Chapter XIII: Part 13

_Education._--The basis of the present common school system was laid
in 1865, after which a marked development was accompanied by some
important changes in the system and its administration, and the
percentage of total illiteracy (i.e. inability to write among those
ten years old and over) decreased from 19.3 in 1800 to 11.1 in 1900,
while illiteracy among the native whites decreased during the same
period from 7.8 to 4.1 and among negroes from 59.6 to 35.2. At the
head of the system is a state board and a state superintendent, and
under these in each county is a county board which appoints a
superintendent for the county and a board of trustees for each school
district none of which is to be more than four miles square. The state
board is composed of the governor as its president, the state
superintendent as its secretary, six other members appointed by the
governor for a term of six years, and, as _ex-officio_ members without
the right to vote, the principals of the state and other normal
schools. Prior to 1900 the principal of the state normal was
_ex-officio_ state superintendent, but since then the superintendent
has been appointed by the governor for a term of four years. Each
county board is also appointed by the governor for a term of six
years. In both the state and the county boards at least one-third of
the members appointed by the governor are not to be of the dominant
political party and only one-third of the members are to be appointed
every two years. The state board enacts by-laws for the administration
of the system; its decision of controversies arising under the school
law is final; it may suspend or remove a county superintendent for
inefficiency or incompetency; it issues life state certificates, but
applicants must have had seven years of experience in teaching, five
in Maryland, and must hold a first-class certificate or a college or
normal school diploma; and it pensions teachers who have taught
successfully for twenty-five years in any of the public or normal
schools of the state, who have reached the age of sixty, and who have
become physically or mentally incapable of teaching longer, the
pension amounting to $200 a year. The legislature of 1908 passed a law
under which the minimum pay for a teacher holding a first-class
certificate should be $350 a year after three years' teaching, $400
after five years' teaching and $450 after eight years' teaching. By a
law of 1904 all teachers who taught an average of 15 pupils were to
receive at least $300. School books are purchased out of the proceeds
of the school tax, but parents may purchase if they prefer. In 1908
the average school year was nine and seven-tenths months--ten in the
cities and nine and four-tenths in the counties; the aim is ten months
throughout, and a law of 1904 provides that if a school is taught less
than nine months a portion of the funds set apart for it shall be
withheld. A compulsory education law of 1902--to operate, however,
only in the city of Baltimore and in Allegany county--requires the
attendance for the whole school year of children between the ages of
eight and twelve and also of those between the ages of twelve and
sixteen who are not employed at home or elsewhere. A separate school
for negro children is to be maintained in every election district in
which the population warrants it. The system is maintained by a state
tax of 16 cents on each $100 of taxable property.

The higher state educational institutions are two normal schools and
one agricultural college. One of the normal schools was opened in
Baltimore in 1866, the other at Frostburg in 1904. Both are under the
management of the state Board of Education, which appoints the
principals and teachers and prescribes the course of study. There is
besides, in Washington College at Chestertown, a normal department
supported by the state and under the supervision of the state Board of
Education. The Maryland Agricultural College, to which an experiment
station has been added, was opened in 1859; it is at College Park in
Prince George's county, and is largely under state management.
Maryland supports no state university, but Johns Hopkins University,
one of the leading institutions of its kind in the country, receives
$25,000 a year from the state; the medical department of the
university of Maryland receives an annual appropriation of about
$2500, and St John's College, the academic department of the
university of Maryland, receives from the state $13,000 annually and
gives for each county in the state one free scholarship and one
scholarship covering all expenses. Among the principal institutions in
the state are the university of Maryland, an outgrowth of the medical
college of Maryland (1807) in Baltimore, with a law school
(reorganized in 1869), a dental school (1882), a school of pharmacy
(1904), and, since 1907, a department of arts and science in St John's
College (non-sect., opened in 1789) at Annapolis; Washington College,
with a normal department (non-sect., opened in 1782) at Chestertown;
Mount St Mary's College (Roman Catholic, 1808) at Emmitsburg; New
Windsor College (Presbyterian, 1843) at New Windsor; St Charles
College (Roman Catholic, opened in 1848) and Rock Hill College (Roman
Catholic, 1857) near Ellicott City; Loyola College (Roman Catholic,
1852) at Baltimore; Western Maryland College (Methodist Protestant,
1867) at Westminster; Johns Hopkins University (non-sect., 1876) at
Baltimore; Morgan College (coloured, Methodist, 1876) at Baltimore;
Goucher College (Methodist, founded 1884, opened 1888) at Baltimore;
several professional schools mostly in Baltimore (q.v.); the Peabody
Institute at Baltimore; and the United States Naval Academy at
Annapolis.

