Chapter XII: Part 12

MARY OF LORRAINE (1515-1560), generally known as MARY OF GUISE, queen of James V. and afterwards regent of Scotland, was born at Bar on the 22nd of November 1515. She was the eldest child of Claude of Guise and Antoinette of Bourbon, and married in 1534 Louis II. of Orleans, duke of Longueville, to whom in 1535 she bore a son, Francis (d. 1551). The duke died in June 1537, and Mary was sought in marriage by James V., whose wife Magdalene died in July, and by Henry VIII. after the death of Jane Seymour. Henry persisted in his offers after the announcement of her betrothal to James V. Mary, who was made by adoption a daughter of France, received a papal dispensation for her marriage with James, which was celebrated by proxy in Paris (May 1538) and at St Andrews on her arrival in Scotland. Her two sons, James (b. May 1540) and Robert or Arthur (b. April 1541), died within a few days of one another in April 1541, and her husband died in December 1542, within a week of the birth of his daughter and heiress, Mary, Queen of Scots. Cardinal David Beton, the head of the French and Catholic party and therefore Mary of Lorraine's friend and ally, produced a will of the late king in which the primacy in the regency was assigned to himself. John Knox accused the queen of undue intimacy with Beton, and a popular report of a similar nature, probably unfounded, was revived in 1543 by Sir Ralph Sadler, the English envoy. Beton was arrested and the regency fell to the heir presumptive James, earl of Arran, whose inclinations were towards England and the Protestant party, and who hoped to secure the hand of the infant princess for his own son. Mary of Lorraine was approached by the English commissioner, Sir Ralph Sadler, to induce her to further her daughter's marriage contract with Edward VI. She informed Sadler that Arran had asked her whether Henry had made propositions of marriage to herself, and that she had stated that "if Henry should mind or offer her such an honour she must account herself much bounden." Sadler further learnt that she was "singularly well affected to Henry's desires." The marriage treaty between Mary, not then one year old, and Edward VI. was signed on the 1st of July at Greenwich, and guaranteed that Mary should be placed in Henry's keeping when she was ten years old. The queen dowager and her daughter were carefully watched at Linlithgow, but on the 23rd of July 1543 they escaped, with the help of Cardinal Beton, to the safer walls of Stirling castle. After the queen's coronation in September Mary of Lorraine was made principal member of the council appointed to direct the affairs of the kingdom. She was constantly in communication with her kinsmen in France, and was already planning to secure for her daughter a French alliance, which was opposed on different grounds by all her advisers. She made fresh alliances with the earl of Angus and Sir George Douglas, and in 1544 she made a premature attempt to seize the regency; but a reconciliation with Arran was brought about by Cardinal Beton. The assassination of Beton left her the cleverest politician in Scotland. The English invasions of 1547, undertaken with a view to enforcing the English marriage, gave Mary the desired pretext for a French alliance. In June 1548 a French fleet, with provisions and 5000 soldiers on board, under the command of André de Montalembert, seigneur d'Essé, landed at Leith to reinforce the Scots army, and laid siege to Haddington, then in the hands of the English. The Scottish parliament agreed to the marriage of the young queen with the dauphin of France, and, on the plea of securing her safety from English designs, she set sail from Dumbarton in August 1548 to complete her education at the French court.

Mary of Lorraine now gave her energies to the expulsion of the English and to the difficult task of keeping the peace between the Scots and their French auxiliaries. In September 1550 she visited France and obtained from Henry II. the confirmation of the dukedom and revenues of Châtelherault for the earl of Arran, in the hope of inducing him to resign the regency. On her way back to Scotland she was driven by storms to Portsmouth harbour and paid a friendly visit to Edward VI. Arran refused, however, to relinquish the regency until April 1554, when he resigned after receiving an assurance of his rights to the succession. The new regent had to deal with an empty exchequer and with a strong opposition to her daughter's marriage with the dauphin. The gift of high offices of state to Frenchmen lent to the Protestant opposition the aspect of a national resistance to foreign domination. The hostility of Arran and his brother Archbishop Hamilton forced Mary into friendly relations with the lords who favoured the Protestant party. Soon after her marriage miners had been brought from Lorraine to dig for gold at Crawford Moor, and she now carried on successful mining enterprises for coal and lead, which enabled her to meet the expenses of her government. In 1554 she took into her service William Maitland of Lethington, who as secretary of state gained very great influence over her. She also provoked a dangerous enemy in John Knox by her expressed contempt for a letter which he had written to her, but the first revolt against her authority arose from an attempt to establish a standing army. When she provoked a war with England in 1557 the nobles refused to cross the border. In matters of religion she at first tried to hold the balance between the Catholic and Protestant factions and allowed the Presbyterian preachers the practice of their religion so long as they refrained from public preachings in Edinburgh and Leith. The marriage of Francis II. and her daughter Mary in 1558 strengthened her position, and in 1559 she relinquished her conciliatory tactics to submit to the dictation of her relatives, the Guises, by falling more into line with their religious policy. She was reconciled with Archbishop Hamilton, and took up arms against the Protestants of Perth, who, incited by Knox, had destroyed the Charterhouse, where many of the Scottish kings were buried. The reformers submitted on condition that no foreign garrison was to be imposed on Perth and that the religious questions in dispute should be brought before the Scottish parliament. Mary of Lorraine broke the spirit of this agreement by garrisoning Perth with Scottish troops in the pay of France. The lords of the Congregation soon assembled in considerable force on Cupar Muir. Mary retreated to Edinburgh and thence to Dunbar, while Edinburgh opened its gates to the reformers, who issued a proclamation (Oct. 21, 1559) claiming that the regent was deposed. The lords of the Congregation sought help from Elizabeth, while the regent had recourse to France, where an expedition under her brother, René of Lorraine, marquis of Elbeuf, was already in preparation. Mary, with the assistance of a French contingent, began to fortify Leith. The strength of her opponents was increased by the defection of Châtelherault and his son Arran; and an even more serious danger was the treachery of her secretary Maitland, who betrayed her plans to the lords of the Congregation. In October 1559 they made an unsuccessful attack on Leith and the seizure of an English convoy on the way to their army by James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, increased their difficulties. Mary entered Edinburgh and conducted a campaign in Fife. Meanwhile Maitland of Lethington had been at the English court, and an English fleet under William Winter was sent to the Forth in January 1560 to waylay Elbeuf's fleet, which was, however, driven back by a storm to Calais. Elbeuf had been commissioned by Francis I. and Mary to take over Mary's regency on account of her failing health. An English army under Lord Grey entered Scotland on the 29th of March 1560, and the regent received an asylum in Edinburgh castle, which was held strictly neutral by John Erskine. When she knew that she was dying Mary sent for the lords of the Congregation, with whom she pleaded for the maintenance of the French alliance. She even consented to listen to the exhortations of the preacher John Willock. She died on the 11th of June 1560. Her body was taken to Reims and buried in the church of the nunnery of St Peter, of which her sister was abbess.

