Chapter IV: Front Matter (4)

The GRAND-DUCHY lies S.E. of Belgium. Its area is 999 sq. m., with a population (1905) of 246,455. The people are nearly all Catholics. The country is rich in iron ore. The hills in the south of the duchy are a continuation of the Lorraine plateau, and the northern districts are crossed in all directions by outrunners from the Ardennes. The streams mostly join the Moselle, which forms the boundary between Luxemburg and the Rhine province for about 20 m. The Sure or Sauer, the most important stream in the duchy, rises at Vaux-les-Rosières in Belgian Luxemburg, crosses the duchy, and forms the eastern boundary from the confluence of the Our till it joins the Moselle after a course of 50 m., during which it receives the Wiltz, Attert, Alzette, White and Black Ernz, &c. The soil of Luxemburg is generally good; the southern districts are on the whole the most fertile as well as the most populous. Building materials of all sorts are obtained throughout the duchy. Besides the iron furnaces, situated in the south near the Lorraine plateau, there are tanneries, weaving and glove-making factories, paper-mills for all sorts of paper, breweries and distilleries, and sugar refineries. A German patois mixed with French words is spoken throughout the country; but French, which is employed by the commercial community, is also the common speech on the French and Belgian frontiers. Though liberty of worship prevails, Roman Catholicism is almost the sole form. The government is in the hands of the grand-duke, who sanctions and promulgates the laws. There is a council (_staatsrat_) of 15 members. There is a chamber of deputies with 48 members elected by the cantons (12 in number) for six years, half the body being elected every three years. No law can be passed without the consent of the chamber. Bills are introduced by the grand-duke, but the house has also the right of initiative. A single battalion (150) of volunteers composes the grand-ducal army. The gendarmerie consists of about 150 men. There are cantonal courts and two district courts, one at Luxemburg, the other at Diekirch, and a high court at Luxemburg. The bishopric of Luxemburg holds its authority directly from the Holy See. From 13,000,000 to 17,000,000 francs is the annual amount of the state budget, and the debt, consisting of loans contracted principally for the construction of railways, of which there are about 350 m., is 12,000,000 francs.

Among towns next to the capital, Luxemburg, are Echternach and Diekirch, both worthy of note for their blast furnaces. Grevenmacher is the centre of a great wine district.

The PROVINCE OF LUXEMBURG is the largest and least populous of the nine provinces of Belgium. Its capital is Arlon, which lies near the borders of the grand-duchy. A considerable part of the province is forested and the state requires systematic replanting. Marble, granite and slate quarries are worked in different districts. Successful attempts have been made to introduce fruit cultivation. The province is well watered by the Ourthe, the Semois and the Sûre. The general elevation of the country is about 500 ft., but the hills and plateaus which form the prominent feature in the scenery of Luxemburg range from 1200 to 1500 ft. The highest point of the province is the Baraque de Fraiture (1980 ft.), N.E. of La Roche. The woods are well stocked with red and roe deer, wild boar, hares, rabbits, pheasants, woodcock and snipe. The area of the province is 1725 sq. m. The population was 225,963 in 1904.

The HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG was descended from Count Conrad (d. 1086), and
its fortunes were advanced through the election of Count Henry IV. as
German king in 1308 and his coronation as emperor under the title of
Henry VII. Henry's son was John, king of Bohemia, who fell on the
field of Crécy, and John's eldest son was the emperor Charles IV.,
while another famous member of the family was Baldwin, archbishop of
Treves (1285-1354), who took an active part in imperial affairs. Two
of the sons of Charles IV., Wenceslaus and Sigismund, succeeded in
turn to the imperial throne, and one of his nephews, Jobst, margrave
of Moravia, was chosen German king in opposition to Sigismund in 1410.
The French branch of the Luxemburg family was descended from Waleran
(d. 1288), lord of Ligny and Roussy, a younger son of Count Henry II.
Waleran's great-grandson was Guy (d. 1371), who married Matilda,
sister and heiress of Guy V., count of Saint-Pol (d. 1360), and was
created count of Ligny in 1367. Guy's son, Waleran (d. 1417), who
became constable of France in 1412, had been carried as a prisoner to
England, and had married Matilda, daughter of Thomas Holland, earl of
Kent (d. 1360) and half-sister of King Richard II. To avenge Richard's
death he made a raid on the Isle of Wight, and then took part in the
civil wars in France. He left no sons, and was succeeded by his
nephew, Peter, count of Brienne (d. 1433), who, like his brother Louis
(d. 1443), cardinal archbishop of Rouen and chancellor of France, was
found on the side of the English in their struggle against France.
Another of Peter's brothers, John (d. 1440), a stout supporter of
England, was made governor of Paris by Henry V. He sold Joan of Arc to
the English. Peter's son and successor, Louis, fought at first for
England, but about 1440 he entered the service of France and obtained
the office of constable. King Louis XI. accused him of treachery, and
he took refuge with Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy; but the duke
handed him over to the king and he was beheaded in 1475. The elder
branch of his descendants became extinct in the male line in 1482, and
was merged through the female line in the house of Bourbon-Vendôme.
Louis's third son, Anthony (d. 1510), founded the family of
Luxemburg-Brienne, the senior branch of which became extinct in 1608.
A junior branch, however, was the family of the duke of
Luxemburg-Piney, whose last representative, Margaret-Charlotte (d.
1680), married firstly Léon d'Albert de Luynes (d. 1630) and secondly
Charles Henry de Clermont-Tonnerre (d. 1674). Her daughter by her
second husband, Madeleine Charlotte, married Francis Henry de
Montmorenci (d. 1695) and de Luynes, and, subsequently, members of the
family of Montmorenci claimed the title of duke of Luxemburg. The
Luxembourg palace in Paris owes its name to the fact that it was built
on a site belonging to the duke of Luxemburg-Piney.

