Chapter D: FORENSIC, IN PRIVATE CAUSES.--I. Action for Libel (Greek: dike (12)

Besides a volume of sermons under the title _Christ's Healing Touch_, Mackennal published _The Biblical Scheme of Nature and of Man, The Christian Testimony, the Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia, The Kingdom of the Lord Jesus_ and _The Eternal God and the Human Sonship_. These are contributions to exegetical study or to theological and progressive religious thought, and have elements of permanent value. He also made some useful contributions to religious history. In 1893 he published the _Story of the English Separatists_, and later the _Homes and Haunts of the Pilgrim Fathers_; he also wrote the life of Dr J. A. Macfadyen of Manchester. In 1901 he delivered a series of lectures at Hartford Theological Seminary, Connecticut, U.S.A., published under the title _The Evolution of Congregationalism_. He died at Highgate on the 23rd of June 1904.

See D. Macfadyen, _Life and Letters of Alexander Mackennal_ (1905).
(D. Mn.)

MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER (c. 1755-1820), Canadian explorer, was probably a native of Inverness, Emigrating to North America at an early age, he was for several years engaged in the fur trade at Fort Chippewyan, at the head of Lake Athabasca, and it was here that his schemes of travel were formed. His first journey, made in 1789, was from Fort Chippewyan along the Great Slave Lake, and down the river which now bears his name to the Arctic Ocean; and his second, made in 1792 and 1793, from Fort Chippewyan across the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific coast near Cape Menzies. He wrote an account of these journeys, _Voyages on the River St Lawrence and through the Continent of North America to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans_ (London, 1801), which is of considerable interest from the information it contains about the native tribes. It is prefaced by an historical dissertation on the Canadian fur trade. Amassing considerable wealth, Mackenzie was knighted in 1802, and later settled in Scotland. He died at Mulnain, near Dunkeld, on the 11th of March 1820.

MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER (1822-1892), Canadian statesman, was born in Perthshire, Scotland, on the 28th of January, 1822. His father was a builder, and young Mackenzie emigrated to Canada in 1842, and worked in Ontario as a stone-mason, setting up for himself later as a builder and contractor at Sarnia with his brother. In 1852 his interest in questions of reform led to his becoming the editor of the _Lambton Shield_, a local Liberal paper. This brought him to the front, and in 1861 he became a member of the Canadian parliament, where he at once made his mark and was closely connected with the liberal leader, George Brown. He was elected for Lambton to the first Dominion house of commons in 1867, and soon became the leader of the liberal opposition; from 1871 to 1872 he also sat in the Ontario provincial assembly, and held the position of provincial treasurer. In 1873 the attack on Sir John Macdonald's ministry with regard to the Pacific Railway charter resulted in its defeat, and Mackenzie formed a new government, taking the portfolio of public works and becoming the first liberal premier of Canada. He remained in power till 1878, when industrial depression enabled Macdonald to return to office on a protectionist programme. In 1875 Mackenzie paid a visit to Great Britain, and was received at Windsor by Queen Victoria; he was offered a knighthood, but declined it. After his defeat he suffered from failing health, gradually resulting in almost total paralysis, but though in 1880 he resigned the leadership of the opposition, he retained a seat in parliament till his death at Toronto on the 17th of April 1892. While perhaps too cautious to be the ideal leader of a young and vigorous community, his grasp of detail, indefatigable industry, and unbending integrity won him the respect even of his political opponents.

His _Life and Times_ by William Buckingham and the Hon. George W. Ross
(Toronto, 1892) contains documents of much interest. See also George
Stewart, _Canada under the Administration of the Earl of Dufferin_
(Toronto, 1878).

MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1847- ), British composer, son of an eminent Edinburgh violinist and conductor, was born on the 22nd of August 1847. On the advice of a member of Gung'l's band who had taken up his residence in Edinburgh, Mackenzie was sent for his musical education to Sondershausen, where he entered the conservatorium under Ulrich and Stein, remaining there from 1857 to 1861, when he entered the ducal orchestra as a violinist. At this time he made Liszt's acquaintance. On his return home he won the King's Scholarship at the Royal Academy of Music, and remained the usual three years in the institution, after which he established himself as a teacher of the piano, &c., in Edinburgh. He appeared in public as a violinist, taking part in Chappell's quartette concerts, and starting a set of classical concerts. He was appointed precentor of St George's Church in 1870, and conductor of the Scottish vocal music association in 1873, at the same time getting through a prodigious amount of teaching. He kept in touch with his old friends by playing in the orchestra of the Birmingham Festivals from 1864 to 1873. The most important compositions of this period of Mackenzie's life were the Quartette in E flat for piano and strings. Op. 11, and an overture, _Cervantes_, which owed its first performance to the encouragement and help of von Bülow. On the advice of this great pianist, he gave up his Edinburgh appointments, which had quite worn him out, and settled in Florence in order to compose. The cantatas _The Bride_ (Worcester, 1881) and _Jason_ (Bristol, 1882) belong to this time, as well as his first opera. This was commissioned for the Carl Rosa Company, and was written to a version of Merimée's _Colomba_ prepared by Franz Hueffer. It was produced with great success in 1883, and was the first of a too short series of modern English operas; Mackenzie's second opera, _The Troubadour_, was produced by the same company in 1886; and his third dramatic work was _His Majesty_, an excellent comic opera (Savoy Theatre, 1897). In 1884 his _Rose of Sharon_ was given with very great success at the Norwich Festival; in 1885 he was appointed conductor of Novello's oratorio concerts; _The Story of Sayid_ came out at the Leeds Festival of 1886; and in 1888 he succeeded Macfarren as principal of the Royal Academy of Music. _The Dream of Jubal_ was produced at Liverpool in 1889, and in London very soon afterwards. A fine setting of the hymn "Veni, Creator Spiritus" was given at Birmingham in 1891, and the oratorio _Bethlehem_ in 1894. From 1892 to 1899 he conducted the Philharmonic Concerts, and was knighted in 1894. Besides the works mentioned he has written incidental music to plays, as, for instance, to _Ravenswood_, _The Little Minister_, and _Coriolanus_; concertos and other works for violin and orchestra, much orchestral music, and many songs and violin pieces. The romantic side of music appeals to Mackenzie far more strongly than any other, and the cases in which he has conformed to the classical conventions are of the rarest. In the orchestral ballad, _La Belle Dame sans Merci_, he touches the note of weird pathos, and in the nautical overture _Britannia_ his sense of humour stands revealed. In the two "Scottish Rhapsodies" for orchestra, in the music to _The Little Minister_, and in a beautiful fantasia for pianoforte and orchestra on Scottish themes, he has seized the essential, not the accidental features of his native music.

MACKENZIE, SIR GEORGE (1636-1691), of Rosehaugh, Scottish lawyer, was the grandson of Kenneth, first Lord Mackenzie of Kintail, and the nephew of Colin and George, first and second earls of Seaforth; his mother was a daughter of Andrew Bruce, principal of St Leonard's College, St Andrews. He was born at Dundee in 1636, educated at the grammar school there and at Aberdeen, and afterwards at St Andrews, graduating at sixteen. He then engaged for three years in the study of the civil law at Bourges; on his return to Scotland he was called to the bar in 1659, and before the Restoration had risen into considerable practice. Immediately after the Restoration he was appointed a "justice-depute," and it is recorded that he and his colleagues in that office were ordained by the parliament in 1661 "to repair, once in the week at least, to Musselburgh and Dalkeith, and to try and judge such persons as are there or thereabouts delate of witchcraft." In the same year he acted as counsel for the marquis of Argyll; soon afterwards he was knighted, and he represented the county of Ross during the four sessions of the parliament which was called in 1669. He succeeded Sir John Nisbet as king's advocate in August 1677, and in the discharge of this office became implicated in all the worst acts of the Scottish administration of Charles II., earning for himself an unenviable distinction as "the bloody Mackenzie." His refusal to concur in the measures for dispensing with the penal laws against Catholics led to his removal from office in 1686, but he was reinstated in February 1688. At the Revolution, being a member of convention, he was one of the minority of five in the division on the forfeiture of the crown. King William was urged to declare him incapacitated for holding any public office, but refused to accede to the proposal. When the death of Dundee (July 1689) had finally destroyed the hopes of his party in Scotland, Mackenzie betook himself to Oxford, where, admitted a student by a grace passed in 1690, he was allowed to spend the rest of his days in the enjoyment of the ample fortune he had acquired, and in the prosecution of his literary labours. One of his last acts before leaving Edinburgh had been to pronounce (March 15, 1689), as dean of the faculty of advocates, the inaugural oration at the foundation of the Advocates' library. He died at Westminster on the 8th of May 1691, and was buried in Greyfriars churchyard, Edinburgh.