The chief sources for her history are the Calendar of State Papers for
the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. in the Rolls Series; A.
Teulet, _Papiers d état ... relatifs à l'histoire de l'Écosse au XVI^e
siècle_ (Paris, 3 vols., 1851), for the Bannatyne Club; _Hamilton
Papers_, ed. J. Bain (Edinburgh, 2 vols., 1890-1899); _Calendar of
State Papers relating to Scotland and Mary Queen of Scots, 1547-1603_
(Edinburgh, 2 vols., 1898-1900), &c. There is a Life in Miss
Strickland's _Queens of Scotland_ (vols. i.-ii.) based on original
documents.

MARY OF MODENA [MARIA BEATRICE ANNE MARGARET ISABEL D'ESTE] (1658-1718), queen of the English king James II., was the daughter of Alphonso IV., duke of Modena, and the Duchess Laura, of the Roman family Martinozzi. She was born at Modena on the 5th of October 1658. Her education was strict, and her own wish was to be a nun in a convent of the order of the Visitation founded by her mother. As a princess she was not free to choose for herself, and was selected, mainly by the king of France, Louis XIV., as the wife of James, duke of York, heir-presumptive to the English throne. The duke had become a Roman Catholic, and it was a point of policy with the French king to provide him with a Roman Catholic wife. Mary Beatrice of Este was chosen partly on the ground of her known religious zeal, but also because of her beauty. The marriage was celebrated by proxy on the 30th of September 1673. She reached England in November. In later life she confessed that her first feelings towards her husband could only be expressed by tears. In England the duchess, who was commonly spoken of as Madam East, was supposed to be an agent of the pope, who had indeed exerted himself to secure her consent. Her beauty and her fine manners secured her the respect of her brother-in-law, Charles II., and she lived on good terms with her husband's daughters by his first marriage, but she was always disliked by the nation. The birth of her first son (who died in infancy) on the 16th of January 1675 was regretted. During the Popish Plot, to which her secretary Coleman was a victim, she went abroad with her husband. After her husband's accession she suffered much domestic misery through his infidelity. Her influence on him was unfortunate, for she was a strong supporter of the Jesuit party which was in favour of extreme measures. Her second son, James Francis Edward, was born on the 10th of June (o.s.) 1688. The public refused to believe that the baby was Mary's child, and declared that a fraud had been perpetrated to secure a Roman Catholic heir. When the revolution had broken out she made the disastrous mistake of consenting to escape to France (Dec. 10, 1688) with her son. She urged her husband to follow her to France when it was his manifest interest to stay in England, and when he went to Ireland she pressed incessantly for his return. Her daughter, Louisa Maria, was born at St Germain on the 28th of June 1692. When her husband died on the 6th of September 1701, she succeeded in inducing King Louis to recognize her son as king of England, an act which precipitated the war of the Spanish Succession. Queen Mary survived her husband for seventeen years and her daughter for two. She received a pension of 100,000 crowns, which was largely spent in supporting Jacobite exiles. At the close of her life she had some success in obtaining payment of her jointure. She lived at St Germain or at Chaillot, a religious house of the Visitation. Her death occurred on the 7th of May 1718, and is said by Saint-Simon to have been that of a saint.

See Miss Strickland, _Queens of England_ (vols. 9 and 10, London,
1846); Campana di Cavelli, _Les Derniers Stuarts à Saint-Germain
en-Laye_ (London, 1871); and Martin Haile, _Mary of Modena_ (London,
1905).