_Revenue._--The state's revenue is derived from a general direct
property tax, a licence tax, corporation taxes, a collateral
inheritance tax, fines, forfeitures and fees; and the penitentiary
yields an annual net revenue of about $40,000. There is no provision
for a general periodic assessment, but a state tax commissioner
appointed by the governor, treasurer and comptroller assesses the
corporations, and the county commissioners (in the counties) and the
appeal tax court (in the city of Baltimore) revise valuations of real
property every two years. From 1820 to 1836 Maryland, in its
enthusiasm over internal improvements, incurred an indebtedness of
more than $16,000,000. To meet the interest, such heavy taxes were
levied that anti-tax associations were formed to resist the
collection, and in 1842 the state failed to pay what was due; but the
accumulated interest had been funded by 1848 and was paid soon
afterwards, the expenses of the government were curtailed by the
constitution of 1851, and after the Civil War the amount of
indebtedness steadily decreased until in 1902 the funded debt was
$6,909,326 and the net debt only $2,797,269.13, while on the 1st of
October 1908 the net debt was $366,643.91. As a result of incurring
the large debt, a clause in the constitution prohibits the legislature
from contracting a debt without providing by the imposition of taxes
for the payment of the interest annually and the principal within
fifteen years, except to meet a temporary deficiency not exceeding
$50,000. The first bank of the state was established in 1790, and by
1817 there was one in each of twelve counties and several in
Baltimore; in 1818-1820 and in 1837-1839 there were several serious
bank failures, but there have been no serious failures since. A
constitutional provision makes each stockholder in a state bank liable
to the amount of his share or shares for all the bank's debts and
liabilities. A savings bank is taxed on its deposits, and a state bank
is taxed on its capital-stock.

_History._--The history of Maryland begins in 1632 with the procedure of Charles I. to grant a charter conveying almost unlimited territorial and governmental rights therein to George Calvert, first Lord Baltimore (1580?-1632), and styling him its absolute lord and proprietor. George Calvert died before the charter had passed the great seal, but about two months later in the same year it was issued to his eldest son, Cecilius. In November 1633 two vessels, the "Ark" and the "Dove," carrying at least two hundred colonists under Leonard Calvert (c. 1582-1647), a brother of the proprietor, as governor, sailed from Gravesend and arrived in Maryland late in March of the following year. Friendly relations were at the outset established with the Indians, and the province never had much trouble with that race; but with William Claiborne (1589?-1676?), the arch-enemy of the province as long as he lived, it was otherwise. He had opposed the grant of the Maryland charter, had established a trading post on Kent Island in Chesapeake Bay in 1631, and when commanded to submit to the new government he and his followers offered armed resistance. A little later, during his temporary absence in England, his followers on the island were reduced to submission; but in 1644, while the Civil War in England was in progress, he was back in the province assisting Richard Ingle, a pirate who claimed to be acting in the interest of parliament, in raising an insurrection which deprived Governor Calvert of his office for about a year and a half. Finally, the lord proprietor was deprived of his government from 1654 to 1658 in obedience to instructions from parliament which were originally intended to affect only Virginia, but were so modified, through the influence of Claiborne and some Puritan exiles from Virginia who had settled in Maryland, as to apply also to "the plantations within Chesapeake Bay." Then the long continued unrest both in the mother country and in the province seems to have encouraged Josias Fendall, the proprietor's own appointee as governor, to strike a blow against the proprietary government and attempt to set up a commonwealth in its place; but this revolt was easily suppressed and order was generally preserved in the province from the English Restoration of 1660 to the English Revolution of 1688.