While still a young man Sir George Mackenzie appears to have aspired
to eminence in the domain of pure literature, his earliest publication
having been _Aretina, or a Serious Romance_ (anon., 1661); it was
followed, also anonymously, by _Religio Stoici, a Short Discourse upon
Several Divine and Moral Subjects_ (1663); _A Moral Essay, preferring
Solitude to Public Employment_ (1665); and one or two other
disquisitions of a similar nature. His most important legal works are
entitled _A Discourse upon the Laws and Customs of Scotland in Matters
Criminal_ (1674); _Observations upon the Laws and Customs of Nations
as to Precedency, with the Science of Heraldry_ (1680); _Institutions
of the Law of Scotland_ (1684); and _Observations upon the Acts of
Parliament_ (1686); of these the last-named is the most important, the
_Institutions_ being completely overshadowed by the similar work of
his great contemporary Stair. In his _Jus Regium: or the Just and
Solid Foundations of Monarchy in general, and more especially of the
Monarchy of Scotland, maintained_ (1684), Mackenzie appears as an
uncompromising advocate of the highest doctrines of prerogative. His
_Vindication of the Government of Scotland during the reign of Charles
II._ (1691) is valuable as a piece of contemporary history. The
collected _Works_ were published at Edinburgh (2 vols. fol.) in
1716-1722; and _Memoirs of the Affairs of Scotland from the
Restoration of King Charles II._, from previously unpublished MSS., in
1821.

See A. Lang, _Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehaugh_ (1909).

MACKENZIE, HENRY (1745-1831), Scottish novelist and miscellaneous writer, was born at Edinburgh in August 1745. His father, Joshua Mackenzie, was a distinguished physician, and his mother, Margaret Rose, belonged to an old Nairnshire family. Mackenzie was educated at the high school and the university of Edinburgh, and was then articled to George Inglis of Redhall, who was attorney for the crown in the management of exchequer business. In 1765 he was sent to London to prosecute his legal studies, and on his return to Edinburgh became partner with Inglis, whom he afterwards succeeded as attorney for the crown. His first and most famous work, _The Man of Feeling_, was published anonymously in 1771, and met with instant success. The "Man of Feeling" is a weak creature, dominated by a futile benevolence, who goes up to London and falls into the hands of people who exploit his innocence. The sentimental key in which the book is written shows the author's acquaintance with Sterne and Richardson, but he had neither the humour of Sterne nor the subtle insight into character of Richardson. One Eccles of Bath claimed the authorship of this book, bringing in support of his pretensions a MS. with many ingenious erasures. Mackenzie's name was then officially announced, but Eccles appears to have induced some people to believe in him. In 1773 Mackenzie published a second novel, _The Man of the World_, the hero of which was as consistently bad as the "Man of Feeling" had been "constantly obedient to his moral sense," as Sir Walter Scott says. _Julia de Roubigné_ (1777), a story in letters, was preferred to his other novels by "Christopher North," who had a high opinion of Mackenzie (see _Noctes Ambrosianae_, vol. i. p. 155, ed. 1866). The first of his dramatic pieces, _The Prince of Tunis_, was produced in Edinburgh in 1773 with a certain measure of success. The others were failures. At Edinburgh Mackenzie belonged to a literary club, at the meetings of which papers in the manner of the _Spectator_ were read. This led to the establishment of a weekly periodical called the _Mirror_ (January 23, 1779-May 27, 1780), of which Mackenzie was editor and chief contributor. It was followed in 1785 by a similar paper, the _Lounger_, which ran for nearly two years and had the distinction of containing one of the earliest tributes to the genius of Robert Burns. Mackenzie was an ardent Tory, and wrote many tracts intended to counteract the doctrines of the French Revolution. Most of these remained anonymous, but he acknowledged his _Review of the Principal Proceedings of the Parliament of 1784_, a defence of the policy of William Pitt, written at the desire of Henry Dundas. He was rewarded (1804) by the office of comptroller of the taxes for Scotland. In 1776 Mackenzie married Penuel, daughter of Sir Ludovick Grant of Grant. He was, in his later years, a notable figure in Edinburgh society. He was nicknamed the "man of feeling," but he was in reality a hard-headed man of affairs with a kindly heart. Some of his literary reminiscences were embodied in his _Account of the Life and Writings of John Home, Esq._ (1822). He also wrote a _Life of Doctor Blacklock_, prefixed to the 1793 edition of the poet's works. He died on the 14th of January 1831.

In 1807 _The Works of Henry Mackenzie_ were published surreptitiously,
and he then himself superintended the publication of his _Works_ (8
vols., 1808). There is an admiring but discriminating criticism of his
work in the _Prefatory Memoir_ prefixed by Sir Walter Scott to an
edition of his novels in Ballantyne's _Novelist's Library_ (vol. v.,
1823).

