which contains the
syllabus of a series of lectures on Lemonnier by Edmond Picard, a
bibliography of his works, and appreciations by various writers.

LEMONNIER, PIERRE CHARLES (1715-1799), French astronomer, was born on the 23rd of November 1715 in Paris, where his father was professor of philosophy at the collège d'Harcourt. His first recorded observation was made before he was sixteen, and the presentation of an elaborate lunar map procured for him admission to the Academy, on the 21st of April 1736, at the early age of twenty. He was chosen in the same year to accompany P. L. Maupertuis and Alexis Clairault on their geodetical expedition to Lapland. In 1738, shortly after his return, he explained, in a memoir read before the Academy, the advantages of J. Flamsteed's mode of determining right ascensions. His persistent recommendation, in fact, of English methods and instruments contributed effectively to the reform of French practical astronomy, and constituted the most eminent of his services to science. He corresponded with J. Bradley, was the first to represent the effects of nutation in the solar tables, and introduced, in 1741, the use of the transit-instrument at the Paris observatory. He visited England in 1748, and, in company with the earl of Morton and James Short the optician, continued his journey to Scotland, where he observed the annular eclipse of July 25. The liberality of Louis XV., in whose favour he stood high, furnished him with the means of procuring the best instruments, many of them by English makers. Amongst the fruits of his industry may be mentioned a laborious investigation of the disturbances of Jupiter by Saturn, the results of which were employed and confirmed by L. Euler in his prize essay of 1748; a series of lunar observations extending over fifty years; some interesting researches in terrestrial magnetism and atmospheric electricity, in the latter of which he detected a regular diurnal period; and the determination of the places of a great number of stars, including twelve separate observations of Uranus, between 1765 and its discovery as a planet. In his lectures at the collège de France he first publicly expounded the analytical theory of gravitation, and his timely patronage secured the services of J. J. Lalande for astronomy. His temper was irritable, and his hasty utterances exposed him to retorts which he did not readily forgive. Against Lalande, owing to some trifling pique, he closed his doors "during an entire revolution of the moon's nodes." His career was arrested by paralysis late in 1791, and a repetition of the stroke terminated his life. He died at Héril near Bayeux on the 31st of May 1799. By his marriage with Mademoiselle de Cussy he left three daughters, one of whom became the wife of J. L. Lagrange. He was admitted in 1739 to the Royal Society, and was one of the one hundred and forty-four original members of the Institute.

He wrote _Histoire céleste_ (1741); _Théorie des comètes_ (1743), a
translation, with additions of Hailey's _Synopsis; Institutions
astronomiques_ (1746), an improved translation of J. Keill's
text-book; _Nouveau zodiaque_ (1755); _Observations de la lune, du
soleil, et des étoiles fixes_ (1751-1775); _Lois du magnétisme_
(1776-1778), &c.

See J. J. Lalande, _Bibl. astr._, p. 819 (also in the _Journal des
savants_ for 1801); F. X. von Zach, _Allgemeine geog. Ephemeriden_
iii. 625; J. S. Bailly, _Hist. de l'astr. moderne_, iii.; J. B. J.
Delambre. _Hist. de l'astr. au XVIII^e. siècle_, p. 179; J. Mädler,
_Geschichte der Himmelskunde_, ii. 6; R. Wolf, _Geschichte der
Astronomie_, p. 480.

LEMOYNE, JEAN BAPTISTE (1704-1778), French sculptor, was the pupil of his father, Jean Louis Lemoyne, and of Robert le Lorrain. He was a great figure in his day, around whose modest and kindly personality there waged opposing storms of denunciation and applause. Although his disregard of the classic tradition and of the essentials of dignified sculpture, as well as his lack of firmness and of intellectual grasp of the larger principles of his art, lay him open to stringent criticism, de Clarac's charge that he had delivered a mortal blow at sculpture is altogether exaggerated. Lemoyne's more important works have for the most part been destroyed or have disappeared. The equestrian statue of "Louis XV." for the military school, and the composition of "Mignard's daughter, Mme Feuquières, kneeling before her father's bust" (which bust was from the hand of Coysevox) were subjected to the violence by which Bouchardon's equestrian monument of Louis XIV. (q.v.) was destroyed. The panels only have been preserved. In his busts evidence of his riotous and florid imagination to a great extent disappears, and we have a remarkable series of important portraits, of which those of women are perhaps the best. Among Lemoyne's leading achievements in this class are "Fontenelle" (at Versailles), "Voltaire," "Latour" (all of 1748), "Duc de la Valière" (Versailles), "Comte de St Florentin," and "Crébillon" (Dijon Museum); "Mlle Chiron" and "Mlle Dangeville," both produced in 1761 and both at the Théâtre Français in Paris, and "Mme de Pompadour," the work of the same year. Of the Pompadour he also executed a statue in the costume of a nymph, very delicate and playful in its air of grace. Lemoyne was perhaps most successful in his training of pupils, one of the leaders of whom was Falconnet.