Meanwhile an interesting internal development had been in progress. The proprietor was a Roman Catholic and probably it was his intention that Maryland should be an asylum for persecuted Roman Catholics, but it is even more clear that he was desirous of having Protestant colonists also. To this end he promised religious toleration from the beginning and directed his officers accordingly; this led to the famous toleration act passed by the assembly in 1649, which, however, extended its protection only to sects of Trinitarian Christianity. Again, although the charter reserved to the proprietor the right of calling an assembly of the freemen or their delegates at such times and in such form and manner as he should choose, he surrendered in 1638 his claim to the sole right of initiating legislation. By 1650 the assembly had been divided into two houses, in one of which sat only the representatives of the freemen without whose consent no bill could become a law, and annual sessions as well as triennial elections were coming to be the usual order. When suffrage had thus come to be a thing really worth possessing, the proprietor, in 1670, sought to check the opposition by disfranchising all freemen who did not have a freehold of fifty acres or a visible estate of forty pounds sterling. But this step was followed by more and more impassioned complaints against him, such as: that he was interfering with elections, that he was summoning only a part of the delegates elected, that he was seeking to overawe those summoned, that he was abusing his veto power, and that he was keeping the government in the hands of Roman Catholics, who were mostly members of his own family. About this time also the north and east boundaries of the province were beginning to suffer from the aggressions of William Penn. The territory now forming the state of Delaware was within the boundaries defined by the Maryland charter, but in 1682 it was transferred by the duke of York to William Penn and in 1685 Lord Baltimore's claim to it was denied by an order in council, on the ground that it had been inhabited by Christians before the Maryland charter was granted. In the next place, although it was clear from the words of the charter that the parallel of 40° N. was intended for its north boundary, and although Penn's charter prescribed that Pennsylvania should extend on the south to the "beginning of the fortieth degree of Northern Latitude," a controversy arose with regard to the boundary between the two provinces, and there was a long period of litigation; in 1763-1767 Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two English mathematicians, established the line named from them (see MASON AND DIXON LINE), which runs along the parallel 39° 43´ 26´´.3 N. and later became famous as the dividing line between the free states and the slave states. While the proprietor was absent defending his claims against Penn the English Revolution of 1688 was started. Owing to the death of a messenger there was long delay in proclaiming the new monarchs in Maryland; this delay, together with a rumor of a Popish plot to slaughter the Protestants, enabled the opposition to overthrow the proprietary government, and then the crown, in the interest of its trade policy, set up a royal government in its place, in 1692, without, however, divesting the proprietor of his territorial rights. Under the royal government the Church of England was established, the people acquired a strong control of their branch of the legislature and they were governed more by statute law and less by executive ordinance. The proprietor having become a Protestant, the proprietary government was restored in 1715. Roman Catholics were disfranchised immediately afterward. In 1730 Germans began to settle in considerable numbers in the west-central part of the colony, where they greatly promoted its industrial development but at the same time added much strength to the opposition. The first great dispute between proprietor and people after the restoration of 1715 was with regard to the extension of the English statutes to Maryland, the popular branch of the legislature vigorously contending that all such statutes except those expressly excluded extended to the province, and the lord proprietor contending that only those in which the dominions were expressly mentioned were in force there. Many other disputes speedily followed and when the final struggle between the English and French for possession in America came, although appropriations were made at its beginning to protect her own west frontier from the attacks of the enemy, a dead-lock between the two branches of the assembly prevented Maryland from responding to repeated appeals from the mother country for aid in the latter part of that struggle. This failure was used as an argument in favour of imposing the famous Stamp Act. Nevertheless, popular clamour against parliament on account of that measure was even greater than it had been against the proprietor. The stamp distributor was driven out, and the arguments of Daniel Dulany (1721-1797), the ablest lawyer in the province, against the act were quoted by speakers in parliament for its repeal.