See N. van Werveke, _Beiträge zur Geschichte des Luxemburger Landes_
(Luxemburg, 1886-1887); J. Schötter, _Geschichte des Luxemburger
Landes_ (Luxemburg, 1882); and N. Vigner, _Histoire de la maison de
Luxembourg_ (Paris, 1619).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] It should be noticed, however, that the Salic law is subordinate
to the Nassau family law, which provides for the succession in the
case of the _complete extinction_ of males. Thus Article xlii. of the
Nassau Pact of the 30th of June 1783 provides "that in the event of
the extinction of males, the rights of succession pass to the
daughter or nearest heiress of the last male."

LUXEMBURG, or LUTZELBURG (i.e. the little fortress or town), the capital of the grand-duchy of the same name (see above), situated on the Alzette, a tributary of the Sûre. Pop. (1905) 20,984. The situation is romantic, steep cliffs overhanging the winding river, and the principal portion of the town with the palace and public buildings covering a central plateau. The more densely populated parishes of Clausen, Pfaffenthal and Grund lie in the valley. As a fortress Luxemburg was considered the strongest in Europe after Gibraltar, which it was supposed to resemble because many of its casemates were cut into the rock. It was dismantled in 1867. Two colossal viaducts carry the railway and the approach from the railway station to the town. Since the place ceased to be a fortress the population has more than doubled, and the Alzette is lined with tanneries, breweries and distilleries. The Hôtel de Ville dates from 1844 and contains a collection of antiquities. The church of Nôtre Dame was built in 1613, and that of St Michael, with parts dating from 1320, contains the tomb of blind John of Luxemburg, king of Bohemia, slain at Crécy. There are two annual fête days, one in honour of Our Lady of Luxemburg, patroness of the city, held on the Sunday before Ascension Day, and the other the annual fair or _Schobermesse_ (tent fair), instituted in 1340 and held each year on the 24th of August.

LUXEUIL-LES-BAINS, a town of eastern France, in the department of Haute-Saône, 18 m. N.E. of Vesoul. Pop. (1906) 5195. It is situated in a region of forests on the right bank of the Breuchin. It has an abbey-church dating from the 13th and 14th centuries, containing a curious 17th-century organ loft in the form of an immense bracket supported by a colossal figure of Hercules. The abbot's palace (16th and 18th centuries) serves as presbytery and town hall. A cloister of the 15th century and other buildings of the 17th century also remain. There are several mansions and houses dating from various periods from the 14th to the 16th century. The Maison Carrée, once the town hall, an interesting specimen of 15th-century architecture, was built by Perrin Jouffroy, father of Cardinal Jouffroy. The cardinal, who was born at Luxeuil in 1412, built the house with a graceful balcony and turret which faces the Maison Carrée. The Maison de la Baille and the Maison François I. are of the Renaissance period. The fine modern Grammont Hospital is in the style of Louis XIII. Luxeuil is renowned for its mineral springs, of which there are seventeen, two being ferruginous, and the rest charged with chloride of sodium; their temperatures range from 70° to 158° F. The water is employed for drinking and for baths. The bathing establishment contains a museum of Gallo-Roman antiquities and there are also remains of Roman baths and aqueducts to be seen in or near it. Luxeuil has a communal college. Copper-founding, the spinning and weaving of cotton, lace-making, dyeing and the distilling of kirsch are carried on.

Luxeuil was the Roman _Lixovium_ and contained many fine buildings at the time of its destruction by the Huns under Attila in 451. In 590 St Columban here founded a monastery, afterwards one of the most famous in Franche Comté. In the 8th century it was destroyed by the Saracens; afterwards rebuilt, monastery and town were devastated by the Normans in the 9th century and plllaged on several occasions afterwards. The abbey schools were celebrated in the middle ages and the abbots had great influence; but their power was curtailed by the emperor Charles V. and the abbey was suppressed at the Revolution.

See H. Beaumont, _Etude hist. sur l'abbaye de Luxeuil, 590-1790_ (Lux.
1895); Grandmongin and A. Garnier, _Hist. de la ville et des thermes
de Luxeuil_ (Paris, 1866), with 16 plates.

LUXOR, more properly El-Aksur, "The Castles" (plur. of kasr), a town of Upper Egypt, on the east bank of the Nile 450 m. above Cairo by river and 418 by rail. Pop. (1907 census) 12,644. It is the centre for visitors to the ruins of and about Thebes, and is frequented by travellers and invalids in the winter season, several fine hotels having been built for their accommodation. There are Anglican and Roman Catholic churches, and a hospital for natives, opened in 1891. The district is the seat of an extensive manufacture of forged antiques.

The temple of Luxor is one of the greatest of the monuments of Thebes (q.v.). It stands near the river bank on the S.W. side of the town and measures nearly 300 yds. from back to front. There may have been an earlier temple here, but the present structure, dedicated to the Theban triad of Ammon, Mut and Khons, was erected by Amenophis III. The great colonnade, which is its most striking feature, was apparently intended for the nave of a hypostyle hall like that of Karnak, but had to be hastily finished without the aisles. After the heresy of Amenophis IV. (Akhenaton), the decoration of this incomplete work was taken in hand by Tutenkhamun and Haremhib. The axis of the temple ran from S.W. to N.E.; a long paved road bordered by recumbent rams led from the façade to the temples of Karnak (q.v.) in a somewhat more easterly direction, and Rameses II. adopted the line of this avenue in adding an extensive court to the work of Amenophis, producing a curious change of axis. He embellished the walls and pylons of his court with scenes from his victories over Hittites and Syrians, and placed a number of colossal statues within it. In front of the pylon Rameses set up colossi and a pair of obelisks (one of which was taken to Paris in 1831 and re-erected in the Place de la Concorde). A few scenes and inscriptions were added by later kings, but the above is practically the history of the temple until Alexander the Great rebuilt the sanctuary itself. The chief religious festival of Thebes was that of "Southern Opi," the ancient name of Luxor. The sacred barks of the divinities preserved in the sanctuary of Karnak were then conveyed in procession by water to Luxor and back again; a representation of the festal scenes is given on the walls of the great colonnade. The Christians built churches within the temple. The greater part of the old village of Luxor lay inside the courts: it was known also as Abu 'l Haggag from a Moslem saint of the 7th century, whose tomb-mosque, mentioned by Ibn Batuta, stands on a high heap of débris in the court of Rameses. This is the last of the buildings and rubbish which encumbered the temple before the expropriation and clearances by the Service des Antiquités began in 1885. The principal street of Luxor follows the line of the ancient avenue.