MARY OF ORANGE (1631-1660), eldest daughter of the English king Charles I., was born in London on the 4th of November 1631. Her father wished her to marry a son of Philip IV., king of Spain, while her cousin, the elector palatine, Charles Louis, was also a suitor for her hand, but both proposals fell through and she became the wife of a Dutch prince, William, son of Frederick Henry, prince of Orange. The marriage took place in London on the 2nd of May 1641, but owing to the tender years of the bride it was not consummated for several years. However in 1642 Mary crossed over to Holland with her mother, Queen Henrietta Maria, and in 1644, as the daughter-in-law of the stadtholder, she began to take her place in public life. In 1647 her husband, William II., succeeded his father as stadtholder, but three years later, just after his attempt to capture Amsterdam, he died; a son, afterwards the English king William III., being born to him a few days later (Nov. 14, 1650). Mary was obliged to share the guardianship of her infant son with his grandmother Amelia, the widow of Frederick Henry, and with Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg; moreover, she was unpopular with the Dutch owing to her sympathies with her kinsfolk, the Stuarts, and at length public opinion having been further angered by the hospitality which she showed to her brothers, Charles II. and James, duke of York, she was forbidden to receive her relatives. From 1654 to 1657 the princess passed most of her time away from Holland. In 1657 she was appointed regent on behalf of her son for the principality of Orange, but the difficulties of her position led her to implore the assistance of Louis XIV., and the French king answered by seizing Orange himself. The position both of Mary and of her son in Holland was greatly bettered through the restoration of Charles II. in Great Britain. In September 1660 Mary journeyed to England. She was taken ill of small-pox, and died in London on the 24th of December 1660, her death, says Bishop Burnet, being "not much lamented."

MARYBOROUGH, a market town and the county town of Queen's County, Ireland. Pop. (1901), 2957. It lies in the broad lowland east of the Slieve Bloom mountains, on the river Triogue, an affluent of the Barrow, and on the main line of the Great Southern & Western railway, by which it is 51 m. W.S.W. of Dublin. The town was chosen as county town in the reign of Mary (1556), in whose honour both town and county received their names. Its charter was granted in 1570, but its present appearance, save a bastion of the ancient castle, is wholly modern. There are flour-mills and a considerable general trade. Maryborough returned two members to the Irish parliament from 1585 until the union in 1800. The singular lofty rock of Dunamase or Dunmall, about 3 m. from the town, bears on its summit extensive ruins of a castle, originally belonging to the kings of Leinster, but probably built in the main by William Bruce (c. 1200) and dismantled in 1650 by Cromwell's troops.

MARYBOROUGH, a town of March county, Queensland, Australia, on the left bank and 25 m. from the mouth of the Mary river, 180 m. by rail N. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901), 10,159. Besides a handsome court-house and town hall, the principal buildings are the hospital, a technical college, a library, the Anglican Church of St Paul with a fine tower and peal of bells, and the grammar schools. There is a large shipbuilding yard, and breweries, distilleries, a tannery, boot factories, soap works, saw-mills, flour-mills, carriage works and iron foundries, besides extensive sugar factories in the neighbourhood. The largest smelting works in Australia are 5 m. distant, in which ore from all the states is treated. Maryborough is the port of shipment for a wide agricultural district yielding maize and sugar, and also for the Gympie gold-fields. Timber abounds in the neighbourhood and is exported. Maryborough is also the second coaling port in Queensland, the government railway wharf being in direct communication with the Burrum coal-fields.

MARYBOROUGH, a municipal town of Talbot county, Victoria, Australia, 112 m. by rail N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901), 5633. It has fine government buildings, a town hall, a botanical garden, and numerous park lands. It is an important railway centre, and has extensive railway workshops, as well as coach factories, breweries and foundries. The gold mining of the district is deep alluvial. Wheat, oats and wine are the chief agricultural products of the neighbourhood.

MARYLAND, a South Atlantic state of the United States, and one of the original thirteen, situated between latitudes 37° 53´ and 39° 44´ N. and longitudes 75° 4´ and 79° 33´ W. (the precise western boundary has not been determined). It is bounded N. by Pennsylvania and Delaware; E. by Delaware and the Atlantic Ocean; S. and W. by the Potomac river and its north branch, which separate it, except on the extreme W. border, from Virginia and West Virginia; W., also, by West Virginia. It is one of the small states of the Union--only seven are smaller--its total area being 12,327 sq. m. of which 2386 sq. m. are water surface.

_Physical Features._--Maryland is crossed from north to south by each
of the leading topographical regions of the east section of the United
States--the Coastal Plain, the Piedmont Plateau, the Appalachian
Mountains, and the Appalachian Plateau--hence its great diversity of
surface. The portion within the Coastal Plain embraces nearly the
whole of the south-east half of the state and is commonly known as
tide-water Maryland. It is marked off from the Piedmont Plateau by a
"Fall Line" extending from Washington (D.C.) north-east through
Baltimore to a point a little south of the north-east corner of the
state, and is divided by the Chesapeake Bay into two parts known as
the East Shore and the West Shore. The East Shore is a low level
plain, the least elevated section of the state. Along its entire
Atlantic border extends the narrow sandy Sinepuxent Beach, which
encloses a shallow lagoon or bay also called Sinepuxent at the north,
where, except in the extreme north, it is very narrow, and
Chincoteague at the south, where its width is in most places from 4 to
5 m. Between this and the Chesapeake to the west and north-west there
is a slight general rise, a height of about 100 ft. being reached in
the extreme north. A water-parting extending from north-east to
south-west and close to the Atlantic border separates the East Shore
into two drainage systems, though that next to the Atlantic is
insignificant. That on the Chesapeake side is drained chiefly by the
Pocomoke, Nanticoke, Choptank and Chester rivers, together with their
numerous branches, the general direction of all of which is
south-west. The branches as well as the upper parts of the main
streams flow through broad and shallow valleys; the middle courses of
the main streams wind their way through reed-covered marshes, the
water ebbing and flowing with the tide; in their lower courses they
become estuarine and the water flows between low banks. The West Shore
is somewhat more undulating than the East and also more elevated. Its
general slope is from north-west to south-east; along the west border
are points 300 ft. or more in height. The principal rivers crossing
this section are the Patuxent, Patapsco and Gunpowder, with which may
be grouped the Potomac, forming the state's southern boundary. These
rivers, lined in most instances with terraces 30 to 40 ft. high on one
or both sides, flow south-east into the Chesapeake Bay through valleys
bounded by low hills. The Fall Line, which forms the boundary between
the Coastal Plain and the Piedmont Plateau, is a zone in which a
descent of about 100 ft. or more is made in many places within a few
miles and in consequence is marked by waterfalls, cascades and rapids.