In the years immediately preceding the Declaration of Independence Maryland pursued much the same course as did other leading colonies in the struggle--a vessel with tea on board was even burned to the water's edge--and yet when it came to the decisive act of declaring independence there was hesitation. As the contest against the proprietor had been nearly won, the majority of the best citizens desired the continuance of the old government and it was not until the Maryland delegates in the Continental Congress were found almost alone in holding back that their instructions not to vote for independence were rescinded. The new constitution drawn and adopted in 1776 to take the place of the charter was of an aristocratic rather than a democratic nature. Under it the property qualification for suffrage was a freehold of 50 acres or £30 current money, the property qualifications for delegates £500, for senators £1000, and for governor £5000. Four delegates were chosen from each county and two each from Baltimore and Annapolis, the same as under the proprietary government, population not being taken into account. Senators were chosen by a college of fifteen electors elected in the same manner as the delegates, and the governor by a joint ballot of the two houses of assembly. In 1802 negroes were disfranchised, and in 1810 property qualifications for suffrage and office were abolished. The system of representation that, with the rapid growth of population in the north-east sections, especially in the city of Baltimore, placed the government in the hands of a decreasing minority also began to be attacked about this time; but the fear of that minority which represented the tobacco-raising and slave-holding counties of south Maryland, with respect to the attitude of the majority toward slavery prevented any changes until 1837, when the opposition awakened by the enthusiasm over internal improvements effected the adoption of amendments which provided for the election of the governor and senators by a direct vote of the people, a slight increase in the representation of the city of Baltimore and the larger counties, and a slight decrease in that of the smaller counties. Scarcely had these amendments been carried when the serious financial straits brought on by debt incurred through the state's promotion of internal improvements gave rise to the demand for a reduction of governmental expenses and a limitation of the power of the General Assembly to contract debts. The result was the new constitution of 1851, which fully established representation in the counties on the basis of population and further increased that of Baltimore. The constitution of 1851 was however chiefly a patchwork of compromises. So, when during the Civil War Maryland was largely under Federal control and the demand arose for the abolition of slavery by the state, another constitutional convention was called, in 1864, which framed a constitution providing that those who had given aid to the Rebellion should be disfranchised and that only those qualified for suffrage in accordance with the new document could vote on its adoption. This was too revolutionary to stand long and in 1867 it was superseded by the present constitution. In national affairs Maryland early took a stand of perhaps far-reaching consequences in refusing to sign the Articles of Confederation (which required the assent of all the states before coming into effect), after all the other states had done so (in 1779), until those states claiming territory between the Alleghany Mountains and the Mississippi and north of the Ohio--Virginia, New York, Massachusetts and Connecticut--should have surrendered such claims. As those states finally yielded, the Union was strengthened by reason of a greater equality and consequently less jealousy among the original states, and the United States came into possession of the first territory in which all the states had a common interest and out of which new states were to be created. In the War of 1812 Frederick, Havre de Grace, and Frenchtown were burned by the British; but particularly noteworthy were the unsuccessful movements of the enemy by land and by sea against Baltimore, in which General Robert Ross (c. 1766-1814), the British commander of the land force, was killed before anything had been accomplished and the failure of the fleet to take Fort McHenry after a siege of a day and a night inspired the song _The Star-spangled Banner_, composed by Francis Scott Key who had gone under a flag of truce to secure from General Ross the release of a friend held as a prisoner by the British and during the attack was detained on his vessel within the British lines. In 1861 Maryland as a whole was opposed to secession but also opposed to coercing the seceded states. During the war that followed the west section was generally loyal to the north while the south section favoured the Confederacy and furnished many soldiers for its army; but most of the state was kept under Federal control, the writ of habeas corpus being suspended. The only battle of much importance fought on Maryland soil during the war was that of Sharpsburg or Antietam on the 16th and 17th of September 1862. As between political parties the state has usually been quite equally divided. From 1820 to 1860, however, the Whigs were in general a trifle the stronger; and from 1866 to 1895 the Democrats were triumphant; in 1895 a Republican governor was elected; in 1896 Maryland gave McKinley 32,232 votes more than it gave Bryan; and in 1904 seven Democratic electors and one Republican were chosen; and in 1908 five Democratic and three Republican.

