Chapter D: FORENSIC, IN PRIVATE CAUSES.--I. Action for Libel (Greek: dike (1)

kakegorias]). Against Theomnestus, x., 384-383 B.C. (the so-called
second speech, xi., is merely an epitome of the first). II. _Action by
a Ward against a Guardian_ ([Greek: dike epitropes]). Against
Diogeiton, xxxii., 400 B.C. III. _Trial of a Claim to Property_
([Greek: diadikasia]). On the property of Eraton, xvii., 397 B.C. IV.
_Answer to a Special Plea ([Greek: pros paragraphen])._ Against
Pancleon, xxiii. (date uncertain).

E. MISCELLANEOUS.--1. To his Companions, a Complaint of Slanders,
viii. (certainly spurious); 2. The [Greek: erotikos] in Plato's
_Phaedrus_, pp. 230 E-234. This has generally been regarded as Plato's
own work; but the certainty of this conclusion will be doubted by
those who observe (1) the elaborate preparations made in the dialogue
for a recital of the [Greek: erotikos] which shall be _verbally
exact_, and (2) the closeness of the criticism made upon it. If the
satirist were merely analysing his own composition, such criticism
would have little point. Lysias is the earliest writer who is known to
have composed [Greek: erotikoi]; it is as representing both rhetoric
and a false [Greek: eros] that he is the object of attack in the
_Phaedrus_.

F. FRAGMENTS.--Three hundred and fifty-five of these are collected by
Sauppe, _Oratores Attici_, ii. 170-216. Two hundred and fifty-two of
them represent one hundred and twenty-seven speeches of known title;
and of six the fragments are comparatively large. Of these, the
fragmentary speech _For Pherenicus_ belongs to 381 or 380 B.C., and is
thus the latest known work of Lysias.[3]

In literary and historical interest, the first place among the extant
speeches of Lysias belongs to that _Against Eratosthenes_ (403 B.C.),
one of the Thirty Tyrants, whom Lysias arraigns as the murderer of his
brother Polemarchus. The speech is an eloquent and vivid picture of
the reign of terror which the Thirty established at Athens; the
concluding appeal, to both parties among the citizens, is specially
powerful. Next in importance is the speech _Against Agoratus_ (399
B.C.), one of our chief authorities for the internal history of Athens
during the months which immediately followed the defeat at
Aegospotami. The _Olympiacus_ (388 B.C.) is a brilliant fragment,
expressing the spirit of the festival at Olympia, and exhorting Greeks
to unite against their common foes. The _Plea for the Constitution_
(403 B.C.) is interesting for the manner in which it argues that the
wellbeing of Athens--now stripped of empire--is bound up with the
maintenance of democratic principles. The speech _For Mantitheus_ (392
B.C.) is a graceful and animated portrait of a young Athenian [Greek:
hippeus], making a spirited defence of his honour against the charge
of disloyalty. The defence _For the Invalid_ is a humorous
character-sketch. The speech _Against Pancleon_ illustrates the
intimate relations between Athens and Plataea, while it gives us some
picturesque glimpses of Athenian town life. The defence of the person
who had been charged with destroying a _moria_, or sacred olive,
places us amidst the country life of Attica. And the speech _Against
Theomnestus_ deserves attention for its curious evidence of the way in
which the ordinary vocabulary of Athens had changed between 600 and
400 B.C.

All MSS. of Lysias yet collated have been derived, as H. Sauppe first
showed, from the Codex Palatinus X. (Heidelberg). The next most
valuable MS. is the Laurentianus C (15th century), which I. Bekker
chiefly followed. Speaking generally, we may say that these two MSS.
are the only two which carry much weight where the text is seriously
corrupt. In _Oratt._ i.-ix. Bekker occasionally consulted eleven other
MSS., most of which contain only the above nine speeches: viz.,
Marciani F, G, I, K (Venice); Laurentiani D, E (Florence); Vaticani M,
N; Parisini U, V; Urbinas O.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Editio princeps, Aldus (Venice, 1513); by I. Bekker
(1823) and W. S. Dobson (1828) in _Oratores Attici_; C. Scheibe (1852)
and T. Thalheim (1901, Teubner series, with bibliography); C. G. Cobet
(4th ed., by J. J. Hartman, 1905); with variorum notes, by J. J.
Reiske (1772). Editions of select speeches by J. H. Bremi (1845); R.
Rauchenstein (1848, revised by C. Fuhr, 1880-1881); H. Frohberger
(1866-1871); H. van Herwerden (1863); A. Weidner (1888); E. S.
Shuckburgh (1882); A. Westermann and W. Binder (1887-1890); G. P.
Bristol (1892), M. H. Morgan (1895), C. D. Adams (1905), all three
published in America. There is a special lexicon to Lysias by D. H.
Holmes (Bonn, 1895). See also Jebb's _Attic Orators_ (1893) and
_Selections from the Attic Orators_ (2nd ed., 1888) and F. Blass,
_Die Attische Beredsamkeit_ (2nd ed., 1887-1898); W. L. Devries,
_Ethopoiia. A rhetorical study of the types of character in the
orations of Lysias_ (Baltimore, 1892). (R. C. J.; X.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] [W. Christ, _Gesch. der griech. Litt._, gives the date of birth
as about 450.]

[2] See further Jebb, _The Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeus_, i.
142-316.

[3] [Some remains of the speech against Theozotides have been found
in the Hibeh papyri; see W. H. D. Rouse's _The Year's Work in
Classical Studies_ (1907)].