LEMPRIÈRE, JOHN (c. 1765-1824), English classical scholar, was born in Jersey, and educated at Winchester and Pembroke College, Oxford. He is chiefly known for his _Bibliotheca Classica_ or _Classical Dictionary_ (1788), which, edited by various later scholars, long remained a readable if not very trustworthy reference book in mythology and classical history. In 1792, after holding other scholastic posts, he was appointed to the head-mastership of Abingdon grammar school, and later became the vicar of that parish. While occupying this living, he published a _Universal Biography of Eminent Persons in all Ages and Countries_ (1808). In 1809 he succeeded to the head-mastership of Exeter free grammar school. On retiring from this, in consequence of a disagreement with the trustees, he was given the living of Meeth in Devonshire, which, together with that of Newton Petrock, he held till his death in London on the 1st of February 1824.

LEMUR (from Lat. _lemures_, "ghosts"), the name applied by Linnaeus to certain peculiar Malagasy representatives of the order PRIMATES (q.v.) which do not come under the designation of either monkeys or apes, and, with allied animals from the same island and tropical Asia and Africa, constitute the suborder _Prosimiae_, or _Lemuroidea_, the characteristics of which are given in the article just mentioned. The typical lemurs include species like _Lemur mongoz_ and _L. catta_, but the English name "lemur" is often taken to include all the members of the suborder, although the aberrant forms are often conveniently termed "lemuroids." All the Malagasy lemurs, which agree in the structure of the internal ear, are now included in the family _Lemuridae_, confined to Madagascar and the Comoro Islands, which comprises the great majority of the group. The other families are the _Nycticebidae_, common to tropical Asia and Africa, and the _Tarsiidae_, restricted to the Malay countries. In the more typical _Lemuridae_ there are two pairs of upper incisor teeth, separated by a gap in the middle line; the premolars may be either two or three, but the molars, as in the lower jaw, are always three on each side. In the lower jaw the incisors and canines are directed straight forwards, and are of small size and nearly similar form; the function of the canine being discharged by the first premolar, which is larger than the other teeth of the same series. With the exception of the second toe of the hind-foot, the digits have well-formed, flattened nails as in the majority of monkeys. In the members of the typical genus _Lemur_, as well as in the allied _Hapalemur_ and _Lepidolemur_, none of the toes or fingers are connected by webs, and all have the hind-limbs of moderate length, and the tail long. The maximum number of teeth is 36, there being typically two pairs of incisors and three of premolars in each jaw. In habits some of the species are nocturnal and others diurnal; but all subsist on a mixed diet, which includes birds, reptiles, eggs, insects and fruits. Most are arboreal, but the ring-tailed lemur (_L. catta_) often dwells among rocks. The species of the genus _Lemur_ are diurnal, and may be recognized by the length of the muzzle, and the large tufted ears. In some cases, as in the black lemur (_L. macaco_) the two sexes are differently coloured; but in others, especially the ruffed lemur (_L. varius_), there is much individual variation in this respect, scarcely any two being alike. The gentle lemurs (_Hapalemur_) have a rounder head, with smaller ears and a shorter muzzle, and also a bare patch covered with spines on the fore-arm. The sportive lemurs (_Lepidolemur_) are smaller than the typical species of _Lemur_, and the adults generally lose their upper incisors. The head is short and conical, the ears large, round and mostly bare, and the tail shorter than the body. Like the gentle lemurs they are nocturnal. (See AVAHI, AYE-AYE, GALAGO, INDRI, LORIS, POTTO, SIFAKA and TARSIER.) (R. L.*)