See G. Daressy, _Notice explicative des ruines du temple de Louxor_
(Cairo, 1803); Baedeker's _Egypt_. (F. Ll. G.)

LUXORIUS, Roman writer of epigrams, lived in Africa during the reigns of the Vandal kings Thrasamund, Hilderic and Gelimer (A.D. 496-534). He speaks of his poor circumstances, but from the superscription _clarissimus_ and _spectabilis_ in one MS., he seems to have held a high official position. About a hundred epigrams by him in various metres (the elegiac predominating) have been preserved. They are after the manner of Martial, and many of them are coarse. They deal chiefly with the games of the circus and works of art, and the language shows the author to have been well acquainted with the legends and antiquities of the classical period of Rome.

Luxorius also wrote on grammatical subjects (see R. Ellis in _Journal
of Philology_, viii., 1879). The epigrams are contained in the
_Anthologia Latina_, edited by F. Bücheler and A. Riese (1894).

LUYNES, a territorial name belonging to a noble French house. The family of Albert, which sprang from Thomas Alberti (d. 1455), seigneur de Boussargues, _bailli_ of Viviers and Valence, and _viguier_ of Bagnols and Pont St Esprit in Languedoc, acquired the estate of Luynes (dep. of Indre-et-Loire) in the 16th century. Honoré d'Albert (d. 1592), seigneur de Luynes, was in the service of the three last Valois kings and of Henry IV., and became colonel of the French bands, commissary of artillery in Languedoc and governor of Beaucaire. He had three sons: Charles (1578-1621), first duke of Luynes, and favourite of Louis XIII.; Honoré (1581-1649), seigneur de Cadenet, who married Charlotte Eugénie d'Ailly, countess of Chaulnes, in 1619, and was created duke of Chaulnes in 1621; and Léon, seigneur de Brantes, who became duke of Luxemburg-Piney by his marriage in 1620 with Margaret Charlotte of Luxemburg.

By her marriage with Claude of Lorraine, duke of Chevreuse, Marie de Rohan, the widow of the first duke of Luynes, acquired in 1655 the duchy of Chevreuse, which she gave in 1663 to Louis Charles d'Albert, her son by her first husband; and from that time the title of duke of Chevreuse and duke of Luynes was borne by the eldest sons of the family of Luynes, which also inherited the title of duke of Chaulnes on the extinction of the descendants of Honoré d'Albert in 1698. The branch of the dukes of Luxemburg-Piney became extinct in 1697.

Charles (1578-1621), the first duke of Luynes, was brought up at court and attended the dauphin, who later became Louis XIII. The king shared his fondness for hunting and rapidly advanced him in favour. In 1615 he was appointed commander of the Louvre and counsellor, and the following year grand falconer of France. He used his influence over the king in the court intrigues against the queen-mother Marie de Medici and her favourite Concini. It was Luynes who, with Vitry, captain of the guard, arranged the plot that ended in Concini's assassination (1617) and secured all the latter's possessions in Italy and France. In the same year he was appointed captain of the Bastille and lieutenant-general of Normandy, and married Marie de Rohan, daughter of the duke of Montbazon. He employed extreme measures against the pamphleteers of the time, but sought peace in Italy and with the Protestants. In 1619 he negotiated the treaty of Angoulême by which Marie de Medici was accorded complete liberty. He was made governor of Picardy in 1619; suppressed an uprising of nobles in 1620; and in 1621, with slight military ability or achievement, was appointed constable of France. His rapid rise to power made him a host of enemies, who looked upon him as but a second Concini. In order to justify his newly-won laurels, Luynes undertook an expedition against the Protestants, but died of a fever in the midst of the campaign, at Longueville in Guienne, on the 15th of December 1621.

His brother Honoré (1581-1649), first duke of Chaulnes, was governor of Picardy and marshal of France (1619), and defended his province successfully in 1625 and 1635. Louis Auguste d'Albert d'Ailly (1676-1744), duke of Chaulnes, also became marshal of France (1741). Louis Joseph d'Albert de Luynes (1670-1750), prince of Grimberghen, was in the service of the emperor Charles VII., and became field-marshal and ambassador in France.

Several members of the family of Albert were distinguished in letters and science. Louis Charles d'Albert (1620-1690), duke of Luynes, son of the constable, was an ascetic writer and friend of the Jansenists; Paul d'Albert de Luynes (1703-1788), cardinal and archbishop of Sens, an astronomer; Michel Ferdinand d'Albert d'Ailly (1714-1769), duke of Chaulnes, a writer on mathematical instruments, and his son Marie Joseph Louis (1741-1793), a chemist; and Honoré Théodore Paul Joseph (1802-1867), duke of Luynes, a writer on archaeology.

For the first duke see _Recueil des pièces les plus curieuses qui ont
esté faites pendant le règne du connestable M. de Luynes_ (2nd ed.,
1624); Le Vassor, _Histoire de Louis XIII._ (Paris, 1757); Griffet,
_Histoire du règne de Louis XIII., roi de France et de Navarre_
(Paris, 1758); V. Cousin, "Le Duc et connétable de Luynes," in
_Journal des savants_ (1861-1863); B. Zeller, _Études critiques sur le
règne de Louis XIII.: le connétable de Luynes, Montauban et la
Valteline_ (Paris, 1879); E. Pavie, _La Guerre entre Louis XIII. et
Marie de Medicis_ (Paris, 1899); Lavisse, _Histoire de France_, vi.^2,
141-216 (Paris, 1905).