The proprietors of Maryland were: Cecilius Calvert, second Lord
Baltimore (1605[?]-1675) from 1632 to 1675; Charles Calvert, third
Lord Baltimore (1629-1715) from 1675 to 1715; Benedict Leonard
Calvert, fourth Lord Baltimore (1684?-1715) 1715; Charles Calvert,
fifth Lord Baltimore (1699-1751) from 1715 to 1751; Frederick Calvert,
sixth and last Lord Baltimore (1731-1771) from 1751 to 1771; Henry
Harford, from 1771 to 1776.

_Governors of Maryland._

_Proprietary._

Leonard Calvert 1633-1645
Richard Ingle (usurper) 1645
Edward Hill (chosen by the council) 1646
Leonard Calvert 1646-1647
Thomas Greene 1647-1649
William Stone \ 1649-1652
Richard Bennett > (commissioners of \
Edmund Curtis | parliament) > 1652
William Claiborne / /
William Stone 1652-1654
William Fuller and others (appointed by the
commissioners of parliament) 1654-1658
Josias Fendall 1658-1660
Philip Calvert 1660-1661
Charles Calvert 1661-1675
Charles Calvert, third Lord Baltimore 1675-1676
Cecilius Calvert (titular) and Jesse Wharton (real) 1676
Thomas Notley 1676-1679
Charles Calvert, third Lord Baltimore 1679-1684
Benedict Leonard Calvert (titular) and council (real) 1684-1688
William Joseph (president of the council) 1688-1689
Protestant Associators under John Coode 1689-1692

_Royal._

Sir Lionel Copley 1692-1693
Sir Edmund Andros 1693-1694
Francis Nicholson 1694-1699
Nathaniel Blackistone 1699-1702
Thomas Tench (president of the council) 1702-1704
John Seymour 1704-1709
Edward Lloyd (president of the council) 1709-1714
John Hart 1714-1715
John Hart 1715-1720
Charles Calvert 1720-1727
Benedict Leonard Calvert 1727-1731
Samuel Ogle 1731-1732
Charles Calvert, fifth Lord Baltimore 1732-1733
Samuel Ogle 1733-1742
Thomas Bladen 1742-1747
Samuel Ogle 1747-1752
Benjamin Tasker (president of the council) 1752-1753
Horatio Sharpe 1752-1769
Robert Eden 1769-1774
Robert Eden (nominal) and Convention and Council
of Safety (real) 1774-1776

STATE

Thomas Johnson 1777-1779
Thomas Sim Lee 1779-1782
William Paca 1782-1785
William Smallwood 1785-1788
John Eager Howard 1788-1791
George Plater[4] 1791-1792
James Brice (acting) 1792
Thomas Sim Lee 1792-1794
John H. Stone 1794-1797
John Henry Democratic Republican 1797-1798
Benjamin Ogle Federalist 1798-1801
John Francis Mercer Democratic Republican 1801-1803
Robert Bowie " " 1803-1806
Robert Wright[5] " " 1806-1808
James Butcher (acting) " " 1808-1809
Edward Lloyd Whig 1809-1811
Robert Bowie Democratic Republican 1811-1812
Levin Winder Federalist 1812-1815
Charles Ridgely " 1815-1818
Charles Goldsborough " 1818-1819
Samuel Sprigg Democratic Republican 1819-1822
Samuel Stevens, jun. " " 1822-1825
Joseph Kent " " 1825-1828
Daniel Martin Anti-Jackson 1828-1829
Thomas King Carroll Jackson Democrat 1829-1830
Daniel Martin Anti-Jackson 1830-1831
George Howard (acting) Whig 1831-1832
George Howard " 1832-1833
James Thomas " 1833-1835
Thomas W. Veazey " 1835-1838
William Grason Democrat 1838-1841
Francis Thomas " 1841-1844
Thomas G. Pratt Whig 1844-1847
Philip Francis Thomas Democrat 1847-1850
Enoch Louis Lowe " 1850-1853
Thomas Watkins Ligon " 1853-1857
Thomas Holliday Hicks American or
Know Nothing 1857-1861
Augustus W. Bradford Unionist 1861-1865
Thomas Swann " 1865-1868
Oden Bowie Democrat 1868-1872
William Pinkney Whyte[6] " 1872-1874
James Black Groome " 1874-1876
John Lee Carroll " 1876-1880
William T. Hamilton " 1880-1884
Robert M. McLane " 1884-1885
Henry Lloyd " 1885-1888
Elihu E. Jackson " 1888-1892
Frank Brown " 1892-1896
Lloyd Lowndes Republican 1896-1900
John Walter Smith Democrat 1900-1904
Edwin Warfield " 1904-1908
Austin L. Crothers " 1908-