LENA, a river of Siberia, rising in the Baikal Mountains, on the W. side of Lake Baikal, in 54° 10´ N. and 107° 55´ E. Wheeling round by the S., it describes a semicircle, then flows N.N.E. and N.E., being joined by the Kirenga and the Vitim, both from the right; from 113° E. it flows E.N.E as far as Yakutsk (62° N., 127° 40´ E.), where it enters the lowlands, after being joined by the Olekma, also from the right. From Yakutsk it goes N. until joined by its right-hand affluent the Aldan, which deflects it to the north-west; then, after receiving its most important left-hand tributary, the Vilyui, it makes its way nearly due N. to the Nordenskjöld Sea, a division of the Arctic, disemboguing S.W. of the New Siberian Islands by a delta 10,800 sq. m. in area, and traversed by seven principal branches, the most important being Bylov, farthest east. The total length of the river is estimated at 2860 m. The delta arms sometimes remain blocked with ice the whole year round. At Yakutsk navigation is generally practicable from the middle of May to the end of October, and at Kirensk, at the confluence of the Lena and the Kirenga, from the beginning of May to about the same time. Between these two towns there is during the season regular steamboat communication. The area of the river basin is calculated at 895,500 sq. m. Gold is washed out of the sands of the Vitim and the Olekma, and tusks of the mammoth are dug out of the delta.

See G. W. Melville, _In the Lena Delta_ (1885).

LE NAIN, the name of three brothers, LOUIS, ANTOINE and MATHIEU, who occupy a peculiar position in the history of French art. Although they figure amongst the original members of the French Academy, their works show no trace of the influences which prevailed when that body was founded. Their sober execution and choice of colour recall characteristics of the Spanish school, and when the world of Paris was busy with mythological allegories, and the "heroic deeds" of the king, the three Le Nain devoted themselves chiefly to subjects of humble life such as "Boys Playing Cards," "The Forge," or "The Peasants' Meal." These three paintings are now in the Louvre; various others may be found in local collections, and some fine drawings may be seen in the British Museum; but the Le Nain signature is rare, and is never accompanied by initials which might enable us to distinguish the work of the brothers. Their lives are lost in obscurity; all that can be affirmed is that they were born at Laon in Picardy towards the close of the 16th century. About 1629 they went to Paris; in 1648 the three brothers were received into the Academy, and in the same year both Antoine and Louis died. Mathieu lived on till August 1677; he bore the title of chevalier, and painted many portraits. Mary of Medici and Mazarin were amongst his sitters, but these works seem to have disappeared.

See Champfleury, _Essai sur la vie et l'oeuvre des Le Nain_ (1850),
and _Catalogue des tableaux des Le Nain_ (1861).

LENAU, NIKOLAUS, the pseudonym of NIKOLAUS FRANZ NIEMBSCH VON STREHLENAU (1802-1850), Austrian poet, who was born at Csatád near Temesvar in Hungary, on the 15th of August 1802. His father, a government official, died at Budapest in 1807, leaving his children to the care of an affectionate, but jealous and somewhat hysterical, mother, who in 1811 married again. In 1819 the boy went to the university of Vienna; he subsequently studied Hungarian law at Pressburg and then spent the best part of four years in qualifying himself in medicine. But he was unable to settle down to any profession. He had early begun to write verses; and the disposition to sentimental melancholy acquired from his mother, stimulated by love disappointments and by the prevailing fashion of the romantic school of poetry, settled into gloom after his mother's death in 1829. Soon afterwards a legacy from his grandmother enabled him to devote himself wholly to poetry. His first published poems appeared in 1827, in J. G. Seidl's _Aurora_. In 1831 he went to Stuttgart, where he published a volume of _Gedichte_ (1832) dedicated to the Swabian poet Gustav Schwab. Here he also made the acquaintance of Uhland, Justinus Kerner, Karl Mayer[1] and others; but his restless spirit longed for change, and he determined to seek for peace and freedom in America. In October 1832 he landed at Baltimore and settled on a homestead in Ohio. But the reality of life in "the primeval forest" fell lamentably short of the ideal he had pictured; he disliked the Americans with their eternal "English lisping of dollars" (_englisches Talergelispel_); and in 1833 he returned to Germany, where the appreciation of his first volume of poems revived his spirits. From now on he lived partly in Stuttgart and partly in Vienna. In 1836 appeared his _Faust_, in which he laid bare his own soul to the world; in 1837, _Savonarola_, an epic in which freedom from political and intellectual tyranny is insisted upon as essential to Christianity. In 1838 appeared his _Neuere Gedichte_, which prove that _Savonarola_ had been but the result of a passing exaltation. Of these new poems, some of the finest were inspired by his hopeless passion for Sophie von Löwenthal, the wife of a friend, whose acquaintance he had made in 1833 and who "understood him as no other." In 1842 appeared _Die Albigenser_, and in 1844 he began writing his _Don Juan_, a fragment of which was published after his death. Soon afterwards his never well-balanced mind began to show signs of aberration, and in October 1844 he was placed under restraint. He died in the asylum at Oberdöbling near Vienna on the 22nd of August 1850. Lenau's fame rests mainly upon his shorter poems; even his epics are essentially lyric in quality. He is the greatest modern lyric poet of Austria, and the typical representative in German literature of that pessimistic _Weltschmerz_ which, beginning with Byron, reached its culmination in the poetry of Leopardi.