McKENZIE, SIR JOHN (1838-1901). New Zealand statesman, was born at Ard-Ross, Scotland, in 1838, the son of a crofter. He emigrated to Otago, New Zealand, in 1860. Beginning as a shepherd, he rose to be farm manager at Puketapu near Palmerston South, and then to be a farmer in a substantial way in Shag Valley. In 1865 he was clerk to the local road board and school committee; in 1871 he entered the provincial council of Otago; and on the 11th of December 1881 was elected member of the House of Representatives, in which he sat till 1900. He was also for some years a member of the education board and of the land board of Otago, and always showed interest in the national elementary school system. In the House of Representatives he soon made good his footing, becoming almost at once a recognized spokesman for the smaller sort of rural settlers and a person of influence in the lobbies. He acted as government whip for the coalition ministry of Sir Robert Stout and Sir Julius Vogel, 1884-1887, and, while still a private member, scored his first success as a land reformer by carrying the "McKenzie clause" in a land act limiting the area which a state tenant might thenceforth obtain on lease. He was still, however, comparatively unknown outside his own province when, in January 1891, his party took office and he aided John Ballance in forming a ministry, in which he himself held the portfolio of lands, immigration and agriculture. From the first he made his hand felt in every matter connected with land settlement and the administration of the vast public estate. Generally his aim was to break up and subdivide the great freehold and leasehold properties which in his time covered four-sevenths of the occupied land of the colony. In his Land Act of 1892 he consolidated, abolished or amended, fifty land acts and ordinances dealing with crown lands, and thereafter amended his own act four times. Though owning to a preference for state tenancy over freehold, he never stopped the selling of crown land, and was satisfied to give would-be settlers the option of choosing freehold or leasehold under tempting terms as their form of tenure. As a compromise he introduced the lease in perpetuity or holding for 999 years at a quit rent fixed at 4%; theoretical objections have since led to its abolition, but for fifteen years much genuine settlement took place under its conditions. Broadly, however, McKenzie's exceptional success as lands minister was due rather to unflinching determination to stimulate the occupation of the soil by working farmers than to the solution of the problems of agrarian controversy. His best-known experiment was in land repurchase. A voluntary law (1892) was displaced by a compulsory act (1894), under which between £5,000,000 and £6,000,000 had by 1910 been spent in buying and subdividing estates for closer settlements, with excellent results. McKenzie also founded and expanded an efficient department of agriculture, in the functions of which inspection, grading, teaching and example are successfully combined. It has aided the development of dairying, fruit-growing, poultry-farming, bee-keeping and flax-milling, and done not a little to keep up the standard of New Zealand products. After 1897 McKenzie had to hold on in the face of failing health. An operation in London in 1899 only postponed the end. He died at his farm on the 6th of August 1901, soon after being called to the legislative council, and receiving a knighthood.

MACKENZIE, SIR MORELL (1837-1892), British physician, son of Stephen Mackenzie, surgeon (d. 1851), was born at Leytonstone, Essex, on the 7th of July 1837. After going through the course at the London Hospital, and becoming M.R.C.S. in 1858, he studied abroad at Paris, Vienna and Pesth; and at Pesth he learnt the use of the newly-invented laryngoscope under J. N. Czermak. Returning to London in 1862, he worked at the London Hospital, and took his degree in medicine. In 1863 he won the Jacksonian prize at the Royal College of Surgeons for an essay on the "Pathology of the Larynx," and he then devoted himself to becoming a specialist in diseases of the throat. In 1863 the Throat Hospital in King Street, Golden Square, was founded, largely owing to his initiative, and by his work there and at the London Hospital (where he was one of the physicians from 1866 to 1873) Morell Mackenzie rapidly became recognized throughout Europe as a leading authority, and acquired an extensive practice. So great was his reputation that in May 1887, when the crown prince of Germany (afterwards the emperor Frederick III.) was attacked by the affection of the throat of which he ultimately died, Morell Mackenzie was specially summoned to attend him. The German physicians who had attended the prince since the beginning of March (Karl Gerhardt, and subsequently Tobold, E. von Bergmann, and others) had diagnosed his ailment on the 18th of May as cancer of the throat; but Morell Mackenzie insisted (basing his opinion on a microscopical examination by R. Virchow of a portion of the tissue) that the disease was not demonstrably cancerous, that an operation for the extirpation of the larynx (planned for the 21st of May) was unjustifiable, and that the growth might well be a benign one and therefore curable by other treatment. The question was one not only of personal but of political importance, since it was doubted whether any one suffering from an incapacitating disease like cancer could, according to the family law of the Hohenzollerns, occupy the German throne; and there was talk of a renunciation of the succession by the crown prince. It was freely hinted, moreover, that some of the doctors themselves were influenced by political considerations. At any rate, Morell Mackenzie's opinion was followed: the crown prince went to England, under his treatment, and was present at the Jubilee celebrations in June. Morell Mackenzie was knighted in September 1887 for his services, and decorated with the Grand Cross of the Hohenzollern Order. In November, however, the German doctors were again called into consultation, and it was ultimately admitted that the disease really was cancer; though Mackenzie, with very questionable judgment, more than hinted that it had become malignant since his first examination, in consequence of the irritating effect of the treatment by the German doctors. The crown prince (see FREDERICK III.) became emperor on the 9th of March 1888, and died on the 15th of June. During all this period a violent quarrel raged between Sir Morell Mackenzie and the German medical world. The German doctors published an account of the illness, to which Mackenzie replied by a work entitled _The Fatal Illness of Frederick the Noble_ (1888), the publication of which caused him to be censured by the Royal College of Surgeons. After this sensational episode in his career, the remainder of Sir Morell Mackenzie's life was uneventful, and he died somewhat suddenly in London, on the 3rd of February 1892. He published several books on laryngoscopy and diseases of the throat.