LYSIMACHUS (c. 355-281 B.C.), Macedonian general, son of Agathocles, was a citizen of Pella in Macedonia. During Alexander's Persian campaigns he was one of his immediate bodyguard and distinguished himself in India. After Alexander's death he was appointed to the government of Thrace and the Chersonese. For a long time he was chiefly occupied with fighting against the Odrysian king Seuthes. In 315 he joined Cassander, Ptolemy and Seleucus against Antigonus, who, however, diverted his attention by stirring up Thracian and Scythian tribes against him. In 309, he founded Lysimachia in a commanding situation on the neck connecting the Chersonese with the mainland. He followed the example of Antigonus in taking the title of king. In 302 when the second alliance between Cassander, Ptolemy and Seleucus was made, Lysimachus, reinforced by troops from Cassander, entered Asia Minor, where he met with little resistance. On the approach of Antigonus he retired into winter quarters near Heraclea, marrying its widowed queen Amastris, a Persian princess. Seleucus joined him in 301, and at the battle of Ipsus Antigonus was slain. His dominions were divided among the victors, Lysimachus receiving the greater part of Asia Minor. Feeling that Seleucus was becoming dangerously great, he now allied himself with Ptolemy, marrying his daughter Arsinoë. Amastris, who had divorced herself from him, returned to Heraclea. When Antigonus's son Demetrius renewed hostilities (297), during his absence in Greece, Lysimachus seized his towns in Asia Minor, but in 294 concluded a peace whereby Demetrius was recognized as ruler of Macedonia. He tried to carry his power beyond the Danube, but was defeated and taken prisoner by the Getae, who, however, set him free on amicable terms. Demetrius subsequently threatened Thrace, but had to retire in consequence of a rising in Boeotia, and an attack from Pyrrhus of Epirus. In 288 Lysimachus and Pyrrhus in turn invaded Macedonia, and drove Demetrius out of the country. Pyrrhus was at first allowed to remain in possession of Macedonia with the title of king, but in 285 he was expelled by Lysimachus. Domestic troubles embittered the last years of Lysimachus's life. Amastris had been murdered by her two sons; Lysimachus treacherously put them to death. On his return Arsinoë asked the gift of Heraclea, and he granted her request, though he had promised to free the city. In 284 Arsinoë, desirous of gaining the succession for her sons in preference to Agathocles (the eldest son of Lysimachus), intrigued against him with the help of her brother Ptolemy Ceraunus; they accused him of conspiring with Seleucus to seize the throne, and he was put to death. This atrocious deed of Lysimachus aroused great indignation. Many of the cities of Asia revolted, and his most trusted friends deserted him. The widow of Agathocles fled to Seleucus, who at once invaded the territory of Lysimachus in Asia. Lysimachus crossed the Hellespont, and in 281 a decisive battle took place at the plain of Corus (Corupedion) in Lydia. Lysimachus was killed; after some days his body, watched by a faithful dog, was found on the field, and given up to his son Alexander, by whom it was interred at Lysimachia.

See Arrian, _Anab._ v. 13, vi. 28; Justin xv. 3, 4, xvii. 1; Quintus
Curtius v. 3, x. 30; Diod. Sic. xviii. 3; Polybius v. 67; Plutarch,
_Demetrius_, 31. 52, _Pyrrhus_, 12; Appian, _Syriaca_, 62; Thirlwall,
_History of Greece_, vol. viii. (1847); J. P. Mahaffy, _Story of
Alexander's Empire_; Droysen, _Hellenismus_ (2nd ed., 1877); A. Holm,
_Griechische Geschichte_, vol. iv. (1894); B. Niese, _Gesch. d.
griech. u. maked. Staaten_, vols. i. and ii. (1893, 1899); J. Beloch,
_Griech. Gesch._ vol. iii. (1904); Hünerwadel, _Forschungen zur Gesch.
des Konigs Lysimachus_ (1900); Possenti, _Il Re Lisimaco di Tracia_
(1901); Ghione, _Note sul regno di Lisimaco (Atti d. real. Accad. di
Torino_, xxxix.); and MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. (E. R. B.)

LYSIPPUS, Greek sculptor, was head of the school of Argos and Sicyon in the time of Philip and Alexander of Macedon. His works are said to have numbered 1500, some of them colossal. Some accounts make him the continuer of the school of Polyclitus; some represent him as self-taught. The matter in which he especially innovated was the proportions of the male human body; he made the head smaller than his predecessors, the body more slender and hard, so as to give the impression of greater height. He also took great pains with hair and other details. Pliny (_N.H._ 34, 61) and other writers mention many of his statues. Among the gods he seems to have produced new and striking types of Zeus (probably of the Otricoli class), of Poseidon (compare the Poseidon of the Lateran, standing with raised foot), of the Sun-god and others; many of these were colossal figures in bronze. Among heroes he was specially attracted by the mighty physique of Hercules. The Hercules Farnese of Naples, though signed by Glycon of Athens, and a later and exaggerated transcript, owes something, including the motive of rest after labour, to Lysippus. Lysippus made many statues of Alexander the Great, and so satisfied his patron, no doubt by idealizing him, that he became the court sculptor of the king, from whom and from whose generals he received many commissions. The extant portraits of Alexander vary greatly, and it is impossible to determine which among them go back to Lysippus. The remarkable head from Alexandria (Plate II. fig. 56, in GREEK ART) has as good a claim as any.

As head of the great athletic school of Peloponnese Lysippus naturally sculptured many athletes; a figure by him of a man scraping himself with a strigil was a great favourite of the Romans in the time of Tiberius (Pliny, _N.H._ 34, 61); and this has been usually regarded as the original copied in the Apoxyomenus of the Vatican (GREEK ART, Plate VI. fig. 79). If so, the copyist has modernized his copy, for some features of the Apoxyomenus belong to the Hellenistic age. With more certainty we may see a copy of an athlete by Lysippus in the statue of Agias found at Delphi (GREEK ART, Plate V. fig. 74), which is proved by inscriptions to be a replica in marble of a bronze statue set up by Lysippus in Thessaly. And when the Agias and the Apoxyomenus are set side by side their differences are so striking that it is difficult to attribute them to the same author, though they may belong to the same school. (P. G.)

LYSIS OF TARENTUM (d. c. 390 B.C.), Greek philosopher. His life is obscure, but it is generally accepted, that in the persecution of the Pythagoreans at Crotona and Metapontum he escaped and went to Thebes, where he came under the influence of Philolaus. The friend and companion of Pythagoras, he has been credited with many of the works usually attributed to Pythagoras himself. Diogenes Laertius viii. 6 gives him three, and Mullach even assigns to him the _Golden Verses_. But it is generally held that these verses are a collection of lines by many authors rather than the work of one man.