Lenau's _Sämtliche Werke_ were published in 4 vols. by A. Grün (1855);
but there are several more modern editions, as those by M. Koch in
Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_, vols. 154-155 (1888), and by
E. Castle (2 vols., 1900). See A. Schurz, _Lenaus Leben, grösstenteils
aus des Dichters eigenen Briefen_ (1855); L. A. Frankl, _Zu Lenaus
Biographie_ (1854, 2nd ed., 1885); A. Marchand, _Les Poètes lyriques
de l'Autriche_ (1881); L. A. Frankl, _Lenaus Tagebuch und Briefe an
Sophie Löwenthal_ (1891); A. Schlossar, _Lenaus Briefe an die Familie
Reinbeck_ (1896); L. Roustan, _Lenau et son temps_ (1898); E. Castle,
_Lenau und die Familie Löwenthal_ (1906).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Karl Friedrich Hartmann Mayer (1786-1870), poet, and biographer
of Uhland, was by profession a lawyer and government official in
Württemberg.

LENBACH, FRANZ VON (1836-1904), German painter, was born at Schrobenhausen, in Bavaria, on the 13th of December 1836. His father was a mason, and the boy was intended to follow his father's trade or be a builder. With this view he was sent to school at Landsberg, and then to the polytechnic at Augsburg. But after seeing Hofner, the animal painter, executing some studies, he made various attempts at painting, which his father's orders interrupted. However, when he had seen the galleries of Augsburg and Munich, he finally obtained his father's permission to become an artist, and worked for a short time in the studio of Gräfle, the painter; after this he devoted much time to copying. Thus he was already accomplished in technique when he became the pupil of Piloty, with whom he set out for Italy in 1858. A few interesting works remain as the outcome of this first journey--"A Peasant seeking Shelter from Bad Weather" (1855), "The Goatherd" (1860, in the Schack Gallery, Munich), and "The Arch of Titus" (in the Palfy collection, Budapest). On returning to Munich, he was at once called to Weimar to take the appointment of professor at the Academy. But he did not hold it long, having made the acquaintance of Count Schack, who commissioned a great number of copies for his collection. Lenbach returned to Italy the same year, and there copied many famous pictures. He set out in 1867 for Spain, where he copied not only the famous pictures by Velasquez in the Prado, but also some landscapes in the museums of Granada and the Alhambra (1868). In the previous year he had exhibited at the great exhibition at Paris several portraits, one of which took a third-class medal. Thereafter he exhibited frequently both at Munich and at Vienna, and in 1900 at the Paris exhibition was awarded a Grand Prix for painting. Lenbach, who died in 1904, painted many of the most remarkable personages of his time.

See Berlepsch, "Lenbach," _Velhagen und Klasings Monatshefte_ (1891);
Bégouen, _Les Portraits de Lenbach à l'exposition de Munich_ (1899);
K. Knackfuss, _Lenbach_, and _Franz von Lenbach Bildnisse_ (1900).