MACKENZIE, WILLIAM LYON (1795-1861), Canadian politician, was born near Dundee, Scotland, on the 12th of March 1795. His father died before he was a month old, and the family were left in poverty. After some six years' work in a shop at Alyth, in April 1820 he emigrated with his mother to Canada. There he became a general merchant, first at York, then at Dundas, and later at Queenston. The discontented condition of Upper Canada drew him into politics, and on the 18th of May 1824 he published at Queenston the first number of the _Colonial Advocate_, in which the ruling oligarchy was attacked with great asperity. Most of the changes which he advocated were wise and have since been adopted; but the violence of Mackenzie's attacks roused great anger among the social and political set at York (Toronto), which was headed by John Beverley Robinson. In November 1824 Mackenzie removed to Toronto, but he had little capital; his paper appeared irregularly, and was on the point of suspending publication when his office was attacked and his type thrown into the bay by a number of the supporters of his opponents. In an action against the chief rioters he was awarded £625 and costs, was thus enabled to set up a much larger and more efficient plant, and the _Colonial Advocate_ ran till the 4th of November 1834.

In 1828 he was elected member of parliament for York, but was expelled on the technical ground that he had published in his newspaper the proceedings of the house without authorization. Five times he was expelled and five times re-elected by his constituents, till at last the government refused to issue a writ, and for three years York was without one of its representatives. In May 1832 he visited England, where he was well received by the colonial office. Largely as the result of his representations, many important reforms were ordered by Lord Goderich, afterwards earl of Ripon, the colonial secretary. While in England, he published _Sketches of Canada and the United States_, in which, with some exaggeration, many of the Canadian grievances were exposed. On his return in March 1834 he was elected mayor of Toronto. During his year of office, the heroism with which he worked hand in hand with his old enemy, Bishop Strachan, in fighting an attack of cholera, did not prevent him from winning much unpopularity by his officiousness, and in 1835 he was not re-elected either as mayor or alderman. In October 1834 he was elected member of parliament for York, and took his seat in January 1835, the Reformers being now in the majority. A committee on grievances was appointed, as chairman of which Mackenzie presented the admirable _Seventh Report on Grievances_, largely written by himself, in which the case for the Reformers was presented with force and moderation, and the adoption of responsible government advocated as the remedy.

In the general election of June 1836 the Tory party won a complete victory, Mackenzie and almost all the prominent Reformers being defeated at the polls. This totally unexpected defeat greatly embittered him. On the 4th of July 1836, the anniversary of the adoption of the American Declaration of Independence, he began the publication of the _Constitution_, which openly advocated a republican form of government. Later in the year he was appointed "agent and corresponding secretary" of the extreme wing of the Reform party, and more and more openly, in his speeches throughout the province, advocated armed revolt. He was also in correspondence with Papineau and the other leaders of the Reformers in Lower Canada, who were already planning a rising. Early in December 1837 Mackenzie gathered a mob of his followers, to the number of several hundred, at Gallows Hill, some miles to the north of Toronto, with the intention of seizing the lieutenant-governor and setting up a provisional government. Misunderstandings among the leaders led to the total failure of the revolt, and Mackenzie was forced to fly to the United States with a price on his head. In the town of Buffalo he collected a disorderly rabble, who seized and fortified Navy Island, in the river between the two countries, and for some weeks troubled the Canadian frontier. After the failure of this attempt he was put to the most pitiful shifts to make a living. In June 1839 he was tried in the United States for a breach of the neutrality laws, and sentenced to eighteen months' imprisonment, of which he served over eleven. While in gaol at Rochester he published the _Caroline Almanac_, the tone of which may be judged from its references to "Victoria Guelph, the bloody queen of England," and by the title given to the British cabinet of "Victoria Melbourne's bloody divan." He returned to Canada in consequence of the Amnesty Act 1849. A closer inspection had cured him of his love for republican institutions.

In 1851 he was elected to parliament for Haldimand, defeating George Brown. He at once allied himself with the Radicals (the "Clear Grits"), and, on the leadership of that party being assumed by Brown, became one of his lieutenants. He was still miserably poor, but refused all offers to accept a government position. In 1858 he resigned his seat in the house, owing to incipient softening of the brain, of which he died on the 29th of August 1861.