The part of Maryland within the Piedmont Plateau extends west from the
Fall Line to the base of Catoctin Mountain, or the west border of
Frederick county, and has an area of about 2500 sq. m. In general it
has a broad rolling surface. It is divided into two sections by an
elevated strip known as Parr's Ridge, which extends from north-east to
south-west a short distance west of the middle. The east section rises
from about 450 ft. along the Fall Line to from 850 to 900 ft. along
the summit of Parr's Ridge. Its principal streams are those that cross
the West Shore of the Coastal Plain and here wind their way from
Parr's Ridge rapidly toward the south-east in narrow steep-sided
gorges through broad limestone valleys. To the west of Parr's Ridge
the surface for the most part slopes gently down to the east bank of
the Monocacy river (which flows nearly at a right angle with the
streams east of the Ridge), and then from the opposite bank rises
rapidly toward the Catoctin Mountain; but just above the mouth of the
Monocacy on the east side of the valley is Sugar Loaf Mountain, which
makes a steep ascent of 1250 ft.

The portion of the state lying within the Appalachian Region is
commonly known as Western Maryland. To the eastward it abounds in
mountains and valleys; to the westward it is a rolling plateau. West
of Catoctin Mountain (1800 ft.) is Middletown Valley, with Catoctin
Creek running through it from north to south, and the Blue Ridge
Mountains (2400 ft.), near the Pennsylvania border, forming its west
slope. Farther west the serrated crests of the Blue Ridge overlook the
Greater Appalachian Valley, here 73 m. in width, the broad
gently-rolling slopes of the Great Cumberland or Hagerstown Valley
occupying its eastern and the Appalachian Ridges its western portion.
Through the eastern portion Antietam Creek to the east and
Conococheague Creek to the west flow rapidly in meandering trenches
that in places exceed 75 ft. in depth. The Appalachian Ridges of the
western portion begin with North Mountain on the east and end with
Wills Mountain on the west. They are long, narrow, uniformly-sloping
and level-crested mountains, extending along parallel lines from
north-east to south-west, and reaching a maximum height in Martin's
Ridge of more than 2000 ft. Overlooking them from the west are the
higher ranges of the Alleghenies, among which the Savage, Backbone and
Negro Mountains reach elevations of 3000 ft. or more. In the extreme
west part of the state these mountains merge, as it were, into a
rolling plateau, the Appalachian Plateau, having an average elevation
of 2500 ft. All rivers of Western Maryland flow south into the Potomac
except in the extreme west, where the waters of the Youghiogheny and
its tributaries flow north into the Monongahela.

_Fauna and Flora._--In primitive times deer, ducks, turkeys, fish and
oysters were especially numerous, and wolves, squirrels and crows were
a source of annoyance to the early settlers. Deer, black bears and
wild cats (lynx) are still found in some uncultivated sections. Much
more numerous are squirrels, rabbits, "groundhogs" (woodchucks),
opossums, skunks, weasels and minks. Many species of ducks are also
still found; and the reed-bird (bobolink), "partridge" (elsewhere
called quail or "Bob White"), ruffed grouse (elsewhere called
partridge), woodcock, snipe, plover and Carolina rail still abound.
The waters of the Chesapeake Bay are especially rich in oysters and
crabs, and there, also, shad, alewives, "striped" (commonly called
"rock") bass, menhaden, white perch and weak-fish ("sea-trout") occur
in large numbers. Among the more common trees are several species of
oak, pine, hickory, gums and maple, and the chestnut, the poplar, the
beech, the cypress and the red cedar; the merchantable pine has been
cut, but the chestnut and other hard woods of West Maryland are still
a product of considerable value. Among wild fruit-trees are the
persimmon and Chickasaw plum; grape-vines and a large variety of
berry-bushes grow wild and in abundance.

_Climate._--The climate of Maryland in the south-east is influenced by
ocean and bay--perhaps also by the sandy soil--while in the west it is
influenced by the mountains. The prevailing winds are westerly; but
generally north-west in winter in the west section and south-west in
summer in the south section. In the south the normal winter is mild,
the normal summer rather hot; in the west the normal winter is cold,
the normal summer cool. The normal average annual temperature for the
entire state is between 53° and 54° F., ranging from 48° at
Grantsville in the north-west to 53° at Darlington in the north-east,
and to 57° at Princess Anne in the south-east. The normal temperature
for the state during July (the warmest month) is 75.2° F., and during
January (the coldest month) 32.14° F. Although the west section is
generally much the cooler in summer, yet both of the greatest extremes
recorded since 1891 were at points not far apart in Western Maryland:
109° F. at Boettcherville and -26° F. at Sunnyside. The normal annual
precipitation for the state is about 43 in. It is greatest, about 53
in., on the east slope of Catoctin Mountain, owing to the elevations
which obstruct the moisture-bearing winds, and is above the average
along the middle of the shores of the Chesapeake. It is least, from 25
to 35 in., in the Greater Appalachian Valley, in the south on the West
Shore, and along the Atlantic border. During spring and summer the
precipitation throughout the state is about 2 in. more than during
autumn and winter.