LENCLOS, NINON DE (1615-1705), the daughter of a gentleman of good position in Touraine, was born in Paris in November 1615. Her long and eventful life divides into two periods, during the former of which she was the typical Frenchwoman of the gayest and most licentious society of the 17th century, during the latter the recognized leader of the fashion in Paris, and the friend of wits and poets. All that can be pleaded in defence of her earlier life is that she had been educated by her father in epicurean and sensual beliefs, and that she retained throughout the frank demeanour, and disregard of money, which won from Saint Évremond the remark that she was an _honnête homme_. She had a succession of distinguished lovers, among them being Gaspard de Coligny, the marquis d'Éstrées, La Rochefoucauld, Condé and Saint Évremond. Queen Christina of Sweden visited her, and Anne of Austria was powerless against her. After she had continued her career for a preposterous length of time, she settled down to the social leadership of Paris. Among her friends she counted Mme de la Sablière, Mme de la Fayette and Mme de Maintenon. It became the fashion for young men as well as old to throng round her, and the best of all introductions for a young man who wished to make a figure in society was an introduction to Mlle de Lenclos. Her long friendship with Saint Évremond must be briefly noticed. They were of the same age, and had been lovers in their youth, and throughout his long exile the wit seems to have kept a kind remembrance of her. The few really authentic letters of Ninon are those addressed to her old friend, and the letters of both in the last few years of their equally long lives are exceptionally touching, and unique in the polite compliments with which they try to keep off old age. If Ninon owes part of her posthumous fame to Saint Évremond, she owes at least as much to Voltaire, who was presented to her as a promising boy poet by the abbé de Chateauneuf. To him she left 2000 francs to buy books, and his letter on her was the chief authority of many subsequent biographers. Her personal appearance is, according to Sainte-Beuve, best described in _Clélie_, a novel by Mlle de Scudéry, in which she figures as Clarisse. Her distinguishing characteristic was neither beauty nor wit, but high spirits and perfect evenness of temperament.

The letters of Ninon published after her death were, according to
Voltaire, all spurious, and the only authentic ones are those to Saint
Évremond, which can be best studied in Dauxmesnil's edition of _Saint
Évremond_, and his notice on her. Sainte-Beuve has an interesting
notice of these letters in the _Causeries du Lundi_, vol. iv. The
_Correspondance authentique_ was edited by E. Colombey in 1886. See
also Helen K. Hayes, _The Real Ninon de l'Enclos_ (1908); and Mary C.
Rowsell, _Ninon de l'Enclos and her century_ (1910).

LENFANT, JACQUES (1661-1728), French Protestant divine, was born at Bazoche in La Beauce on the 13th of April 1661, son of Paul Lenfant, Protestant pastor at Bazoche and afterwards at Châtillon-sur-Loing until the revocation of the edict of Nantes, when he removed to Cassel. After studying at Saumur and Geneva, Lenfant completed his theological course at Heidelberg, where in 1684 he was ordained minister of the French Protestant church, and appointed chaplain to the dowager electress palatine. When the French invaded the Palatinate in 1688 Lenfant withdrew to Berlin, as in a recent book he had vigorously attacked the Jesuits. Here in 1689 he was again appointed one of the ministers of the French Protestant church; this office he continued to hold until his death, ultimately adding to it that of chaplain to the king, with the dignity of _Consistorialrath_. He visited Holland and England in 1707, preached before Queen Anne, and, it is said, was invited to become one of her chaplains. He was the author of many works, chiefly on church history. In search of materials he visited Helmstädt in 1712, and Leipzig in 1715 and 1725. He died at Berlin on the 7th of August 1728.

An exhaustive catalogue of his publications, thirty-two in all, will
be found in J. G. de Chauffepié's _Dictionnaire_. See also E. and S.
Haag's _France Protestante_. He is now best known by his _Histoire du
concile de Constance_ (Amsterdam, 1714; 2nd ed., 1728; English trans.,
1730). It is of course largely dependent upon the laborious work of
Hermann von der Hardt (1660-1746), but has literary merits peculiar to
itself, and has been praised on all sides for its fairness. It was
followed by _Histoire du concile de Pise_ (1724), and (posthumously)
by _Histoire de la guerre des Hussites et du concile de Basle_
(Amsterdam, 1731; German translation, Vienna, 1783-1784). Lenfant was
one of the chief promoters of the _Bibliothèque Germanique_, begun in
1720; and he was associated with Isaac Beausobre (1659-1738) in the
preparation of the new French translation of the New Testament with
original notes, published at Amsterdam in 1718.

LENKORAN, a town in Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of Baku, stands on the Caspian Sea, at the mouth of a small stream of its own name, and close to a large lagoon. The lighthouse stands in 38° 45´ 38´´ N. and 48° 50´ 18´´ E. Taken by storm on New Year's day 1813 by the Russians, Lenkoran was in the same year formally surrendered by Persia to Russia by the treaty of Gulistan, along with the khanate of Talysh, of which it was the capital. Pop. (1867) 15,933, (1897) 8768. The fort has been dismantled; and in trade the town is outstripped by Astara, the customs station on the Persian frontier.