LYSISTRATUS, a Greek sculptor of the 4th century B.C., brother of Lysippus of Sicyon. We are told by Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ 35, 153) that he followed a strongly realistic line, being the first sculptor to take impressions of human faces in plaster.

LYTE, HENRY FRANCIS (1793-1847), Anglican divine and hymn-writer, was born near Kelso on the 1st of June 1793, and was educated at Enniskillen school and at Trinity College, Dublin. He took orders in 1815, and for some time held a curacy near Wexford. Owing to infirm health he came to England, and after several changes settled, in 1823, in the parish of Brixham. In 1844 his health finally gave way; and he died at Nice on the 20th of November 1847.

Lyte's first work was _Tales in Verse illustrative of Several of the
Petitions in the Lord's Prayer_ (1826), which was written at Lymington
and was commended by Wilson in the _Noctes Ambrosianae_. He next
published (1833) a volume of _Poems, chiefly Religious_, and in 1834 a
little collection of psalms and hymns entitled _The Spirit of the
Psalms_. After his death, a volume of _Remains_ with a memoir was
published, and the poems contained in this, with those in _Poems,
chiefly Religious_, were afterwards issued in one volume (1868). His
best known hymns are "Abide with me! fast falls the eventide"; "Jesus,
I my cross have taken"; "Praise, my soul, the King of Heaven"; and
"Pleasant are Thy courts above."

LYTHAM, an urban district and watering-place in the Blackpool parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, on the north shore of the estuary of the Ribble, 13½ m. W. of Preston by a joint line of the London & North Western and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901) 7185. It has a pier, a pleasant promenade and drive along the shore, and other appointments of a seaside resort, but it is less wholly devoted to holiday visitors than Blackpool, which lies 8 m. N.W. A Benedictine cell was founded here at the close of the 12th century by the lord of the manor, Richard Fitz-Roger.

LYTTELTON, GEORGE LYTTELTON, 1ST BARON (1709-1773), English statesman and man of letters, born at Hagley, Worcestershire, was a descendant of the great jurist Sir Thomas Littleton (q.v.). He was the eldest son of Sir Thomas Lyttelton, 4th bart. (d. 1751), who at the revolution of 1688 and during the following reign was one of the ablest Whig debaters of the House of Commons.[1] Lyttelton was educated at Eton and Oxford, and in 1728 set out on the grand tour, spending considerable periods at Paris and Rome. On his return to England he sat in parliament for Okehampton, Devonshire, beginning public life in the same year with Pitt. From 1744 to 1754 he held the office of a lord commissioner of the treasury. In 1755 he succeeded Legge as chancellor of the exchequer, but in 1756 he quitted office, being raised to the peerage as Baron Lyttelton, of Frankley, in the county of Worcester. In the political crisis of 1765, before the formation of the Rockingham administration, it was suggested that he might be placed at the head of the treasury, but he declined to take part in any such scheme. The closing years of his life were devoted chiefly to literary pursuits. He died on the 22nd of August 1773.

Lyttelton's earliest publication (1735), _Letters from a Persian in
England to his Friend at Ispahan_, appeared anonymously. Much greater
celebrity was achieved by his _Observations on the Conversion and
Apostleship of St Paul_, also anonymous, published in 1747. It takes
the form of a letter to Gilbert West, and is designed to show that St
Paul's conversion is of itself a sufficient demonstration of the
divine character of Christianity. Dr Johnson regarded the work as one
"to which infidelity has never been able to fabricate a specious
answer." Lord Lyttelton's _Dialogues of the Dead_, a creditable
performance, though hardly rivalling either Lucian or Landor, appeared
in 1760. His _History of Henry II._ (1767-1771), the fruit of twenty
years' labour, is not now cited as an authority, but is painstaking
and fair. Lyttelton was also a writer of verse; his _Monody_ on his
wife's death has been praised by Gray for its elegiac tenderness, and
his _Prologue_ to the _Coriolanus_ of his friend Thomson shows genuine
feeling. He was also the author of the well-known stanza in the
_Castle of Indolence_, in which the poet himself is described. A
complete collection of the _Works_ of Lord Lyttelton was published by
his nephew, G. E. Ayscough in 1774.

His son THOMAS (1744-1779), who succeeded as 2nd baron, played some part in the political life of his time, but his loose and prodigal habits were notorious, and he is known, in distinction to his father "the good lord," as the wicked Lord Lyttelton. He left no lawful issue, and the barony became extinct; but it was revived in 1794 in the person of his uncle WILLIAM HENRY, 1st baron of the new creation (1724-1808), who was governor of S. Carolina and later of Jamaica, and ambassador to Portugal. The new barony went after him to his two sons. The 3rd baron (1782-1837) was succeeded by his son GEORGE WILLIAM LYTTELTON, 4th baron (1817-1876), who was a fine scholar, and brother-in-law of W. E. Gladstone, having married Miss Mary Glynne. He did important work in educational and poor law reform. He had eight sons, of whom the eldest, CHARLES GEORGE (b. 1842), became 5th baron, and in 1889 succeeded, by the death of the 3rd duke of Buckingham and Chandos, to the viscounty of Cobham, in which title the barony of Lyttelton is now merged. Other distinguished sons were Arthur Temple Lyttelton (d. 1903), warden of Selwyn College, Cambridge, and bishop-suffragan of Southampton; Edward Lyttelton (b. 1855), headmaster of Haileybury (1890-1905) and then of Eton; and Alfred Lyttelton (b. 1857), secretary of state for the colonies (1903-1906). It was a family of well-known cricketers, Alfred being in his day the best wicket-keeper in England as well as a fine tennis player.