_Soils and Agriculture._--The great variety of soils is one of the
more marked features of Maryland. On the East Shore to the north is a
marly loam overlying a yellowish-red clay sub-soil, to the south is a
soil quite stiff with light coloured clay, while here and there,
especially in the middle and south, are considerable areas both of
light sandy soils and tidal marsh loams. On the West Shore the soils
range from a light sandy loam in the lower levels south from Baltimore
to rather heavy loams overlying a yellowish clay on the rolling
uplands and on the terraces along the Potomac and Patuxent. Crossing
the state along the lower edge of the Fall Line is a belt heavy with
clay, but so impervious to water as to be of little value for
agricultural purposes. The soils of the Piedmont Plateau east of
Parr's Ridge are, like the underlying rocks, exceptionally variable in
composition, texture and colour. For the most part they are
considerably heavier with clay than are those of the Coastal Plain,
and better adapted to general agricultural purposes. Light loams,
however, are found both in the north-east and south-east. A soil of
very close texture, the gabbro, is found, most largely in the
north-east. Alluvial loams occupy the narrow river valleys; but the
most common soil of the section is that formed from gneiss with a
large per cent. of clay in the subsoil. West of Parr's Ridge in the
Piedmont, the principal soils are those the character of which is
determined either by decomposed red sandstone or by decomposed
limestone. In the east portion of the mountainous region the soil so
well adapted to peach culture contains much clay, together with
particles of Cambrian sandstone. In Hagerstown Valley are rich red or
yellow limestone-clay soils. The Allegheny ridges have only a thin
stony soil; but good limestone, sandstone, shale and alluvial soils,
occur in the valleys and in some of the plateaus of the extreme west.

Of the total land surface of the state 82% was in 1900 included in
farms and 68% of the farmland was improved. There were 46,012 farms,
of which 15,833 contained less than 50 acres, 3940 contained 260 acres
or more, and 79 contained 1,000 acres or more--the average size being
112.4 acres. In 1890, 69% of the farms were worked by the owners or
their managers, in 1900 only 66.4%; but share tenants outnumber cash
tenants by almost three to one. Of the total number of farms about
seven times as many are operated by white as by negro farmers, though
the number of farms operated by white share tenants outnumber those
operated by negro share tenants by only about five to one. Of all the
inhabitants of the state, at least ten years old, who in 1900 were
engaged in gainful occupations, 20.8% were farmers. The leading
agricultural pursuits are the growing of Indian corn and wheat and the
raising of livestock, yet it is in the production of fruits,
vegetables and tobacco, that Maryland ranks highest as an agricultural
state, and in no other state except South Carolina is so large a per
cent. of the value of the crop expended for fertilizers. In 1907,
according to the _Year Book_ of the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
the Indian corn crop was 22,196,000 bushels, valued at $11,986,000;
the wheat crop was 14,763,000 bushels, valued at $14,172,000; the oat
crop was 825,000 bushels, valued at $404,000; and the crop of rye was
315,000 bushels, valued at $236,000. Of the livestock, hogs were the
most numerous in 1900, cattle next, sheep third, and horses fourth.
The hay and forage crop of 1899 (exclusive of corn-stalks) grew on
374,848 acres. Until after the middle of the 18th century tobacco was
the staple crop of Maryland, and the total yield did not reach its
maximum until 1860 when the crop amounted to 51,000 hhds.; from this
it decreased to 14,000 hhds., or 12,356,838 lb. in 1889; in 1899 it
rose again to 24,589,480 lb., in 1907 the crop was only 16,962,000
lb., less than that of nine other states. In market-garden products,
including small fruits, Maryland ranked in 1899 sixth among the states
of the Union, the crop being valued at $4,766,760, an increase of
350.9% over that of 1889. In the yield both of strawberries and of
tomatoes it ranked first; the yield of raspberries and blackberries is
also large. In its crop of green-peas Maryland was exceeded (1899) by
New York only; in sweet Indian corn it ranked fifth; in kale, second;
in spinach, third; in cabbages, ninth. The number of peach-trees,
especially in the west part of the state, where the quality is of the
best, is rapidly increasing, and in the yield of peaches and
nectarines the state ranked thirteenth in 1899; in the yield of pears
it ranked fifth; in apples seventeenth.

The Indian-corn, wheat and livestock sections of the state, are in the
Piedmont Plateau, the Hagerstown Valley and the central portion of the
East Shore. Garrett county in the extreme north-west, however, raises
the largest number of sheep. Most of the tobacco is grown in the south
counties of the West Shore. The great centre for vegetables and small
fruits is in the counties bordering on the north-west shore of the
Chesapeake, and in Howard, Frederick and Washington counties, directly
west, Anne Arundel county producing the second largest quantity of
strawberries of all the counties in the Union in 1899. Peaches and
pears grow in large quantities in Kent and neighbouring counties on
the East Shore and in Washington and Frederick counties; apples grow
in abundance in all parts of the Piedmont Plateau.

The woodland area of the state in 1900 was 4400 sq. m., about 44%
(estimated in 1907 to be 3450 sq. m., about 35%) of the total land
area, but with the exception of considerable oak and chestnut, some
maple and other hard woods in west Maryland, about all of the
merchantable timber has been cut. The lumber industry, nevertheless,
has steadily increased in importance, the value of the product in 1860
amounting to only $605,864, that in 1890 to $1,600,472, and that in
1900 to $2,650,082, of which sum $2,495,169 was the value of products
under the factory system; in 1905 the value of the factory product was
$2,750,339.