Turbulent, ungovernable, vain, often the dupe of schemers, Mackenzie united with much that was laughable not a little that was heroic. He could neither be bribed, bullied, nor cajoled. Perhaps the best instance of this is that in 1832 he refused from Lord Goderich an offer of a position which would have given him great influence in Canada and an income of £1,500. He was a born agitator, and as such tended to exaggeration and misrepresentation. But the evils against which he struggled were real and grave; the milder measures of the Constitutional Reformers might have taken long to achieve the results which were due to his hot-headed advocacy.

The _Life and Times_ by his son-in-law, Charles Lindsey (Toronto, 2
vols., 1862), is moderate and fair, though tending to smooth over his
anti-British gasconnade while in the United States. An abridgment of
this work was edited by G. G. S. Lindsey for the "Makers of Canada"
series (1909). In _The Story of the Upper Canadian Rebellion_ by J. C.
Dent (2 vols., Toronto, 1885), a bitter attack is made on him, which
drew a savage reply from another son-in-law, John King, K.C., called
_The Other Side of the Story_. The best short account of his career is
given by J. C. Dent in _The Canadian Portrait Gallery_, vol. ii.
(Toronto, 1881). (W. L. G.)

MACKENZIE, a river of the North-West Territories, Canada, discharging the waters of the Great Slave Lake into the Arctic Ocean. It was discovered and first navigated by Sir Alexander Mackenzie in 1789. It has an average width of 1 m., an average fall of 6 in. to the mile; an approximate discharge, at a medium stage, of 500,000 cub. ft. per second; and a total length, including its great tributary the Peace, of 2,350 m. The latter rises, under the name of the Finlay, in the mountains of British Columbia, and flows north-east and then south-east in the great intermontane valley that bounds the Rocky Mountains on the west, to its confluence with the Parsnip. From the confluence the waters of the combined rivers, now called the Peace, flow east through the Rocky Mountains, and then north-east to unite with the river which discharges the waters of Lake Athabasca; thence to Great Slave Lake it is known as Slave river. Excluding the rivers which enter these lakes, the principal tributaries of the Peace are: Omineca, Nation, Parsnip, Halfway, North Pine, South Pine, Smoky, Battle, and Loon rivers; those of the Mackenzie are the Liard (650 m. long), which rises near the sources of the Pelly, west of the Rocky Mountains, and breaks through that range on its way to join the parent stream, Great Bear river, which drains Great Bear Lake, Nahanni, Dahadinni, Arctic Red, and Peel rivers. The Mackenzie enters the Arctic Ocean near 135° W. and 68° 50´ W., after flowing for 70 to 80 m. through a flat delta, not yet fully surveyed. With its continuation, Slave river, it is navigable from the Arctic Ocean to Fort Smith, a distance of over 1,200 m., and between the latter and the head of Lesser Slave Lake, a further distance of 625 m., there is only one obstruction to navigation, the Grand Rapids near Fort McMurray on the Athabasca river. The Peace is navigable from its junction with Slave river for about 220 m. to Vermilion Falls. The Mackenzie is navigable from about the 10th of June to the 20th of October, and Great Slave Lake from about the 1st of July to the end of October. All the waters and lakes of this great system are abundantly stocked with fish, chiefly white fish and trout, the latter attaining to remarkable size.

MACKEREL, pelagic fishes, belonging to a small family, _Scombridae_, of which the tunny, bonito, albacore, and a few other tropical genera are members. Although the species are fewer in number than in most other families of fishes, they are widely spread and extremely abundant, peopling by countless schools the oceans of the tropical and temperate zones, and approaching the coasts only accidentally, occasionally, or periodically.

The mackerel proper (genus _Scomber_) are readily recognized by their elegantly shaped, well-proportioned body, shining in iridescent colours. Small, thin, deciduous scales equally cover nearly the entire body. There are two dorsal fins, the anterior near the head, composed of 11-14 feeble spines, the second near the tail with all the rays soft except the first, and behind the second dorsal five or six finlets. The ventral is immediately below the second dorsal, and is also followed by finlets. The caudal fin is crescent-shaped, strengthened at the base by two short ridges on each side. The mouth is wide, armed above and below with a row of very small fixed teeth.

No other fish shows finer proportions in the shape of its body. Every "line" of its build is designed and eminently adapted for rapid progression through the water; the muscles massed along the vertebral column are enormously developed, especially on the back and the sides of the tail, and impart to the body a certain rigidity which interferes with abruptly sideward motions of the fish. Therefore mackerel generally swim in a straightforward direction, deviating sidewards only when compelled, and rarely turning about in the same spot. They are in almost continuous motion, their power of endurance being equal to the rapidity of their motions. Mackerel, like all fishes of this family, have a firm flesh; that is, the muscles of the several segments are interlaced, and receive a greater supply of blood-vessels and nerves than in other fishes. Therefore the flesh, especially of the larger kinds, is of a red colour; and the energy of their muscular action causes the temperature of their blood to be several degrees higher than in other fishes.