For the 1st baron see Sir R. Phillimore's _Memoirs and Correspondence
of Lord Lyttelton_, 1734-1773 (2 vols., 1845).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Sir Thomas (or Thomas de) Littleton, the jurist, had three sons,
William, Richard and Thomas. From the first, William, was descended
Sir Thomas Lyttelton, 1st bart. of Frankley (1596-1650), whose sons
were Sir Henry, 2nd bart. (d. 1693), and Sir Charles, 3rd bart.
(1629-1716), governor of Jamaica. The latter's son was Sir Thomas,
4th bart., above mentioned, who was also the father of Charles
Lyttelton (1714-1768), bishop of Carlisle, and president of the
Society of Antiquaries. The male descendants of the second, Richard,
died out with Sir Edward Littleton, bart., of Pillaton,
Staffordshire, in 1812, but the latter's grandnephew, Edward John
Walhouse (1791-1863) of Hatherton, took the estates by will and also
the name of Littleton, and was created 1st Baron Hatherton in 1835;
he was chief secretary for Ireland (1833-1834). From Thomas, the
third son, was descended, in one line, Edward, Lord Littleton, of
Munslow (1589-1645), recorder of London, chief justice of the common
pleas, and eventually lord keeper; and in another line, the baronets
of Stoke St Milborough, Shropshire, of whom the best known and last
was Sir Thomas Littleton, 3rd bart. (1647-1710), speaker of the House
of Commons (1698-1700), and treasurer of the navy.

LYTTELTON, a borough of New Zealand, the port of Christchurch (q.v.) on the E. coast of South Island, on an inlet on the north-western side of Banks Peninsula. Pop. (1906) 3941. It is surrounded by abrupt hills rising to 1600 ft., through which a railway communicates with Christchurch (7 m. N.W.) by a tunnel 1¾ m. long. Great breakwaters protect the harbour, which has an area of 110 acres, with a low-tide depth of 20 to 27 ft. There is a graving dock accessible for vessels of 6000 tons. The produce of the rich agricultural district of Canterbury is exported, frozen or preserved. Lyttelton, formerly called Port Cooper and Port Victoria, was the original settlement in this district (1850).

LYTTON, EDWARD GEORGE EARLE LYTTON, BULWER-LYTTON, 1ST BARON (1803-1873), English novelist and politician, the youngest son of General William Earle Bulwer of Heydon Hall and Wood Dalling, Norfolk, was born in London on the 25th of May 1803. He had two brothers, William (1790-1877) and Henry (1801-1872), afterwards Lord Dalling (q.v.). Bulwer's father died when the boy was four years old. His mother, Elizabeth Barbara, daughter of Richard Warburton Lytton of Knebworth, Hertfordshire, after her husband's death settled in London. Bulwer, who was delicate and neurotic, gave evidence of precocious talent and was sent to various boarding schools, where he was always discontented, until in the establishment of a Mr Wallington at Ealing he found in his master a sympathetic and admiring listener. Mr Wallington induced him to publish, at the age of fifteen, an immature volume entitled _Ishmael and other Poems_. About this time Bulwer fell in love, and became extremely morbid under enforced separation from the young lady, who was induced by her father to marry another man. She died about the time that Bulwer went to Cambridge, and he declared that her loss affected all his after-life. In 1822 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, but removed shortly afterwards to Trinity Hall, and in 1825 won the Chancellor's medal for English verse with a poem on "Sculpture." In the following year he took his B.A. degree and printed for private circulation a small volume of poems, _Weeds and Wild Flowers_, in which the influence of Byron was easily traceable. In 1827 he published _O'Neill, or the Rebel_, a romance, in heroic couplets, of patriotic struggle in Ireland, and in 1831 a metrical satire, _The Siamese Twins_. These juvenilia he afterwards ignored.

Meanwhile he had begun to take his place in society, being already known as a dandy of considerable pretensions, who had acted as second in a duel and experienced the fashionable round of flirtation and intrigue. He purchased a commission in the army, only to sell it again without undergoing any service, and in August 1827 married, in opposition to his mother's wishes, Rosina Doyle Wheeler (1802-1882), an Irish beauty, niece and adopted daughter of General Sir John Doyle. She was a brilliant but passionate girl, and upon his marriage with her, Bulwer's mother withdrew the allowance she had hitherto made him. He had £200 a year from his father, and less than £100 a year with his wife, and found it necessary to set to work in earnest. In the year of his marriage he published _Falkland_, a novel which was only a moderate success, but in 1828 he attracted general attention with _Pelham_, a novel for which he had gathered material during a visit to Paris in 1825. This story, with its intimate study of the dandyism of the age, was immediately popular, and gossip was busy in identifying the characters of the romance with the leading men of the time. In the same year he published _The Disowned_, following it up with _Devereux_ (1829), _Paul Clifford_ (1830), _Eugène Aram_ (1832) and _Godolphin_ (1833). All these novels were designed with a didactic purpose, somewhat upon the German model. To embody the leading features of a period, to show how a criminal may be reformed by the development of his own character, to explain the secrets of failure and success in life, these were the avowed objects of his art, and there were not wanting critics ready to call in question his sincerity and his morality. Magazine controversy followed, in which Bulwer was induced to take a part, and about the same time he began to make a mark in politics. He became a follower of Bentham, and in 1831 was elected member for St Ives in Huntingdon. During this period of feverish activity his relations with his wife grew less and less satisfactory. At first she had cause to complain that he neglected her in the pursuit of literary reputation; later on his disregard became rather active than passive. After a series of distressing differences they decided to live apart, and were legally separated in 1836. Three years later his wife published a novel called _Cheveley, or the Man of Honour_, in which Bulwer was bitterly caricatured, and in June 1858, when her husband was standing as parliamentary candidate for Hertfordshire, she appeared at the hustings and indignantly denounced him. She was consequently placed under restraint as insane, but liberated a few weeks later. For years she continued her attacks upon her husband's character, and outlived him by nine years, dying at Upper Sydenham in March 1882. There is little doubt that her passionate imagination gravely exaggerated the tale of her wrongs, though Bulwer was certainly no model for husbands. It was a case of two undisciplined natures in domestic bondage, and the consequences of their union were as inevitable as they were unfortunate.