LUZÁN CLARAMUNT DE SUELVES Y GURREA, IGNACIO (1702-1754), Spanish critic and poet, was born at Saragossa on the 28th of March 1702. His youth was passed under the care of his uncle, and, after studying at Milan, he graduated in philosophy at the university of Catania. In 1723 he took minor orders, but abandoned his intention of entering the church and took up his residence at Naples, where he read assiduously. Business took him to Spain in 1733, and he became known in Madrid as a scholar with a tendency towards innovations in literature. _La Poética, ó Reglas de la poesía en general y de sus principales especies_ (1737) proved that this impression was correct. He at once took rank as the leader of the literary reformers, and his courteous determination earned him the respect of his opponents. In 1747 he was appointed secretary to the Spanish embassy in Paris and, on returning to Madrid in 1750, was elected to the "Academia Poética del Buen Gusto," where, on account of his travels, he was known by the sobriquet of _El Peregrino_. He became master of the mint and treasurer of the royal library. He died at Madrid, after a short illness, on the 19th of May 1754. Luzán was not the pioneer of Franco-Italian theories in Spain, but he was their most powerful exponent, and his _Poética_ is an admirable example of destructive criticism. The defects of Lope de Vega and Calderon are indicated with vigilant severity, but on the constructive side Luzán is notably weak, for he merely proposes to substitute one exhausted convention for another. The doctrine of the dramatic unities had not the saving virtues which he ascribed to it, and, though he succeeded in banishing the older dramatists from the boards, he and his school failed to produce a single piece of more than mediocre merit. His theories, derived chiefly from Muratori, were ineffective in practice; but their ingenuity cannot be denied, and they acted as a stimulus to the partisans of the national tradition.

LUZ-SAINT-SAUVEUR, a town of south-western France in the department of Hautes-Pyrénées, 21 m. S. of Lourdes by rail. Pop. (1906) 1069. Luz is beautifully situated at a height of 2240 ft. on the Bastan. It has a remarkable church, built by the Templars in the 12th and 13th centuries and fortified later. The crenelated ramparts with which it is surrounded, and the tower to the north of the apse resembling a keep, give it the aspect of a fortress; other interesting features are the Romanesque north door and a chapel of the 16th century. The village of St Sauveur lies a little above Luz on the left bank of the gorge of the Gave de Pau, which is crossed higher up by the imposing Pont Napoleon (1860). It is a pleasant summer resort, and is visited for its warm sulphurous springs. Discovered in the 16th century, the waters came into vogue after 1820, in which year they were visited by the duchesses of Angoulême and Berry. There is much picturesque mountain scenery in the vicinity; 12 m. to the south is the village of Gavarnie, above which is the magnificent rock amphitheatre or _cirque_ of Gavarnie, with its cascade, one of the highest in Europe.

LUZZATTI, LUIGI (1841- ), Italian economist and financier, was born of Jewish parents at Venice on the 11th of March 1841. After completing his studies in law at the university of Padua, he attracted the attention of the Austrian police by his lectures on political economy, and was obliged to emigrate. In 1863 he obtained a professorship at the Milan Technical Institute; in 1867 he was appointed professor of constitutional law at Padua, whence he was transferred to the university of Rome. Gifted with eloquence and energy, he popularized in Italy the economic ideas of Schultze-Delitzsch, worked for the establishment of a commercial college at Venice, and contributed to the spread of people's banks on a basis of limited liability throughout the country. In 1869 he was appointed by Minghetti under secretary of state to the ministry of agriculture and commerce, in which capacity he abolished government control over commercial companies and promoted a state inquiry into the conditions of industry. Though theoretically a free trader, he was largely instrumental in creating the Italian protective system. In 1877 he participated in the commercial negotiations with France, in 1878 compiled the Italian customs tariff, and subsequently took a leading part in the negotiations of all the commercial treaties between Italy and other countries. Appointed minister of the treasury in the first Di Rudini cabinet of 1891, he imprudently abolished the system of frequent clearings of bank-notes between the state banks, a measure which facilitated the duplication of part of the paper currency and hastened the bank crisis of 1893. In 1896 he entered the second Di Rudini cabinet as minister of the treasury, and by timely legislation helped to save the bank of Naples from failure. After his fall from office in June 1898, his principal achievement was the negotiation of the Franco-Italian commercial treaty, though, as deputy, journalist and professor, he continued to take an active part in all political and economic manifestations. He was again minister of the treasury from November 1903 to March 1905 in Giolitti's second administration, and for the third time from February to May 1906, under Sonnino's premiership. During the latter term of office he achieved the conversion of the Italian 5% debt (reduced to 4% by the tax) to 3¾% to be eventually lowered to 3½%, an operation which other ministers had attempted without success; although the actual conversion was not completed until after the fall of the cabinet of which he formed part the merit is entirely his. In 1907 he was president of the co-operative congress at Cremona.

See L. Carpi's _Risorgimento Italiano_, vol. ii. (Milan, 1886), which
contains a biographical sketch of Luzzatti.

LUZZATTO, MOSES HAYIM (1707-1747), Hebrew dramatist and mystic, was born in Padua 1707, and died at Acre 1747. He was influenced by Isaac Luria (q.v.) on the mystical side, and on the poetical side by Italian drama of the school of Guarini (q.v.). He attacked Léon of Modena's anti-Kabbalistic treatises, and as a result of his conflict with the Venetian Rabbinate left Italy for Amsterdam, where, like Spinoza, he maintained himself by grinding lenses. Here, in 1740, he wrote his popular religious manual the _Path of the Upright_ (_Messilath Yesharim_) and other ethical works. He visited London, but finally settled in Palestine, where he died. Luzzatto's most lasting work is in the realm of Hebrew drama. His best-known compositions are: the _Tower of Victory_ (_Migdal 'Oz_) and _Glory to the Upright_ (_Layesharim Tehillah_). Both of these dramas, which were not printed at the time but were widely circulated in manuscript, are of the type which preceded the Shakespearean age--they are allegorical and all the characters are types. The beautiful Hebrew style created a new school of Hebrew poetry, and the Hebrew renaissance which resulted from the career of Moses Mendelssohn owed much to Luzzatto.