The DISTRICT OF LENKORAN (2117 sq. m.) is a thickly wooded mountainous region, shut off from the Persian plateau by the Talysh range (7000-8000 ft. high), and with a narrow marshy strip along the coast. The climate is exceptionally moist and warm (annual rainfall 52.79 in; mean temperature in summer 75° F., in winter 40°), and fosters the growth of even Indian species of vegetation. The iron tree (_Parrotia persica_), the silk acacia, _Carpinus betulus_, _Quercus iberica_, the box tree and the walnut flourish freely, as well as the sumach, the pomegranate, and the _Gleditschia caspica_. The Bengal tiger is not unfrequently met with, and wild boars are abundant. Of the 131,361 inhabitants in 1897 the Talyshes (35,000) form the aboriginal element, belonging to the Iranian family, and speaking an independently developed language closely related to Persian. They are of middle height and dark complexion, with generally straight nose, small round skull, small sharp chin and large full eyes, which are expressive, however, rather of cunning than intelligence. They live exclusively on rice. In the northern half of the district the Tatar element predominates (40,000) and there are a number of villages occupied by Russian Raskolniks (Nonconformists). Agriculture, bee-keeping, silkworm-rearing and fishing are the principal occupations.

LENNEP, JACOB VAN (1802-1868), Dutch poet and novelist, was born on the 24th of March 1802 at Amsterdam, where his father, David Jacob van Lennep (1774-1853), a scholar and poet, was professor of eloquence and the classical languages in the Athenaeum. Lennep took the degree of doctor of laws at Leiden, and then settled as an advocate in Amsterdam. His first poetical efforts had been translations from Byron, of whom he was an ardent admirer, and in 1826 he published a collection of original _Academische Idyllen_, which had some success. He first attained genuine popularity by the _Nederlandsche Legenden_ (2 vols., 1828) which reproduced, after the manner of Sir Walter Scott, some of the more stirring incidents in the early history of his fatherland. His fame was further raised by his patriotic songs at the time of the Belgian revolt, and by his comedies _Het Dorp aan de Grenzen_ (1830) and _Het Dorp over de Grenzen_ (1831), which also had reference to the political events of 1830. In 1833 he broke new ground with the publication of _De Pleegzoon (The Adopted Son)_, the first of a series of historical romances in prose, which have acquired for him in Holland a position somewhat analogous to that of Sir Walter Scott in Great Britain. The series included _De Roos van Dekama_ (2 vols., 1836), _Onze Voorouders_ (5 vols., 1838), _De Lotgevallen van Ferdinand Huyck_ (2 vols., 1840), _Elizabeth Musch_ (3 vols., 1850), and _De Lotgevallen van Klaasje Zevenster_ (5 vols., 1865), several of which have been translated into German and French, and two--_The Rose of Dekama_ (1847) and _The Adopted Son_ (New York, 1847)--into English. His Dutch history for young people (_Voornaamste Geschiedenissen van Noord-Nederland aan mijne Kindern verhaald_, 4 vols., 1845) is attractively written. Apart from the two comedies already mentioned, Lennep was an indefatigable journalist and literary critic, the author of numerous dramatic pieces, and of an excellent edition of Vondel's works. For some years Lennep held a judicial appointment, and from 1853 to 1856 he was a member of the second chamber, in which he voted with the conservative party. He died at Oosterbeek near Arnheim on the 25th of August 1868.

There is a collective edition of his _Poetische Werken_ (13 vols.,
1859-1872), and also of his _Romantische Werken_ (23 vols.,
1855-1872). See also a bibliography by P. Knoll (1869); and Jan ten
Brink, _Geschiedenis der Noord-Nederlandsche Letteren in de XIX^e
Eeuw_ (No. iii.).

LENNEP, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, 18 m. E. of Düsseldorf, and 9 m. S. of Barmen by rail, at a height of 1000 ft. above the level of the sea. Pop. (1905) 10,323. It lies in the heart of one of the busiest industrial districts in Germany, and carries on important manufactures of the finer kinds of cloth, wool, yarn and felt, and also of iron and steel goods. It has an Evangelical and a Protestant church, a modern school and a well-equipped hospital. Lennep, which was the residence of the counts of Berg from 1226 to 1300, owes the foundation of its prosperity to an influx of Cologne weavers during the 14th century.