Bulwer, meanwhile, was full of activity, both literary and political. After representing St Ives, he was returned for Lincoln in 1832, and sat in parliament for that city for nine years. He spoke in favour of the Reform Bill, and took the leading part in securing the reduction, after vainly essaying the repeal, of the newspaper stamp duties. His pamphlet, issued when the Whigs were dismissed from office in 1834, and entitled "A Letter to a Late Cabinet Minister on the Crisis," was immensely influential, and Lord Melbourne offered him a lordship of the admiralty, which he declined as likely to interfere with his activity as an author. At this time, indeed, his pen was indefatigable. _Godolphin_ was followed by _The Pilgrims of the Rhine_ (1834), a graceful fantasy, too German in sentiment to be quite successful in England, and then in _The Last Days of Pompeii_ (1834) and Rienzi (1835) he reached the height of his popularity. He took great pains with these stories, and despite their lurid colouring and mannered over-emphasis, they undoubtedly indicate the highwater mark of his talent. Their reception was enthusiastic, and _Ernest Maltravers_ (1837) and _Alice, or the Mysteries_ (1838) were hardly less successful. At the same time he had been plunging into journalism. In 1831 he undertook the editorship of the _New Monthly_, which, however, he resigned in the following year, but in 1841, the year in which he published _Night and Morning_, he started the _Monthly Chronicle_, a semi-scientific magazine, for which he wrote _Zicci_, an unfinished first draft afterwards expanded into _Zanoni_ (1842). As though this multifarious fecundity were not sufficient, he had also been busy in the field of dramatic literature. In 1838 he produced _The Lady of Lyons_, a play which Macready made a great success at Covent Garden: in 1839 _Richelieu_ and _The Sea Captain_, and in 1840 _Money_. All, except _The Sea Captain_, were successful, and this solitary failure he revived in 1869 under the title of _The Rightful Heir_. Of the others it may be said that, though they abound in examples of strained sentiment and false taste, they have nevertheless a certain theatrical _flair_, which has enabled them to survive a whole library of stage literature of greater sincerity and truer feeling. _The Lady of Lyons_ and _Money_ have long held the stage, and to the last-named, at least, some of the most talented of modern comedians have given new life and probability.

In 1838 Bulwer, then at the height of his popularity, was created a baronet, and on succeeding to the Knebworth estate in 1843 added Lytton to his surname, under the terms of his mother's will. From 1841 to 1852 he had no seat in parliament, and spent much of his time in continental travel. His literary activity waned somewhat, but was still remarkably alert for a man who had already done so much. In 1843 he issued _The Last of the Barons_, which many critics have considered the most historically sound and generally effective of all his romances; in 1847 _Lucretia, or the Children of the Night_, and in 1848 _Harold, the last of the Saxon Kings_. In the intervals between these heavier productions he had thrown off a volume of poems in 1842, another of translations from Schiller in 1844, and a satire called _The New Timon_ in 1846, in which Tennyson, who had just received a Civil List pension, was bitterly lampooned as "school miss Alfred," with other unedifying amenities; Tennyson retorted with some verses in which he addressed Bulwer-Lytton as "you band-box." These poetic excursions were followed by his most ambitious work in metre, a romantic epic entitled _King Arthur_, of which he expected much, and he was greatly disappointed by its apathetic reception. Having experienced some rather acid criticism, questioning the morality of his novels, he next essayed a form of fiction which he was determined should leave no loophole to suspicion, and in _The Caxtons_ (1849), published at first anonymously, gave further proof of his versatility and resource. _My Novel_ (1853) and _What will he do with it?_ were designed to prolong the same strain.

In 1852 he entered the political field anew, and in the conservative interest. He had differed from the policy of Lord John Russell over the corn laws, and now separated finally from the liberals. He stood for Hertfordshire and was elected, holding the seat till 1866, when he was raised to the peerage as Baron Lytton of Knebworth. His eloquence gave him the ear of the House of Commons, and he often spoke with influence and authority. In 1858 he was appointed secretary for the colonies. In the House of Lords he was comparatively inactive. His last novels were _A Strange Story_ (1862), a mystical romance with spiritualistic tendencies; _The Coming Race_ (1871), _The Parisians_ (1873)--both unacknowledged at the time of his death; and _Kenelm Chillingly_, which was in course of publication in _Blackwood's Magazine_ when Lytton died at Torquay on the 18th of January 1873. The last three of his stories were classed by his son, the 2nd Lord Lytton, as a trilogy, animated by a common purpose, to exhibit the influence of modern ideas upon character and conduct.

Bulwer-Lytton's attitude towards life was theatrical, the language of his sentiments was artificial and over-decorated, and the tone of his work was often so flamboyant as to give an impression of false taste and judgment. Nevertheless, he built up each of his stories upon a deliberate and careful framework: he was assiduous according to his lights in historical research; and conscientious in the details of workmanship. As the fashion of his day has become obsolete the immediate appeal of his work has diminished. It will always, however, retain its interest, not only for the merits of certain individual novels, but as a mirror of the prevailing intellectual movement of the first half of the 19th century.

See T. H. S. Escott, _Edward Bulwer, 1st Baron Lytton of Knebworth_
(1910). (A. Wa.)

LYTTON, EDWARD ROBERT BULWER-LYTTON, 1ST EARL OF (1831-1891), English diplomatist and poet, was the only son of the 1st Baron Lytton. He was born in Hertford Street, Mayfair, on the 8th of November 1831. Robert Lytton and his sister were brought up as children principally by a Miss Green. In 1840 the boy was sent to a school at Twickenham, in 1842 to another at Brighton, and in 1845 to Harrow. From his earliest childhood Lytton read voraciously and wrote copiously, quickly developing a genuine and intense love of literature and a remarkable facility of expression. In 1849 he left Harrow and studied for a year at Bonn with an English tutor, and on his return with another tutor in England. In 1850 he entered the diplomatic service as unpaid _attaché_ to his uncle, Sir Henry Bulwer, who was then minister at Washington. His advance in the diplomatic service was continuous, his successive appointments being: as second secretary--1852, Florence; 1854, Paris; 1857, The Hague; 1859, Vienna; as first secretary or secretary of legation--1863, Copenhagen; 1864, Athens; 1865, Lisbon; 1868, Madrid; 1868, Vienna; 1873, Paris; as minister--1875, Lisbon. In 1887 he was appointed to succeed Lord Lyons as ambassador at Paris, and held that office until his death in 1891. This rapid promotion from one European court to another indicates the esteem in which Lytton was held by successive foreign secretaries. In 1864, immediately before taking up his appointment at Athens, he married Edith, daughter of Edward Villiers, brother of the earl of Clarendon, and in 1873, upon the death of his father, he succeeded to the peerage and the estate of Knebworth in Hertfordshire.