See Grätz, _History of the Jews_, v. ch. vii.; I. Abrahams, _Jewish
Life in the Middle Ages_, pp. 190, 268; N. Slouschz, _The Renascence
of Hebrew Literature_, ch. i. (I. A.)

LUZZATTO, SAMUEL DAVID (1800-1865), Jewish scholar, was born at Trieste in 1800, and died at Padua in 1865. He was the most distinguished of the Italian Jewish scholars of the 19th century. The first Jew to suggest emendations to the text of the Hebrew Bible, he edited Isaiah (1856-1867), and wrote a commentary on the Pentateuch (1871). His grammatical works were mostly written in Italian. He also contributed to the history of the Synagogue liturgy, and enjoys with Geiger (q.v.) and Zunz (q.v.) the honour of reviving interest in the medieval Hebrew hymnology and secular verse.

See Grätz, _History of the Jews_ (Eng. trans.), v. 622 seq.; N.
Slouschz, _The Renascence of Hebrew Literature_, pp. 84-92; the
_Jewish Encyclopedia_, viii. 225-226, with list of works. (I. A.)

LYALL, SIR ALFRED COMYN (1835- ), Anglo-Indian civil servant and man of letters, son of the Rev. Alfred Lyall, was born in 1835, and educated at Eton and Haileybury. He entered the Bengal civil service in 1855, saw service during the Mutiny in the Bulandshahr district, at Meerut, and with the Khaki Risala of volunteers. He was commissioner in Berar (1867), secretary to the government of India in the Home and Foreign departments, lieutenant-governor of the North-western Provinces (1882-1887), and member of the Council of India (1888-1903). Among his writings, his _Verses Written in India_ (1889) attained considerable popularity, and in his _Asiatic Studies_ (1882 and 1899) he displays a deep insight into Indian life and character. He wrote the _Life_ of Lord Dufferin (1905), and made numerous contributions to periodical literature.

LYALL, EDNA, the pen-name of ADA ELLEN BAYLY (1857-1903), English novelist. She was born at Brighton in 1857, the daughter of a barrister. Her parents died while she was a child, and she was brought up at Caterham, Surrey. At Eastbourne, where most of her life was spent, she was well known for her philanthropic activity. She died on the 8th of February 1903. Edna Lyall's vogue as a novelist was the result of a combination of the story-teller's gift with a sincere ethical and religious spirit of Christian tolerance, which at the time was new to many readers. Though her _Won by Waiting_ (1879) had some success, it was with _Donovan_ (1882) and _We Two_ (1884), in which the persecuted atheist was inevitably identified with Charles Bradlaugh, that she became widely popular. Other novels were _In the Golden Days_ (1885), a story of the Great Rebellion; _Knight Errant_ (1887); _Autobiography of a Slander_ (1887); _A Hardy Norseman_ (1889); _Derrick Vaughan_, _The Story of a Novelist_ (1889); _To Right the Wrong_ (1892); _Doreen_ (1894), a statement of the case for Irish Home Rule; _The Autobiography of a Truth_ (1896), the proceeds of which were devoted to the Armenian Relief Fund; _In Spite of All_ (1901), which had originally been produced by Mr Ben Greet as a play; and _The Bruges Letters_ (1902), a book for children.

A _Life_ by J. N. Escreet appeared in 1904, and a shorter account of
her by the Rev. G. A. Payne was printed at Manchester in 1903.

LYALLPUR, a district of India, in the Multan division of the Punjab. It was constituted in 1904 to comprise the "Chenab Colony," being the waste portion of the former Jhang district that is now irrigated by the Lower Chenab canal. Area, 3075 sq. m.; pop. (1906) 654,666. It is traversed by a section of the North-western railway. The headquarters are at Lyallpur town (pop. in 1906, 13,483), named after Sir James Lyall, a lieutenant-governor. It contains several factories for ginning and pressing cotton.

See _Chenab Colony Gazetteer_ (Lahore, 1904).

LYCAEUS (Mons Lycaeus, [Greek: Lychaion oros]: mod. _Diaphorti_), a mountain in Arcadia, sacred to Zeus Lycaeus, who was said to have been born and brought up on it, and the home of Pelasgus and his son Lycaon, who is said to have founded the ritual of Zeus practised on its summit. This seems to have involved a human sacrifice, and a feast in which the man who received the portion of a human victim was changed to a wolf, as Lycaon had been after sacrificing a child. The altar of Zeus consists of a great mound of ashes with a retaining wall. It was said that no shadows fell within the precincts; and that any who entered it died within the year.

LYCANTHROPY (Gr. [Greek: lykos], wolf, [Greek: anthropos], man), a name employed (1) in folk-lore for the liability or power of a human being to undergo transformation into an animal; (2) in pathology for a form of insanity in which the patient believes that he is transformed into an animal and behaves accordingly.

I. Although the term lycanthropy properly speaking refers to metamorphosis into a wolf (see WERWOLF), it is in practice used of transformation into any animal. The Greeks also spoke of kynanthropy ([Greek: kyon], dog); in India and the Asiatic islands the tiger is the commonest form, in North Europe the bear, in Japan the fox, in Africa the leopard or hyena, sometimes also the lion, in South America the jaguar; but though there is a tendency for the most important carnivorous animal of the area to take the first place in stories and beliefs as to transformation, the less important beasts of prey and even harmless animals like the deer also figure among the wer-animals.

Lycanthropy is often confused with transmigration; but the essential feature of the wer-animal is that it is the alternative form or the double of a living human being, while the soul-animal is the vehicle, temporary or permanent, of the spirit of a dead human being. The vampire is sometimes regarded as an example of lycanthropy; but it is in human form, sometimes only a head, sometimes a whole body, sometimes that of a living person, at others of a dead man who issues nightly from the grave to prey upon the living.