LENNOX, a name given to a large district in Dumbartonshire and Stirlingshire, which was erected into an earldom in the latter half of the 12th century. It embraced the ancient sheriffdom of Dumbarton and nineteen parishes with the whole of the lands round Loch Lomond, formerly Loch Leven, and the river of that name which glides into the estuary of the Clyde at the ancient castle of Dumbarton.

On this river Leven, at Balloch, was the seat of Alwin, first earl of Lennox. It is probable that he was of Celtic descent, but the records are silent as to his part in history; that he was earl at all is only proved from the charters of his son, another Alwin, and he died some time before 1217. The second Alwin was father of ten sons, one of whom founded the clan Macfarlane, famous in the annals of the district, while another was ancestor of Walter of Farlane, who married the heiress of the 6th earl of Lennox. Maldouen, the 3rd earl, eldest of the sons of Alwin the younger, is an historical personage; he was a witness to the treaty between Alexander II., king of Scotland, and his brother-in-law the English king Henry III., at Newcastle in 1237, concerning the much disputed northern counties of England. His grandson, Malcolm, successor to the title, swore fealty to Edward I. in 1296; it was apparently his son, another Malcolm, the 5th earl, who was summoned by Edward to parliament and entrusted with the important post of guarding the fords of the river Forth. But the 5th earl soon after gave his services to the party of Bruce, the cause of that family having been embraced by his father as early as 1292. As a result the English king bestowed the earldom on Sir John Menteith, who was holding it in 1307 while the real earl was with King Robert Bruce in his wanderings in the Lennox country. For his services he was rewarded with a renewal of the earldom and the keeping of Dumbarton Castle; he fell fighting for his country at Halidon Hill in 1333. His son Donald, the 6th earl, an adherent of King David II., left a daughter, Margaret, countess of Lennox, who was married to her kinsman the above-mentioned Walter of Farlane, nearest heir male of the Lennox family.

In 1392, on the marriage of their grand-daughter Isabella, eldest daughter of Duncan, 8th earl, with Sir Murdoch Stewart, afterwards duke of Albany, the earldom was resigned into the hands of the king, who re-granted it to Earl Duncan, with remainder to the heirs male of his body, with remainder to Murdoch and Isabella and the heirs of their bodies begotten between them, with eventual remainder to Earl Duncan's nearest and lawful heirs. In 1424, when Murdoch, then duke of Albany, succeeded in ransoming the poet king James I. from his long English captivity, the aged Earl Duncan went with the Scottish party to Durham. The next year, however, he suffered the fate of Albany, being executed perhaps for no other reason than that he was his father-in-law. The earldom was not forfeited, and the widowed duchess of Albany, now also countess of Lennox, lived secure in her island castle of Inchmurrin on Loch Lomond until her death. Of her four sons, none of whom left legitimate issue, the eldest died in 1421, the two next suffered their father's fate at Stirling, while the youngest had to flee for his life to Ireland. Her daughter Isobel appears to have been the wife of Sir Walter Buchanan of that ilk.

It was from Elizabeth, sister of the countess, that the next holders of the title descended. She was married to Sir John Stewart of Darnley (distinguished in the military history of France as seigneur d'Aubigny), whose immediate ancestor was brother of James, 5th high steward of Scotland. Their grandson, another Sir John Stewart, created a lord of parliament as Lord Darnley, was served heir to his great-grandfather Duncan, earl of Lennox, in 1473, and was designated as earl of Lennox in a charter under the great seal in the same year. Thereafter followed disputes with John of Haldane, whose wife's great-grandmother had been another of the three daughters of Duncan, 8th earl of Lennox, and in her right he contested the succession. Lord Darnley, however, appears to have silenced all opposition and for the last seven years of his life maintained his right to the earldom undisputed. Three of his younger sons were greatly distinguished in the French service, one being captain of Scotsmen-at-arms, another _premier homme d'armes_, and a third _maréchal de France_. Their elder brother Matthew, 2nd earl of this line, fell on Flodden Field, leaving by his wife Elizabeth, daughter of James, earl of Arran, and niece of James III., a son and successor John, who became one of the guardians of James V. and was murdered in 1526. His son Matthew, the 4th earl, played a great part in the intrigues of his time, and by his marriage with Margaret Douglas allied himself to the royal house of England as well as strengthening the ties which bound his family to that of Scotland; because Margaret was the daughter and heir of the 6th earl of Angus by his wife, Margaret Tudor, sister of King Henry VIII. and widow of King James IV. Though his estates were forfeited in 1545, Earl Matthew in 1564 not only had them restored but had the satisfaction of getting his eldest son Henry married to Mary, queen of Scots. The murder of Lord Darnley, now created earl of Rosse, lord of Ardmanoch and duke of Albany, took place in February 1567, and in July his only son James, by Mary's abdication, became king of Scotland. The old earl of Lennox, now grandfather of his sovereign, obtained the regency in 1570, but in the next year was killed in the attack made on the parliament at Stirling, being the third earl in succession to meet with a violent death.