Early in 1875 Lord Lytton declined an offer of appointment as governor of Madras, and in November of that year he was nominated governor-general of India by Disraeli. The moment was critical in the history of India. In Central Asia the advance of Russia had continued so steadily and so rapidly that Shere Ali, the amir of Afghanistan, had determined to seek safety as the vassal of the tsar. Lytton went out to India with express instructions from the British government to recover the friendship of the amir if possible, and if not so to arrange matters on the north-west frontier as to be able to be indifferent to his hostility. For eighteen months Lytton and his council made every effort to conciliate the friendship of the amir, but when a Russian agent was established at Kabul, while the mission of Sir Neville Chamberlain was forcibly denied entrance into the amir's dominions, no choice was left between acknowledging the right of a subsidized ally of Great Britain to place himself within Russian control and depriving him of the office which he owed to British patronage and assistance. The inevitable war began in November 1878, and by the close of that year the forces prepared by Lytton for that purpose had achieved their task with extraordinary accuracy and economy. Shere Ali fled from Kabul, and shortly afterwards died, and once more it fell to the Indian government to make provision for the future of Afghanistan. By the treaty of Gandamak in May 1879 Yakub Khan, a son of Shere Ali, was recognized as amir, the main conditions agreed upon being that the districts of Kuram, Pishin and Sibi should be "assigned" to British administration, and the Khyber and other passes be under British control; that there should be a permanent British Resident at Kabul, and that the amir should be subsidized in an amount to be afterwards determined upon. The endeavour of the Indian government was to leave the internal administration of Afghanistan as little affected as possible, but considerable risk was run in trusting so much, and especially the safety of a British envoy, to the power and the goodwill of Yakub Khan. Sir Louis Cavagnari, the British envoy entered Kabul at the end of July, and was, with his staff, massacred in the rising which took place on the 3rd of September. The war of 1879-80 immediately began, with the occupation of Kandahar by Stewart and the advance upon Kabul by Roberts, and the military operations which followed were not concluded when Lytton resigned his office in April 1880.

A complete account of Lytton's viceroyalty, and a lucid exposition of the principles of his government and the main outlines of his policy, may be found in _Lord Lytton's Indian Administration_, by his daughter, Lady Betty Balfour (London, 1899). The frontier policy which he adopted, after the method of a friendly and united Afghanistan under Yakub Khan had been tried and had failed, was that the Afghan kingdom should be destroyed. The province of Kandahar was to be occupied by Great Britain, and administered by a vassal chief, Shere Ali Khan, who was appointed "Wali" with a solemn guarantee of British support (unconditionally withdrawn by the government succeeding Lytton's). The other points of the Indian frontier were to be made as secure as possible, and the provinces of Kabul and Herat were to be left absolutely to their own devices. In consequence of what had been said of Lytton by the leaders of the parliamentary opposition in England, it was impossible for him to retain his office under a government formed by them, and he accordingly resigned at the same time as the Beaconsfield ministry. This part of his policy was thereupon revoked. Abdur Rahman, proving himself the strongest of the claimants to the throne left vacant by Yakub Khan's deposition, became amir as the subsidized ally of the Indian government.

The two most considerable events of Lytton's viceroyalty, besides the Afghan wars, were the assumption by Queen Victoria of the title of empress of India on the 1st of January 1877, and the famine which prevailed in various parts of India in 1876-78. He satisfied himself that periodical famines must be expected in Indian history, and that constant preparation during years of comparative prosperity was the only condition whereby their destructiveness could be modified. Accordingly he obtained the appointment of the famine commission of 1878, to inquire, upon lines laid down by him, into available means of mitigation. Their report, made in 1880, is the foundation of the later system of irrigation, development of communications, and "famine insurance." The equalization and reduction of the salt duty were effected, and the abolition of the cotton duty commenced, during Lytton's term of office, and the system of Indian finance profoundly modified by decentralization and the regulation of provincial responsibility, in all which matters Lytton enthusiastically supported Sir John Strachey, the financial member of his council.

Upon Lytton's resignation in 1880 an earldom was conferred upon him in recognition of his services as viceroy. He lived at Knebworth until 1887, in which year he was appointed to succeed Lord Lyons as ambassador at Paris. He died at Paris on the 24th of November 1891, of a clot of blood in the heart, when apparently recovering from a serious illness. He was succeeded by his son (b. 1876) as 2nd earl.

Lytton is probably better known as a poet--under the pen-name of "Owen Meredith"--than as a statesman. The list of his published works is as follows: _Clytemnestra, and other Poems_, 1855; _The Wanderer_, 1858; _Lucile_, 1860; _Serbski Pesme, or National Songs of Servia_, 1861, _Tannhäuser_ (in collaboration with Mr Julian Fane), 1861; _Chronicles and Characters_, 1867; _Orval, or The Fool of Time_, 1868; _Fables in Song_ (2 vols.), 1874; _Glenaveril, or The Metamorphoses_, 1885; _After Paradise, or the Legends of Exile, and other Poems_, 1887; _Marah_, 1892; _King Poppy_, 1892. The two last-mentioned volumes were published posthumously. A few previously unpublished pieces are included in a volume of _Selections_ published, with an introduction by Lady Betty Balfour, in 1894. His metrical style was easy and copious, but not precise. It often gives the impression of having been produced with facility, because the flow of his thought carried him along, and of not having undergone prolonged or minute polish. It was frequently suggestive of the work of other poets, especially in his earlier productions. The friend who wrote the inscription for the monument to be erected to him at St Paul's described him as "a poet of many styles, each the expression of his habitual thoughts." _Lucile_, a novel in verse, presents a romantic style and considerable wit; and _Glenaveril_, which also contains many passages of great beauty and much poetic thought, has much of the same narrative character. Besides his volumes of poetry, Lytton published in 1883 two volumes of a biography of his father. The second of these contains the beginning of the elder Lytton's unfinished novel, _Greville_, and his life is brought down only to the year 1832, when he was twenty-six years of age, so that the completion of the book upon the same scale would have required at least four more volumes. The executrix of Lytton's mother chose to consider that the publication was injurious to that lady's memory, and issued a volume purporting to contain Bulwer-Lytton's letters to his wife. This Lytton suppressed by injunction, thereby procuring a fresh exposition of the law that the copyright in letters remains in the writer or his representatives, though the property in them belongs to the recipient. Lytton's appointment to the Parisian embassy caused the biography of his father to be finally laid aside.