All fishes of the mackerel family are strictly carnivorous; they unceasingly pursue their prey, which consists principally of other fish and pelagic crustaceans. The fry of clupeoids, which likewise swim in schools, are followed by the mackerel until they reach some shallow place, which their enemies dare not enter.

Mackerel are found in almost all tropical and temperate seas, with the exception of the Atlantic shores of temperate South America. European mackerel are of two kinds, of which one, the common mackerel, _Scomber scomber_, lacks, while the other possesses, an air-bladder. The best-known species of the latter kind is _S. colias_, the "Spanish" mackerel;[1] a third, _S. pneumatophorus_, is believed by some ichthyologists to be identical with _S. colias_. Be this as it may, we have strong evidence that the Mediterranean is inhabited by other species different from _S. scomber_ and _S. colias_, and well characterized by their dentition and coloration. Also the species from St Helena is distinct. Of extra-Atlantic species the mackerel of the Japanese seas are the most nearly allied to the European, those of New Zealand and Australia, and still more those of the Indian Ocean, differing in many conspicuous points. Two of these species occur in the British seas: _S. scomber_, which is the most common there as well as in other parts of the North Atlantic, crossing the ocean to America, where it abounds; and the Spanish mackerel, _S. colias_, which is distinguished by a somewhat different pattern of coloration, the transverse black bands of the common mackerel being in this species narrower, more irregular or partly broken up into spots, while the scales of the pectoral region are larger, and the snout is longer and more pointed. The Spanish mackerel is, as the name implies, a native of the seas of southern Europe, but single individuals or small schools frequently reach the shores of Great Britain and of the United Stales.

The home of the common mackerel (to which the following remarks refer)
is the North Atlantic, from the Canary Islands to the Orkneys, and
from the Mediterranean and the Black Sea and the coasts of Norway to
the United States.

Towards the spring large schools approach the coasts. Two causes have
been assigned of this migration: first, the instinct of finding a
suitable locality for propagating their species; and, secondly, the
search and pursuit of food, which in the warmer season is more
abundant in the neighbourhood of land than in the open sea. It is
probable that the latter is the chief cause.

In the month of February, or in some years as early as the end of
January, the first large schools appear at the entrance of the English
Channel, and are met by the more adventurous of the drift-net fishers
many miles west of the Scilly Islands. These early schools, which
consist chiefly of one-year and two-year-old fishes, yield sometimes
enormous catches, whilst in other years they escape the drift-nets
altogether, passing them, for some hitherto unexplained reason, at a
greater depth than that to which the nets reach, viz. 20 ft. As the
season advances, the schools penetrate farther northwards into St
George's Channel or eastwards into the English Channel. The fishery
then assumes proportions which render it next in importance to the
herring and cod fisheries. In Plymouth alone a fleet of some two
hundred boats assembles; and on the French side of the Channel no less
capital and labour are invested in it, the vessels employed being,
though less in number, larger in size than on the English side. The
chief centre, however, of the fishery in the west of England is at
Newlyn, near Penzance, where the small local sailing boats are
outnumbered by hundreds of large boats, both sail and steam, which
come chiefly from Lowestoft for the season. Simultaneously with the
drift-net the deep-sea-seine and shore-seine are used, which towards
June almost entirely supersede the drift-net. Towards the end of May
the old fish become heavy with spawn and are in the highest condition
for the table; and the latter half of June or beginning of July may be
regarded as the time at which the greater part of mackerel spawn.
Considerable numbers of mackerel are taken off Norfolk and Suffolk in
May and June, and also in September and October. There can be no doubt
that they enter the North Sea from the English Channel, and return by
the same route, but others travel round the north of Scotland and
appear in rather small numbers off the east coast of that country. On
the Norwegian coast mackerel fishing does not begin before May, whilst
on the English coasts large catches are frequently made in March.
Large cargoes are annually imported in ice from Norway to the English
market.

After the spawning the schools break up into smaller companies which
are much scattered, and offer for two or three months employment to
the hand-line fishermen. They now begin to disappear from the coasts
and return to the open sea. Single individuals or small companies are
found, however, on the coast all the year round; they may have become
detached from the main bodies, and be seeking for the larger schools
which have long left on their return migration.