The title was now merged in the crown in the person of James VI. the next heir, but was soon after granted to the king's uncle Charles, who died in 1576, leaving an only child, the unfortunate Lady Arabella Stewart.

Two years later the title was granted to Robert Stewart, the king's grand-uncle, second son of John, the 3rd earl, but he in 1580 exchanged it for that of earl of March. On the same day the earldom of Lennox was given to Esme Stewart, first cousin of the king and grandson of the 3rd earl, he being son of John Stewart (adopted heir of the maréchal d'Aubigny) and his French wife, Anne de la Queulle. In the following year Esme was created duke of Lennox, earl of Darnley, Lord Aubigny, Tarboulton and Dalkeith, and other favours were heaped upon him, but the earl of Ruthven sent him back to France where he died soon after. His elder son, Ludovic, was thereupon summoned to Scotland by James, who invested him with all his father's honours and estates, and after his accession to the English throne created him Lord Settrington and earl of Richmond (1613), and earl of Newcastle-upon-Tyne and duke of Richmond (1623), all these titles being in the peerage of England. After holding many appointments the 2nd duke died without issue in 1624, being succeeded in his Scottish titles by his brother Esme, who had already been created earl of March and Lord Clifton of Leighton Bromswold in the peerage of England (1619) and was seigneur d'Aubigny in France. Of his sons, Henry succeeded to Aubigny and died young at Venice; Ludovic, seigneur d'Aubigny, entered the Roman Catholic Church and received a cardinal's hat just before his death; while the three other younger sons, George, seigneur d'Aubigny, John and Bernard, were all distinguished as royalists in the Civil war. Each met a soldier's death, George at Edgehill, John at Alresford and Bernard at Rowton Heath. James, the eldest son and 4th duke of Lennox, was created duke of Richmond in 1641, being like his brother a devoted adherent of Charles I.

With the death of his little son Esme, the 5th duke, in 1660, the titles, including that of Richmond, passed to his first cousin Charles, who had already been created Lord Stuart of Newbury and earl of Lichfield, being likewise now seigneur d'Aubigny. Disliked by Charles II., principally because of his marriage with "la belle Stuart"--"the noblest romance and example of a brave lady that ever I read in my life," writes Pepys--he was sent into exile as ambassador to Denmark, where he was drowned in 1672. His wife had had the Lennox estates granted to her for life, but his only sister Katharine, wife of Henry O'Brien, heir apparent of the 7th earl of Thomond, was served heir to him. Her only daughter, the countess of Clarendon, was mother of Theodosia Hyde, ancestress of the present earls of Darnley.

The Lennox dukedom, being to heirs male, now devolved upon Charles II., who bestowed it with the titles of earl of Darnley and Lord Tarbolton upon one of his bastards, Charles Lennox, son of the celebrated duchess of Portsmouth, he having previously been created duke of Richmond, earl of March and Lord Settrington in the peerage of England. The ancient lands of the Lennox title were also granted to him, but these he sold to the duke of Montrose.

His son Charles, who inherited his grandmother's French dukedom of Aubigny, was a soldier of distinction, as were the 3rd and 4th dukes. The wife of the last, Lady Charlotte Gordon, as heir of her brother brought the ancient estates of her family to the Lennoxes; the additional name of Gordon being taken by the 5th duke of Richmond and of Lennox on the death of his uncle, the 5th duke of Gordon. In the next generation further honours were granted to the family in the person of the 6th duke, who was rewarded for his great public services with the titles of duke of Gordon and earl of Kinrara in the peerage of the United Kingdom (1876).

_See Scots Peerage_, vol. v., for excellent accounts of these peerages
by the Rev. John Anderson, curator Historical Dept. H.M. Register
House; A. Francis Steuart and Francis J. Grant, Rothesay Herald. See
also _The Lennox_ by William Fraser.