The _Personal and Literary Letters of Robert, 1st Earl of Lytton_,
have been edited by Lady Betty Balfour (1906). (H. S*.)

M The thirteenth letter of the Phoenician and Greek alphabets, the twelfth of the Latin, and the thirteenth of the languages of western Europe. Written originally from right to left, it took the form [symbol] which survives in its earliest representations in Greek. The greater length of the first limb of _m_ is characteristic of the earliest forms. From this form, written from left to right, the Latin abbreviation M' for the praenomen Manius is supposed to have developed, the apostrophe representing the fifth stroke of the original letter. In the early Greek alphabets the four-stroke M with legs of equal length represents not _m_ but _s_; _m_ when written with four strokes is [symbol]. The five-stroke forms, however, are confined practically to Crete, Melos and Cumae; from the last named the Romans received it along with the rest of their alphabet. The Phoenician name of the symbol was _mem_, the Greek name [Greek: mu] is formed on the analogy of the name for _n_. M represents the bilabial nasal sound, which was generally voiced. It is commonly a stable sound, but many languages, e.g. Greek, Germanic and Celtic, change it when final into -_n_, its dental correlative. It appears more frequently as an initial sound in Greek and Latin than in the other languages of the same stock, because in these _s_ before _m_ (as also before _l_ and _n_) disappeared at the beginning of words. The sounds _m_ and _b_ are closely related, the only difference being that, in pronouncing _m_, the nasal passage is not closed, thus allowing the sound to be prolonged, while _b_ is an instantaneous or explosive sound. In various languages _b_ is inserted between m and a following consonant, as in the Gr. [Greek: mesembria] "mid-day," or the English "number," Fr. _nombre_ from Lat. _numerus_. The sound _m_ can in unaccented syllables form a syllable by itself without an audible vowel, e.g. the English word _fathom_ comes from an Anglo-Saxon _fathm_, where the _m_ was so used. (For more details as to this phonetic principle, which has important results in the history of language, see under N.) (P. Gi.)

MAAS, JOSEPH (1847-1886), English tenor singer, was born at Dartford, and became a chorister in Rochester Cathedral. He went to study singing in Milan in 1869; in February 1871 he made his first success by taking Sims Reeves's place at a concert in London. In 1878 he became principal tenor in Carl Rosa's company, his beautiful voice and finished style more than compensating for his poor acting. He died in London on the 16th of January 1886.

MAASIN, a town on the S.W. coast of the island of Leyte, Philippine Islands, at the mouth of the Maasin River. Pop. (1903), 21,638. Maasin is an important port for hemp and copra. The well-built town occupies a narrow coastal plain. The river valleys in the vicinity produce cotton, pepper, tobacco, rice, Indian corn and fruit. Native cloths and pottery are manufactured. Maasin is the only place on the west coast of Leyte where a court of justice is held. The language is Visayan.

MAASSLUIS, a river port of Holland, in the province of South Holland, on the New Waterway, 10 m. by rail W. of Rotterdam. Pop. (1903), 8011. It rose into importance as a fishing harbour towards the end of the 16th century, and its prosperity rapidly increased after the opening of the New Waterway (the Maas ship canal) from Rotterdam to the sea. The fort erected here in 1572 by Philip of Marnix, lord of St Aldegonde, was captured by the Spanish in 1573.

MAASTRICHT, or MAESTRICHT, a frontier town and the capital of the province of Limburg, Holland, on the left bank of the Maas at the influx of the river Geer, 19 m. by rail N.N.E. of Liége in Belgium. Pop. (1904), 36,146. A small portion of the town, known as Wyk, lies on the right bank. A stone bridge connecting the two replaced a wooden structure as early as 1280, and was rebuilt in 1683. Formerly a strong fortress, Maastricht is still a considerable garrison town, but its ramparts were dismantled in 1871-1878. The town-hall, built by Pieter Post and completed in 1683, contains some interesting pictures and tapestry. The old town-hall (Oud Stadhuis), a Gothic building of the 15th century, is now used as a museum of antiquities. The church of St Servatius is said to have been founded by Bishop Monulphus in the 6th century, thus being the oldest church in Holland; according to one account it was rebuilt and enlarged as early as the time of Charlemagne. The crypt with the tomb of the patron saint dates from the original building. The varied character of its late Romanesque and later Gothic architecture bears evidence of the frequency with which the church has been restored and altered. Over the porch is the fine emperor's hall, and the church has a marble statue of Charlemagne. The church of Our Lady, a late Romanesque building, has two ancient crypts and a 13th-century choir of exceptional beauty, but the nave suffered severely from a restoration in 1764. The present Gothic building of St Martin (in Wyk) was erected in 1859; the original church is said by tradition to have occupied the site of an old heathen temple. The Protestant St Janskerk, a Gothic building of the 13th and 15th centuries, with a fine tower, was formerly the baptistery of the cathedral. The various hospitals, the poor-house, the orphanage and most of the other charitable foundations are Roman Catholic institutions. Maastricht contains the provincial archives, a library and geological collections. Though mainly indebted for its commercial prosperity to its position on the river, the town did not begin to reap the full advantages of its situation till the opening of the railways between 1853 and 1865. At first a trade was carried on in wine, colonial wares, alcoholic liquors and salt; there are now manufactures of earthenware, glass and crystal, arms, paper, woollens, tools, lead, copper and zinc work, as well as breweries, and tobacco and cigar factories, and a trade in corn and butter.