_Fisheries._--In 1897 the value of the fishery product of Maryland was
exceeded only by that of Massachusetts, but by 1901, although it had
increased somewhat during the four years, it was exceeded by the
product of New Jersey, of Virginia and of New York. Oysters constitute
more than 80% of the total value, the product in 1901 amounting to
5,685,561 bushels, and being valued at $3,031,518. The supply on
natural beds has been diminishing, but the planting of private beds
promises a large increase. Crabs are next in value and are caught
chiefly along the East Shore and in Anne Arundel and Calvert counties
on the West Shore. Shad, to the number of 3,111,181 and valued at
$120,602, were caught during 1901. In Somerset and Worcester counties
clams are a source of considerable value. The terrapin catch decreased
in value from $22,333 in 1891 to $1,139 in 1901. The total value of
the fish product of 1901 was $3,767,461. The state laws for the
protection of fish and shell-fish were long carelessly enforced
because of the fishermen's strong feeling against them, but this
sentiment has slowly changed and enforcement has become more vigorous.

_Minerals and Manufactures._--The coal deposits, which form a part of
the well-known Cumberland field, furnish by far the most important
mineral product of the state; more than 98% of this, in 1901, was
mined in Allegany county from a bed about 20 m. long and 5 m. wide and
the remainder in Garrett county, whose deposits, though undeveloped,
are of great value. The coal is of two varieties: bituminous and
semi-bituminous. The bituminous is of excellent quality for the
manufacture of coke and gas, but up to 1902 had been mined only in
small quantities. Most of the product has been of the semi-bituminous
variety and of the best quality in the country for the generation of
steam. Nearly all the high grade blacksmithing coal mined in the
United States comes from Maryland. The deposits were discovered early
in the 19th century (probably first in 1804 near the present
Frostburg), but were not exploited until railway transport became
available in 1842, and the output was not large until after the close
of the Civil War; in 1865 it was 1,025,208 short tons, from which it
steadily increased to 5,532,628 short tons in 1907. From 1722 until
the War of Independence the iron-ore product of North and West
Maryland was greater than that of any of the other colonies, but since
then ores of superior quality have been discovered in other states and
the output in Maryland, taken chiefly from the west border of the
Coastal Plain in Anne Arundel and Prince George's counties, has become
comparatively of little importance--24,367 long tons in 1902 and only
8269 tons in 1905. Gold, silver and copper ores, have been found in
the state, and attempts have been made to mine them, without much
success. The Maryland building stone, of which there is an abundance
of good quality, consists chiefly of granites, limestones, slate,
marble and sandstones, the greater part of which is quarried in the
east section of the Piedmont Plateau especially in Cecil county,
though some limestones, including those from which hydraulic cement is
manufactured, and some sandstones are obtained from the western part
of the Piedmont Plateau and the east section of the Appalachian
region; the value of stone quarried in the state in 1907 was
$1,439,355, of which $1,183,753 was the value of granite, $142,825
that of limestone, $98,918 that of marble, and $13,859 that of
sandstone. Brick, potter's and tile clays are obtained most largely
along the west border of the Coastal Plain, and fire-clay from the
coal region of West Maryland; in 1907 the value of clay products was
$1,886,362. Materials for porcelain, including flint, feldspar and
kaolin, abound in the east portion of the Piedmont, the kaolin chiefly
in Cecil county, and material for mineral paint in Anne Arundel and
Prince George's counties, as well as farther north-west.

Between 1850 and 1900, while the population increased 103.8%, the
average number of wage-earners employed in manufacturing
establishments increased 258.5%, constituting 5.2% of the total
population in 1850 and 9.1% in 1900. In 1900 the total value of
manufactured goods was $242,552,990, an increase of 41.1% over that of
1890. Of the total given for 1900, $211,076,143 was the value of
products under the factory system; and in 1905 the value of factory
products was $243,375,996, being 15.3% more than in 1900. The products
of greatest value in 1905 were: custom-made men's clothing; fruits and
vegetables and oysters, canned and preserved; iron and steel; foundry
and machine-shop products, including stoves and furnaces; flour and
grist mill products; tinware, coppersmithing and sheet iron working;
fertilizers; slaughtering and meat-packing; cars and repairs by
steam railways; shirts; cotton goods; malt liquors; and cigars and
cigarettes. In the value of fertilizers manufactured, and in that of
oysters canned and preserved, Maryland was first among the states in
1900 and second in 1905; in 1900 and in 1905 it was fourth among the
states in the value of men's clothing. Baltimore is still the great
manufacturing centre, but of the state's total product the percentage
in value of that manufactured there decreased from 82.5 in 1890 to
66.5 in 1900, and to 62.3 (of the factory product) in 1905. The
largest secondary centres are Cumberland, Hagerstown and Frederick the
total value of whose factory products in 1905 was less than
$10,000,000.