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Publications of the Maryland Geological Survey_
(Baltimore, 1897); _Maryland Weather Service Climatology and Physical
Features_, biennial reports (Baltimore, 1892- ); _United States
Census_; _Reports_ of the U.S. Fish Commissioner and Bureau of
Fisheries (Washington, 1871); State Department, _Maryland Manual, a
Compendium of Legal, Historical and Statistical Information_
(Baltimore, 1900- ); B.C. Steiner, _Citizenship and Suffrage in
Maryland_ (Baltimore, 1895), an historical review of the subject; J.
W. Harry, _The Maryland Constitution of 1851_, Johns Hopkins
University Studies in Historical and Political Science (Baltimore,
1902), contains an account of the agitation from 1835 to 1850 for
constitutional reform; B. C. Steiner, _History of Education in
Maryland_, Circulars of Information of the United States Bureau of
Education (Washington, 1894), a general historical survey of the
common schools, public and private, and a particular account of each
college, university and professional school; A. D. Mayo, _The Final
Establishment of the American School System in West Virginia,
Maryland, Virginia and Delaware_, Report of the Commissioner of
Education (Washington, 1905) contains an interesting account of the
development of the public school system of the state from 1864 to
1900; F. S. Adams, _Taxation in Maryland_, Johns Hopkins University
Studies (Baltimore, 1900), an historical account of the sources of the
state's revenue and administration of its taxing system; A. V. Bryan,
_History of State Banking in Maryland_, Johns Hopkins University
Studies (Baltimore, 1899), a careful study of the state's experience
with banks from 1790 to 1864; J. L. Bozman, _History of Maryland from
1633 to 1660_ (Baltimore, 1837), a compilation of much of the more
important material relating to the early history of the province; J.
V. L. McMahon, _An Historical View of the Government of Maryland from
its Colonization to the Present Day_ (Baltimore, 1833), an able
treatment of the subject by a learned jurist; J. T. Scharf, _History
of Maryland_ (Baltimore, 1879), the most extensive general history of
the state, but it contains numerous errors and the arrangement is
poor; W. H. Browne, _Maryland: the History of a Palatinate_ (Boston,
1884 and 1895), an excellent outline of the colonial history; N. D.
Mereness, _Maryland as a Proprietary Province_ (New York, 1901), a
constitutional history of the province in the light of its industrial
and social development, contains a bibliography; and Bernard C.
Steiner, _Maryland during the English Civil War_ (2 vols., Baltimore,
1906-1907), one of the Johns Hopkins University Studies. (N. D. M.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Maryland and Delaware together began the construction of the
Chesapeake and Delaware canal (13½ m. long) across the north part of
the state of Delaware, between the Delaware river and Chesapeake Bay;
this canal received Federal aid in 1828, was completed in 1829, and
in 1907 was chosen as the most practicable route for a proposed ship
waterway between the Chesapeake and the Delaware.

[2] The population at previous censuses was as follows: 319,728 in
1790; 341,548 in 1800; 380,546 in 1810; 407,350 in 1820; 447,040 in
1830; 470,019 in 1840; 583,034 in 1850; 687,049 in 1860; and 780,894
in 1870.

[3] The General Assembly regularly elected the governor during the
period 1776-1838.

[4] Died in office.