A short distance south of Maastricht are the great sandstone quarries of Pietersberg, which were worked from the time of the Romans to near the end of the 19th century; the result is one of the most extraordinary subterranean labyrinths in the world, estimated to cover an area 15 m. by 9 m. In the time of the Spanish wars these underground passages served to hide the peasants and their cattle.

Maastricht was originally the _trajectus superior_ (upper ford) of the Romans, and was the seat of a bishop from 382 to 721. Having formed part of the Frankish realm, it was ruled after 1204 jointly by the dukes of Brabant and the prince-bishops of Liége. In 1579 it was besieged by the Spaniards under the duke of Parma, being captured and plundered after a heroic resistance. It was taken by the French in 1673, 1748 and 1794.

MABILLON, JOHN (1632-1707), Benedictine monk of the Congregation of St Maur (see MAURISTS), was the son of a peasant near Reims. In 1653 he became a monk in the abbey of St Remi at Reims. In 1664 he was placed at St Germain-des-Prés in Paris, the great literary workshop of the Maurists, where he lived and worked for twenty years, at first under d'Achery, with whom he edited the nine folio volumes of Acta of the Benedictine Saints. In Mabillon's Prefaces (reprinted separately) these lives were for the first time made to illustrate the ecclesiastical and civil history of the early middle ages. Mabillon's masterpiece was the _De re diplomatica_ (1681; and a supplement, 1704) in which were first laid down the principles for determining the authenticity and date of medieval charters and manuscripts. It practically created the science of Latin palaeography, and is still the standard work on the subject. In 1685-1686 Mabillon visited the libraries of Italy, to purchase MSS. and books for the King's Library. On his return to Paris he was called upon to defend against de Rancé, the abbot of La Trappe, the legitimacy for monks of the kind of studies to which the Maurists devoted themselves: this called forth Mabillon's _Traité des études monastiques_ and his _Réflexions sur la réponse de M. l'abbé de la_ _Trappe_ (1691-1692), works embodying the ideas and programme of the Maurists for ecclesiastical studies. Mabillon produced in all some twenty folio volumes and as many of lesser size, nearly all works of monumental erudition (the chief are named in the article MAURISTS). A very competent judge declared that, "he knew well the 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th and 11th centuries, but nothing earlier or later." Mabillon never allowed his studies to interfere with his life as a monk; he was noted for his regular attendance at the choral recitation of the office and the other duties of the monastic life, and for his deep personal religion, as well as for a special charm of character. He died on the 26th of December 1707, in the midst of the production of the colossal Benedictine Annals.

The chief authority for his life is the _Abrégé de la vie de D. J. M._
(also in Latin), by his disciple and friend Ruinart (1709). See also,
for a full summary of his works, Tassin, _Hist. littéraire de la
congr. de St Maur_ (1770), pp. 205-269. Of modern biographies the best
are those of de Broglie (2 vols., 1888) and Bäumer (1892)--the former
to be especially recommended. A brief sketch by E. C. Butler may be
found in the _Downside Review_ (1893). (E. C. B.)

MABINOGION (plural of Welsh _mabinogi_, from _mabinog_, a bard's apprentice), the title given to the collection of eleven Welsh prose tales (from the Red Book of Hergest) published (1838) by Lady Charlotte Guest, but applied in the Red Book to four only. (See CELT: _Welsh Literature_.)

MABUSE, JAN (d. 1532), the name adopted (from his birthplace, Maubeuge) by the Flemish painter JENNI GOSART, or JENNYN VAN HENNEGOUWE (Hainault), as he called himself when he matriculated in the gild of St Luke, at Antwerp, in 1503. We know nothing of his early life, but his works tell us that he stood in his first period under the influence of artists to whom plastic models were familiar; and this leads to the belief that he spent his youth on the French border rather than on the banks of the Scheldt. Without the subtlety or power of Van der Weyden, he had this much in common with the great master of Tournai and Brussels, that his compositions were usually framed in architectural backgrounds. But whilst Mabuse thus early betrays his dependence on the masters of the French frontier, he also confesses admiration for the great painters who first gave lustre to Antwerp; and in the large altar-pieces of Castle Howard and Scawby he combines in a quaint and not unskilful medley the sentiment of Memling, the bright and decided contrasts of pigment peculiar to coloured reliefs, the cornered and packed drapery familiar to Van der Weyden, and the bold but Socratic cast of face remarkable in the works of Quentin Matsys. At Scawby he illustrates the legend of the count of Toulouse, who parted with his worldly goods to assume the frock of a hermit. At Castle Howard he represents the Adoration of the Kings, and throws together some thirty figures on an architectural background, varied in detail, massive in shape and fanciful in ornament. He surprises us by pompous costume and flaring contrasts of tone. His figures, like pieces on a chess-board, are often rigid and conventional. The landscape which shows through the colonnades is adorned with towers and steeples in the minute fashion of Van der Weyden. After a residence of a few years at Antwerp, Mabuse took service with Philip, bastard of Philip the Good, at that time lord of Somerdyk and admiral of Zeeland. One of his pictures had already become celebrated--a Descent from the Cross (50 figures), on the high altar of the monastery of St Michael of Tongerloo. Philip of Burgundy ordered Mabuse to execute a replica for the church of Middelburg; and the value which was then set on the picture is apparent from the fact that Dürer came expressly to Middelburg (1521) to see it. In 1568 the altar-piece perished by fire. In 1508 Mabuse accompanied Philip of Burgundy on his Italian mission; and by this accident an important revolution was effected in the art of the Netherlands. Mabuse appears to have chiefly studied in Italy the cold and polished works of the Leonardesques. He not only brought home a new style, but he also introduced the fashion of travelling to Italy; and from that time till the age of Rubens and Van Dyck it was considered proper that all Flemish painters should visit the peninsula. The Flemings grafted Italian mannerisms on their own stock; and the cross turned out so unfortunately that for a century Flemish art lost all trace of originality.