Although, on the whole, the course and time of the annual migration of
mackerel are marked with great regularity, their appearance and
abundance at certain localities are subject to great variations. They
may pass a spot at such a depth as to evade the nets, and reappear at
the surface some days after farther eastwards; they may deviate from
their direct line of migration, and even temporarily return westwards.
In some years between 1852 and 1867 the old mackerel disappeared off
Guernsey from the surface, and were accidentally discovered feeding at
the bottom. Many were taken at 10 fathoms and deeper with the line,
and all were of exceptionally large size, several measuring 18 in. and
weighing nearly 3 lb.; these are the largest mackerel on record.

The mackerel most esteemed as food is the common species, and
individuals from 10 to 12 in. in length are considered the best
flavoured. In more southern latitudes, however, this species seems to
deteriorate, specimens from the coast of Portugal, and from the
Mediterranean and Black Sea, being stated to be dry and resembling in
flavour the Spanish mackerel (_S. colias_), which is not esteemed for
the table. (A. C. G.; J. T. C.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The term "Spanish mackerel" is applied in America to _Cybium
maculatum_.

McKIM, CHARLES FOLLEN (1847-1909), American architect, was born in Chester county, Pennsylvania, on the 24th of August 1847. His father, James Miller McKim (1810-1874), originally a Presbyterian minister, was a prominent abolitionist and one of the founders (1865) of the New York _Nation_. The son studied at Harvard (1866-1867) and at Paris in the École des Beaux-Arts (1867-1870), and in 1872 became an architect in New York City, entering the office of H. H. Richardson; in 1877 he formed a partnership with William Rutherford Mead (b. 1846), the firm becoming in 1879 McKim, Mead & White, when Stanford White (1853-1906) became a partner. McKim was one of the founders of the American Academy in Rome; received a gold medal at the Paris exposition of 1900; in 1903, for his services in the promotion of architecture, received the King's Medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects; and in 1907 became a National Academician. He died at St James, Long Island, N.Y., on the 14th of September 1909. McKim's name is especially associated with the University Club in New York, with the Columbia University buildings, with the additions to the White House (1906), and, more particularly, with the Boston Public Library, for which the library of Ste Geneviève in Paris furnished the suggestion.

MACKINAC ISLAND, a small island in the N.W. extremity of Lake Huron and a part of Mackinac county, Michigan, and a city and summer resort of the same name on the island. The city is on the S.E. shore, at the entrance of the Straits of Mackinac, about 7 m. N.E. of Mackinaw City and 6 m. E.S.E. of St Ignace. Pop. (1900), 665; (1904), 736; (1910), 714. During the summer season, when thousands of people come here to enjoy the cool and pure air and the island's beautiful scenery, the city is served by the principal steamboat lines on the Great Lakes and by ferry to Mackinaw city (pop. in 1904, 696), which is served by the Michigan Central, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, and the Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic railways. The island is about 3 m. long by 2 m. wide. From the remarkably clear water of Lake Huron its shores rise for the most part in tall white limestone cliffs; inland there are strangely shaped rocks and forests of cedar, pine, fir, spruce, juniper, maple, oak, birch, and beech. Throughout the island there are numerous glens, ravines, and caverns, some of which are rich in associations with Indian legends. The city is an antiquated fishing and trading village with modern hotels, club-houses, and summer villas. Fort Mackinac and its grounds are included in a state reservation which embraces about one-half of the island.

The original name of the island was Michilimackinac ("place of the big lame person" or "place of the big wounded person"); the name was apparently derived from an Algonquian tribe, the Mishinimaki or Mishinimakinagog, now extinct. The island was long occupied by Chippewas, the Hurons had a village here for a short time after their expulsion from the East by the Iroquois, and subsequently there was an Ottawa village here. The first white settlement or station was established by the French in 1670 (abandoned in 1701) at Point Saint Ignace on the north side of the strait. In 1761 a fort on the south side (built in 1712) was surrendered to the British. By the treaty of Paris (1783) the right of the United States to this district was acknowledged; but the fort was held by the British until 1796. In July 1812 a British force surprised the garrison, which had not yet learned that war had been declared. In August 1814 an American force under Colonel George Croghan (1791-1849) attempted to recapture the island but was repulsed with considerable loss. By the treaty of Ghent, however, the island was restored, in July 1815, to the United States; Fort Mackinac was maintained by the Federal government until 1895, when it was ceded to the state. From 1820 to 1840 the village was one of the principal stations of the American Fur Company. A Congregational mission was established among the Chippewas on the island in 1827, but was discontinued before 1845. The city of Mackinac Island was chartered in 1899.

See W. C. Richards, "The Fairy Isle of Mackinac," in the _Magazine of
American History_ (July 1891); and R. G. Thwaites, "The Story of
Mackinac," in vol. 14 of the _Collections_ of the State Historical
Society of Wisconsin (Madison, 1898).