_Communications._--Tide-water Maryland is afforded rather unusual
facilities of water transportation by the Chesapeake Bay, with its
deep channel, numerous deep inlets and navigable tributaries, together
with the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, which crosses the state of
Delaware and connects its waters with those of the Delaware river and
bay. As early as 1783 steps were taken to extend these facilities to
the navigable waters of the Ohio, chiefly by improving the navigation
of the Potomac above Georgetown. By 1820 this project was merged into
a movement for a Chesapeake and Ohio canal along the same line. Ground
was broken in 1828 and in 1850 the canal was opened to navigation from
Georgetown to Cumberland, a distance of 186 m. In 1878 and again in
1889 it was wrecked by a freshet, and since then has been of little
service.[1] However, on the same day that ground was broken for this
canal, ground was also broken for the Baltimore & Ohio railway, of
which 15 m. was built in 1828-1830 and which was one of the first
steam railway lines in operation in the United States. Since then
railway building has progressed steadily. In Maryland (and including
the District of Columbia) there were 259 m. of railway in 1850, 386 m.
in 1860, 671 m. in 1870, and 1040 m. in 1880; in 1890, in Maryland
alone, the mileage was 1270.04 m., and in 1909 it was 1394.19 m. The
more important railway lines are the Baltimore & Ohio, the
Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington (controlled by the Pennsylvania
and a consolidation of the Philadelphia, Wilmington & Baltimore, and
the Baltimore & Potomac), the Western Maryland, the West Virginia
Central & Pittsburg (leased by the Western Maryland), the Northern
Central, the Maryland electric railways (including what was formerly
the Baltimore & Annapolis Short Line), and the Washington, Baltimore &
Annapolis electric railway. Baltimore is the chief railway centre and
its harbour is one of the most important in the country.

_Inhabitants._--The population of Maryland in 1880 was 934,943; in 1890, 1,042,390, an increase of 11.5%; in 1900, 1,188,044 (14%); in 1910, 1,295,346 (increase 9%).[2] Of the total population in 1900 there were 952,424 whites, 235,064 negroes, 544 Chinese, 9 Japanese and 3 Indians, the increase in the white population from 1890 to 1900 being 15.2%, while that of the negroes was only 9%. In 1900 there were 1,094,110 native born to 93,934 foreign-born, and of the foreign-born 44,990 were natives of Germany and 68,600 were residents of the city of Baltimore. The urban population, i.e. total population of cities of 4000 or more inhabitants, in 1900, was 572,795, or 48.2% of the total and an increase of 16.6% over that of 1890; while the rural population, i.e. population outside of incorporated places, was 539,685, an increase of about 8% over that of 1890. There are about 59 religious sects, of which the members of the Roman Catholic Church, which was prominent in the early history of Maryland, are far the most numerous, having in 1906 166,941 members out of 473,257 communicants of all denominations; in the same year there were 137,156 Methodists, 34,965 Protestant Episcopalians, 32,246 Lutherans, 30,928 Baptists, 17,895 Presbyterians and 13,442 members of the Reformed Church in the United States. The chief cities are Baltimore, pop. (1910) 558,485, Cumberland 21,839, Hagerstown 16,507, Frederick 10,411 and Annapolis 8609.

_Government._--The state constitution of 1867, the one now in force, has been frequently amended, all that is required for its amendment being a three-fifths vote of all of the members elected to each of the two houses of the General Assembly, followed by a majority vote of the state electorate, and it is further provided that once in twenty years, beginning with 1887, the wish of the people in regard to calling a convention for altering the constitution shall be ascertained by a poll. Any constitution or constitutional amendment proposed by such constitutional convention comes into effect only if approved by a majority of the votes cast in a popular election. Since 1870 suffrage has been the right of all male citizens (including negroes) twenty-one years of age or over who shall have lived within the state for one year and within the county or the legislative district of the city of Baltimore in which they may offer to vote for six months immediately preceding an election; persons convicted of larceny or other infamous crime and not since pardoned by the governor, as well as lunatics or those who have been convicted of bribery at a previous election are excepted. In 1908 the General Assembly passed a law providing for annual direct primary elections (outside of Baltimore; and making the Baltimore special primary law applicable to state as well as city officials), but, as regards state officers, making only a slight improvement upon previous conditions inasmuch as the county or district is the unit and the vote of county or district merely "instructs" delegates to the party's state nominating convention, representation in which is not strictly in proportion to population, the rural counties having an advantage over Baltimore; no nomination petition is required. In the same year a separate law was passed providing for primary elections for the choice of United States senators; but here also the method is not that of nomination by a plurality throughout the state, but by the vote of counties and legislative districts, so that this measure, like the other primary law, is not sufficiently direct to give Baltimore a vote proportional to its population.

The chief executive authority is vested in a governor elected by
popular vote for a term of four years. Since becoming a state Maryland
has had no lieutenant-governor except under the constitution of 1864;
and the office of governor is to be filled in case of a vacancy by
such person as the General Assembly may elect.[3] Any citizen of
Maryland may be elected to the office who is thirty years of age or
over, who has been for ten years a citizen of the state, who has lived
in the state for five years immediately preceding election, and who is
at the time of his election a qualified voter therein. Until 1838 the
governor had a rather large appointing power, but since that date most
of the more important offices have been filled by popular election.
He, however, still appoints, subject to the confirmation of the
senate, the secretary of state, the superintendent of public
education, the commissioner of the land office, the adjutant-general,
justices of the peace, notaries public, the members of numerous
administrative boards, and other administrative officers. He is
himself one of the board of education, of the board of public works,
and of the board for the management of the house of correction. No
veto power whatever was given to the governor until 1867, when, in the
present constitution, it was provided that no bill vetoed by him
should become a law unless passed over his veto by a three-fifths vote
of the members elected to each house, and an amendment of 1890
(ratified by the people in 1891) further provides that any item of a
money bill may likewise be separately vetoed. The governor's salary is
fixed by the constitution at $4500 a year. Other executive officers
are a treasurer, elected by joint ballot of the General Assembly for a
term of two years, a comptroller elected by popular vote for a similar
term, and an attorney-general elected by popular vote for four years.