Even if the denotation of lycanthropy be limited to the animal-metamorphosis of living human beings, the beliefs classed together under this head are far from uniform, and the term is somewhat capriciously applied. The transformation may be voluntary or involuntary, temporary or permanent; the wer-animal may be the man himself metamorphosed, it may be his double whose activity leaves the real man to all appearance unchanged, it may be his soul, which goes forth seeking whom it may devour and leaving its body in a state of trance; or it may be no more than the messenger of the human being, a real animal or a familiar spirit, whose intimate connexion with its owner is shown by the fact that any injury to it is believed, by a phenomenon known as repercussion, to cause a corresponding injury to the human being.

The phenomenon of repercussion, the power of animal metamorphosis, or of sending out a familiar, real or spiritual, as a messenger, and the supernormal powers conferred by association with such a familiar, are also attributed to the magician, male and female, all the world over; and witch superstitions are closely parallel to, if not identical with, lycanthropic beliefs, the occasional involuntary character of lycanthropy being almost the sole distinguishing feature. In another direction the phenomenon of repercussion is asserted to manifest itself in connexion with the bush-soul of the West African and the _nagual_ of Central America; but though there is no line of demarcation to be drawn on logical grounds, the assumed power of the magician and the intimate association of the bush-soul or the _nagual_ with a human being are not termed lycanthropy. Nevertheless it will be well to touch on both these beliefs here.

In North and Central America, and to some extent in West Africa, Australia and other parts of the world, every male acquires at puberty a tutelary spirit (see DEMONOLOGY); in some tribes of Indians the youth kills the animal of which he dreams in his initiation fast; its claw, skin or feathers are put into a little bag and become his "medicine" and must be carefully retained, for a "medicine" once lost can never be replaced. In West Africa this relation is said to be entered into by means of the blood bond, and it is so close that the death of the animal causes the man to die and vice versa. Elsewhere the possession of a tutelary spirit in animal form is the privilege of the magician. In Alaska the candidate for magical powers has to leave the abodes of men; the chief of the gods sends an otter to meet him, which he kills by saying "O" four times; he then cuts out its tongue and thereby secures the powers which he seeks. The Malays believe that the office of _pawang_ (priest) is only hereditary if the soul of the dead priest, in the form of a tiger, passes into the body of his son. While the familiar is often regarded as the alternative form of the magician, the _nagual_ or bush-soul is commonly regarded as wholly distinct from the human being. Transitional beliefs, however, are found, especially in Africa, in which the power of transformation is attributed to the whole of the population of certain areas. The people of Banana are said to change themselves by magical means, composed of human embryos and other ingredients, but in their leopard form they may do no hurt to mankind under pain of retaining for ever the beast shape. In other cases the change is supposed to be made for the purposes of evil magic and human victims are not prohibited. We can, therefore, draw no line of demarcation, and this makes it probable that lycanthropy is connected with nagualism and the belief in familiar spirits, rather than with metempsychosis, as Dr Tylor argues, or with totemism, as suggested by J. F. M'Lennan. A further link is supplied by the Zulu belief that the magician's familiar is really a transformed human being; when he finds a dead body on which he can work his spells without fear of discovery, the wizard breathes a sort of life into it, which enables it to move and speak, it being thought that some dead wizard has taken possession of it. He then burns a hole in the head and through the aperture extracts the tongue. Further spells have the effect of changing the revivified body into the form of some animal, hyena, owl or wild cat, the latter being most in favour. This creature then becomes the wizard's servant and obeys him in all things; its chief use is, however, to inflict sickness and death upon persons who are disliked by its master.

_Lycanthropy in Europe._--The wolf is the commonest form of the
wer-animal (see WERWOLF), though in the north the bear disputes its
pre-eminence. In ancient Greece the dog was also associated with the
belief. Marcellus of Sida, who wrote under the Antonines, gives an
account of a disease which befell people in February; but a
pathological state seems to be meant.

_Lycanthropy in Africa._--In Abyssinia the power of transformation is
attributed to the Boudas, and at the same time we have records of
pathological lycanthropy (see below). Blacksmiths are credited with
magical powers in many parts of the world, and it is significant that
the Boudas are workers in iron and clay; in the _Life of N. Pearce_
(i. 287) a European observer tells a story of a supposed
transformation which took place in his presence and almost before his
eyes; but it does not appear how far hallucination rather than
coincidence must be invoked to explain the experience.

_The Wer-tiger of the East Indies._--The Poso-Alfures of central
Celebes believe that man has three souls, the _inosa_, the _angga_ and
the _tanoana_. The _inosa_ is the vital principle; it can be detected
in the veins and arteries; it is given to man by one of the great
natural phenomena, more especially the wind. The _angga_ is the
intellectual part of man; its seat is unknown; after death it goes to
the under-world, and, unlike the _inosa_, which is believed to be
dissolved into its original elements, takes possession of an
immaterial body. The _tanoana_ is the divine in man and after death
returns to its lord, Poewempala boeroe. It goes forth during sleep,
and all that it sees it whispers into the sleeper's ear and then he
dreams. According to another account, the _tanoana_ is the substance
by which man lives, thinks and acts; the _tanoana_ of man, plants and
animals is of the same nature. A man's _tanoana_ can be strengthened
by those of others; when the _tanoana_ is long away or destroyed the
man dies. The _tanoana_ seems to be the soul of which lycanthropic
feats are asserted.

Among the Toradjas of central Celebes it is believed that a man's
"inside" can take the form of a cat, wild pig, ape, deer or other
animal, and afterwards resume human form; it is termed _lamboyo_. The
exact relation of the _lamboyo_ to the _tanoana_ does not seem to be
settled; it will be seen below that the view seems to vary. According
to some the power of transformation is a gift of the gods, but others
hold that werwolfism is contagious and may be acquired by eating food
left by a werwolf or even by leaning one's head against the same
pillar. The Todjoers hold that any one who touches blood becomes a
werwolf. In accordance with this view is the belief that werwolfism
can be cured; the breast and stomach of the werman must be rubbed and
pinched, just as when any other witch object has to be extracted. The
patient drinks medicine, and the contagion leaves the body in the form
of snakes and worms. There are certain marks by which a werman can be
recognized. His eyes are unsteady and sometimes green with dark
shadows underneath. He does not sleep soundly and fireflies come out
of his mouth. His lips remain red in spite of betel chewing, and he
has a long tongue. The Todjoers add that his hair stands on end.