The legislature, or General Assembly, meets biennially in
even-numbered years, at Annapolis, and consists of a Senate and a
House of Delegates. Senators are elected, one from each of the
twenty-three counties and one from each of the four legislative
districts of the city of Baltimore, for a term of four years, the
terms of one-half expiring every two years. Delegates are elected for
a term of two years, from each county and from each legislative
district of Baltimore, according to population, as follows: for a
population of 18,000 or less, two delegates; 18,000 to 28,000, three;
28,000 to 40,000, four; 40,000 to 55,000, five; 55,000 and upwards,
six. Each legislative district of Baltimore is entitled to the number
of delegates to which the largest county shall or may be entitled
under the foregoing apportionment, and the General Assembly may from
time to time alter the boundaries of Baltimore city districts in order
to equalize their population. This system of apportionment gives to
the rural counties a considerable political advantage over the city of
Baltimore, which, with 42.8% of the total population according to the
census of 1900, has only 4 out of 27 members of the Senate and only 24
out of 101 members of the House of Delegates. Since far back in the
colonial era, no minister, preacher, or priest has been eligible to a
seat in either house. A senator must be twenty-five years of age or
over, and both senators and delegates must have lived within the state
at least three years and in their county or legislative district at
least one year immediately preceding their election.

The constitution provides that no bill or joint resolution shall pass
either house except by an affirmative vote of a majority of all the
members elected to that house and requires that on the final vote the
yeas and nays be recorded.

_Justice, &c._--The administration of justice is entrusted to a court
of appeals, circuit courts, special courts for the city of Baltimore,
orphans' courts, and justices of the peace. Exclusive of the city of
Baltimore, the state is divided into seven judicial circuits, in each
of which are elected for a term of fifteen years one chief judge and
two associate judges, who at the time of their election must be
members of the Maryland bar, between the ages of thirty and seventy,
and must have been residents of the state for at least five years. The
seven chief judges so elected, together with one elected from the city
of Baltimore, constitute the court of appeals, the governor with the
advice and consent of the senate designating one of the eight as chief
judge of that court. The court has appellate jurisdiction only. The
three judges elected in each circuit constitute the circuit court of
each of the several counties in such circuit. The courts have both
original and appellate jurisdiction and are required to hold at least
two sessions to which jurors shall be summoned every year in each
county of its circuit, and if only two such terms are held, there must
be two other and intermediate terms to which jurors shall not be
summoned. Three other judges are elected for four-year terms, in each
county and in the city of Baltimore to constitute an orphans' court.
The number of justices of the peace for each county is fixed by local
law; they are appointed by the governor, subject to the confirmation
of the Senate, for a term of two years.

In the colonial era Maryland had an interesting list of governmental
subdivisions--the manor, the hundred, the parish, the county, and the
city--but the two last are about all that remain and even these are in
considerable measure subject to the special local acts of the General
Assembly. In general, each county has from three to seven
commissioners--the number is fixed by county laws--elected on a
general ticket of each county for a term of from two to six years,
entrusted with the charge and control of property owned by the county,
empowered to appoint constables, judges of elections, collectors of
taxes, trustees of the poor, and road supervisors, to levy taxes, to
revise taxable valuations of real property, and open or close public
roads.

In Maryland a wife holds her property as if single except that she can
convey real estate only by a joint deed with her husband (this
requirement being for the purpose of effecting a release of the
husband's "dower interest"), neither husband nor wife is liable for
the separate debts of the other, and on the death of either the rights
of the survivor in the estate of the other are about equal.
Wife-beating is made punishable by whipping in gaol, not exceeding
forty lashes. Prior to 1841 a divorce was granted by the legislature
only, from then until 1851 it could be granted by either the
legislature or the equity courts, since 1851 by the courts only. The
grounds for a divorce _a mensa et thoro_, which may be granted for
ever or for a limited time only, are cruelty, excessively vicious
conduct, or desertion; for a divorce _a vinculo matrimonii_ the chief
grounds are impotence at the time of marriage, adultery or deliberate
abandonment for three years. There is no homestead exemption law and
exemptions from levy for the satisfaction of debts extend only to $100
worth of property, besides wearing apparel and books and tools used by
the debtor in his profession or trade, and to all money payable in the
nature of insurance. Employers of workmen in a clay or coal mine,
stone quarry, or on a steam or street railway are liable for damage in
case of an injury to any of their workmen where such injury is caused
by the negligence of the employer or of any servant or employee of the
employer. The chief of the bureau of labour statistics is directed in
case of danger of a strike or lockout to seek to mediate between the
parties and if unsuccessful in that, then to endeavour to secure their
consent to the formation of a board of arbitration.

The state penal and charitable institutions include a penitentiary at
Baltimore; a house of correction at Jessups, two houses of refuge at
Baltimore; a house of reformation in Prince George's county; St Mary's
industrial school for boys at Baltimore; an industrial home for negro
girls at Melvale; an asylum and training school for the feeble-minded
at Owings Mills; an infirmary at Cumberland; the Maryland hospital for
the insane at Catonsville; the Springfield state hospital for the
insane; the Maryland school for the deaf and dumb at Frederick city;
and the Maryland school for the blind at Baltimore. Each of these is
under the management of a board appointed by the governor subject to
the confirmation of the senate. Besides these there are a large number
of state-aided charitable institutions. In 1900 there was created a
board of state aid and charities, composed of seven members appointed
by the governor for a term of two years, not more than four to be
reappointed. There is also a state lunacy commission of four members,
who are appointed for terms of four years, one annually, by the
governor.