Some of the forms of the _lamboyo_ are distinguishable from ordinary
animals by the fact that they run about among the houses; the
wer-buffalo has only one horn, and the wer-pig transforms itself into
an ants' nest, such as hangs from trees. Some say that the werman does
not really take the form of an animal himself, but, like the sorcerer,
only sends out a messenger. The _lamboyo_ attacks by preference
solitary individuals, for he does not like to be observed. The victim
feels sleepy and loses consciousness; the _lamboyo_ then assumes human
form (his body being, however, still at home) and cuts up his victim,
scattering the fragments all about. He then takes the liver and eats
it, puts the body together again, licks it with his long tongue and
joins it together. When the victim comes to himself again he has no
idea that anything unusual has happened to him. He goes home, but soon
begins to feel unwell. In a few days he dies, but before his death he
is able sometimes to name the werman to whom he has fallen a victim.

From this account it might be inferred that the _lamboyo_ was
identical with the _tanoana_; the absence of the _lamboyo_ seems to
entail a condition of unconsciousness, and it can assume human form.
In other cases, however, the _lamboyo_ seems to be analogous to the
familiar of the sorcerer. The Toradjas tell a story of how a man once
came to a house and asked the woman to give him a rendezvous; it was
night and she was asleep; the question was put three times before the
answer was given "in the tobacco plantation." The husband was awake,
and next day followed his wife, who was irresistibly drawn thither.
The werman came to meet her in human form, although his body was
engaged in building a new house, and caused the woman to faint by
stamping three times on the ground. Thereupon the husband attacked the
werman with a piece of wood, and the latter to escape transformed
himself into a leaf; this the husband put into a piece of bamboo and
fastened the ends so that he could not escape. He then went back to
the village and put the bamboo in the fire. The werman said "Don't,"
and as soon as it was burnt he fell dead.

In another case a woman died, and, as her death was believed to be due
to the malevolence of a werwolf, her husband watched by her body. For,
like Indian witches, the werwolf, for some reason, wishes to revive
his victim and comes in human form to carry off the coffin. As soon as
the woman was brought to life the husband attacked the werwolf, who
transformed himself into a piece of wood and was burnt. The woman
remained alive, but her murderer died the same night.

According to a third form of the belief, the body of the werman is
itself transformed. One evening a man left the hut in which a party
were preparing to pass the night; one of his companions heard a deer
and fired into the darkness. Soon after the man came back and said he
had been shot. Although no marks were to be seen he died a few days
later.

In Central Java we meet with another kind of wer-tiger. The power of
transformation is regarded as due to inheritance, to the use of
spells, to fasting and will-power, to the use of charms, &c. Save when
it is hungry or has just cause for revenge it is not hostile to man;
in fact, it is said to take its animal form only at night and to guard
the plantations from wild pigs, exactly as the _balams_ (magicians) of
Yucatan were said to guard the corn fields in animal form. Variants of
this belief assert that the werman does not recognize his friends
unless they call him by name, or that he goes out as a mendicant and
transforms himself to take vengeance on those who refuse him alms.
Somewhat similar is the belief of the Khonds; for them the tiger is
friendly; he reserves his wrath for their enemies, and a man is said
to take the form of a tiger in order to wreak a just vengeance.

_Lycanthropy in South America._--According to K. F. P. v. Martius the
_kanaima_ is a human being who employs poison to carry out his
function of blood avenger; other authorities represent the _kanaima_
as a jaguar, which is either an avenger of blood or the familiar of a
cannibalistic sorcerer. The Europeans of Brazil hold that the seventh
child of the same sex in unbroken succession becomes a wer-man or
woman, and takes the form of a horse, goat, jaguar or pig.

II. As a pathological state lycanthropy may be described as a kind of hysteria, and may perhaps be brought into connexion with the form of it known as _latah_. It is characterized by the patient's belief that he has been metamorphosed into an animal, and is often accompanied by a craving for strange articles of food, including the flesh of living beings or of corpses. In the lower stages of culture the state of the patient is commonly explained as due to possession, but where he leaves the neighbourhood of man real metamorphosis may be asserted, as in ordinary lycanthropic beliefs. Marcellus of Sida says that in Greece the patients frequented the tombs at night; they were recognizable by their yellow complexion, hollow eyes and dry tongue. The Garrows of India are said to tear their hair when they are seized with the complaint, which is put down to the use of a drug applied to the forehead; this recalls the stories of the witch's salve in Europe. In Abyssinia the patient is usually a woman; two forms are distinguished, caused by the hyena and the leopard respectively. A kind of trance ushers in the fit; the fingers are clenched, the eyes glazed and the nostrils distended; the patient, when she comes to herself, laughs hideously and runs on all fours. The exorcist is a blacksmith; as a rule, he applies onion or garlic to her nose and proceeds to question the evil spirit.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the anthropological side of the subject see
bibliography to WERWOLF; also _Tijdskrift voor indische Taal, Land en
Volkenkunde_, xxviii. 338, xli. 548, 568; _Med.
Zendelingsgenootschap_, xxxix. 3, 16; O. Stoll, _Suggestion_, p. 418;
W. H. Brett, _Indians of British Guiana_. For the pathological side,
see Hack Tuke, _Dict. of Psychological Medicine_, s.v. "Lycanthropy";
_Dict. des sciences médicales_; Waldmeier, _Autobiography_, p. 64; A.
J. Hayes, _Source of Blue Nile_, p. 286 seq.; _Abh. phil.-hist. Klasse
kgl. sächsische Gesellschaft der Wiss._ 17, No. 3. (N. W. T.)

LYCAON, in Greek mythology, son of Pelasgus, the mythical first king of Arcadia. He, or his fifty impious sons, entertained Zeus and set before him a dish of human flesh; the god pushed away the dish in disgust and either killed the king and his sons by lightning or turned them into wolves (Apollodorus iii. 8; Ovid, _Metam._ i. 198). Some say that Lycaon slew and dished up his own son Nyctimus (Clem. Alex. _Protrept._ ii. 36; Nonnus, _Dionys._ xviii. 20; Arnobius iv. 24). The deluge was said to have been sent by Zeus in the time of Deucalion in consequence of the sons' impiety. Pausanias (viii. 2) says that Lycaon sacrificed a child to Zeus on the altar on mount Lycaeus, and immediately after the sacrifice was turned into a wolf. This gave rise to the story that a man was turned into a wolf at each annual sacrifice to Zeus Lycaeus, but recovered his human form if he abstained from human flesh for ten years. The oldest city, the oldest cultus (that of Zeus Lycaeus), and the first civilization of Arcadia are attributed to Lycaon. His story has been variously interpreted. According to Weizsäcker, he was an old Pelasgian or pre-Hellenic god, to whom human sacrifice was offered, bearing a non-Hellenic name similar to [Greek: Lykos], whence the story originated of his metamorphosis into a wolf. His cult was driven out by that of the Hellenic Zeus, and Lycaon himself was afterwards represented as an evil spirit, who had insulted the new deity by setting human flesh before him. Robertson Smith considers the sacrifices offered to the wolf-Zeus in Arcadia to have been originally cannibal feasts of a wolf-tribe, who recognized the wolf as their totem. Usener and others identify Lycaon with Zeus Lycaeus, the god of light, who slays his son Nyctimus (the dark) or is succeeded by him, in allusion to the perpetual succession of night and day. According to Ed. Meyer, the belief that Zeus Lycaeus accepted human sacrifice in the form of a wolf was the origin of the myth that Lycaon, the founder of his cult, became a wolf, i.e. participated in the nature of the god by the act of sacrifice, as did all who afterwards duly performed it. W. Mannhardt sees in the ceremony an allusion to certain agricultural rites, the object of which was to prevent the failure of the crops and to avert pestilence (or to protect them and the flocks against the ravages of wolves). Others (e.g. V. Bérard) take Zeus Lycaeus for a Semitic Baal, whose worship was imported into Arcadia by the Phoenicians; Immerwahr identifies him with Zeus Phyxios, the god of the exile who flees on account of his having shed blood. Another explanation is that the place of the sacred wolf once worshipped in Arcadia was taken in cult by Zeus Lycaeus, and in popular tradition by Lycaon, the ancestor of the Arcadians, who was supposed to have been punished for his insulting treatment of Zeus. It is possible that the whole may be merely a reminiscence of a superstition similar to the familiar werwolf stories.

See articles by P. Weizsäcker in Roscher's _Lexikon_ and by G.
Fougères (s.v. "Lykaia") in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des
antiquités_; W. Immerwahr, _Die Kulte und Mythen Arkadiens_, 1.
(1891), p. 14; L. R. Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, i. (1896),
p. 40; A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual and Religion_ (1899); C. Pascal, _Studii
di antichità e mitologia_ (1896), who sees in Lycaon a god of death
honoured by human sacrifice; Ed. Meyer, _Forschungen zur alten
Geschichte_, i. (1892), p. 60; W. Mannhardt, _Wald- und Feldkulte_,
ii. (1905); G. Fougères, _Mantinée et l'Arcadie orientale_ (1898), p.
202; V. Bérard, _De l'origine des cultes arcadiens_ (1894); H. D.
Müller, _Mythologie der griechischen Stämme_, ii. (1861), p. 78; H.
Usener, _Rheinisches Museum_, liii. (1898), p. 375; G. Görres,
_Berliner Studien für classische Philologie_, x. 1 (1889), who regards
the Lycaea as a funeral festival connected with the changes of
vegetation; Vollgraf, _De Ovidii mythopoeia_; a concise statement of
the various forms of the legend in O. Gruppe, _Griechische
Mythologie_, ii. p. 920, n. 4; see also LYCANTHROPY; D. Bassi, "Apollo
Liceo," in _Rivista di storia antica_, i. (1895); and Frazer's
_Pausanias_, iv. p. 189. (J. H. F.)

LYCAONIA, in ancient geography, a large region in the interior of Asia Minor, north of Mount Taurus. It was bounded on the E. by Cappadocia, on the N. by Galatia, on the W. by Phrygia and Pisidia, while to the S. it extended to the chain of Mount Taurus, where it bordered on the country popularly called in earlier times Cilicia Tracheia and in the Byzantine period Isauria; but its boundaries varied greatly at different times. The name is not found in Herodotus, but Lycaonia is mentioned by Xenophon as traversed by Cyrus the younger on his march through Asia. That author describes Iconium as the last city of Phrygia; and in Acts xiv. 5 St Paul, after leaving Iconium, crossed the frontier and came to Lystra in Lycaonia. Ptolemy, on the other hand, includes Lycaonia as a part of the province of Cappadocia, with which it was associated by the Romans for administrative purposes; but the two countries are clearly distinguished both by Strabo and Xenophon and by authorities generally.

Lycaonia is described by Strabo as a cold region of elevated plains, affording pasture to wild asses and to sheep; and at the present day sheep abound, but asses are practically unknown. Amyntas, king of Galatia, to whom the district was for a time subject, maintained there not less than three hundred flocks. It forms part of the interior tableland of Asia Minor, and has an elevation of more than 3000 ft. It suffers from want of water, aggravated in some parts by abundance of salt in the soil, so that the northern portion, extending from near Iconium to the salt lake of Tatta and the frontiers of Galatia, is almost wholly barren, only small patches being cultivated near Iconium and the large villages. The soil, where water is supplied, is productive. In ancient times great attention was paid to storing and distributing the water, so that much land now barren was formerly cultivated and supported a large number of cities.