[5] Resigned on the 6th of May 1808.

[6] Resigned in 1874 to become (March 4, 1875) U.S. senator from
Maryland.

MARYPORT, a market town and seaport in the Cockermouth parliamentary division of Cumberland, England, 25 m. W.S.W. of Carlisle, on the Maryport & Carlisle railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 11,897. It is irregularly built on the shore of the Irish Sea and on the cliffs above, at the mouth of the river Ellen. Until 1750 there were only a few huts here, the spot being called Ellenfoot, but at this time the harbour was built by Humphrey Senhouse. In 1892 Maryport became an independent port with Workington, Whitehaven and Millom subordinate to it. Coal and pig-iron are exported from the mining district inland, and shipbuilding is carried on. There are also rope and sail works, iron-foundries, saw-mills, breweries and tanneries. On the hill north of the town there is a Roman fort which guarded the coast, and many remains of this period have been discovered. The fort was called Uxellodunum.

MARZABOTTO, a village of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Bologna, 17 m. S.S.W. of Bologna by rail. Pop. (1901), 617 (village); 5272 (commune). It lies in the valley of the Reno, 443 ft. above sea-level. In and below the grounds of the Villa Aria, close to it, are the remains of an Etruscan town of the 5th century B.C., protected on the west by the mountains, on the east and south by the river, which by a change of course has destroyed about half of it. The acropolis was just below the villa: here remains of temples were found. The town lay below the modern high-road and was laid out on a rectangular plan divided by main streets into eight quarters, and these in turn into blocks or _insulae_. Cemeteries were found on the east and north of the site. The name of the place is unknown: it was partially inhabited later by the Gauls, but was not occupied by the Romans.

The discoveries of 1888-1889 (with references to previous works) are
described by E. Brizio in _Monumenti dei Lincei_ (1891), i. 249 sqq.
(T. As.)

MASACCIO (1402-1429), Italian painter. Tommaso Guidi, son of a notary, Ser Giovanni di Simone Guidi, of the family of the Scheggia, who had property in Castel S. Giovanni di Val d'Arno, was born in 1402 (according to Milanesi, on the 21st of December 1401), and acquired the nickname of Masaccio, which may be translated "Lubberly Tom," in consequence of his slovenly dressing and deportment. From childhood he showed a great inclination for the arts of design, and he is said to have studied under his contemporary Masolino da Panicale. In 1421, or perhaps 1423, he was enrolled in the gild of the speziali (druggists) in Florence, in 1424 in the gild of painters. His first attempts in painting were made in Florence, and then in Pisa. Next he went to Rome, still no doubt very young; although the statement that he returned from Rome to Florence, in 1420, when only eighteen or nineteen, seems incredible, considering the works he undertook in the papal city. These included a series of frescoes still extant in a chapel of the church of S. Clemente, a Crucifixion, and scenes from the life of St Catherine and of St Clement, or perhaps some other saint. Though much inferior to his later productions, these paintings are, for naturalism and propriety of representation, in advance of their time. Some critics, however, consider that the design only, if even that, was furnished by Masaccio, and the execution left to an inferior hand; this appears highly improbable, as Masaccio, at his early age, can scarcely have held the position of a master laying out work for subordinates; indeed Vasari says that Lubberly Tom was held in small esteem at all times of his brief life. In the Crucifixion subject the group of the Marys is remarkable; the picture most generally admired is that of Catherine, in the presence of Maxentius, arguing against and converting eight learned doctors. After returning to Florence, Masaccio was chiefly occupied in painting in the church of the Carmine, and especially in that "Brancacci Chapel" which he has rendered famous almost beyond rivalry in the annals of painting.

The chapel, had been built early in the 15th century by Felice Michele
di Piuvichese Brancacci, a noble Florentine. Masaccio's work in it
began probably in 1423, and continued at intervals until he finally
quitted Florence in 1428. There is a whole library-shelf of discussion
as to what particular things were done by Masaccio and what by
Masolino, and long afterwards by Filippino Lippi, in the Brancacci
Chapel, and also as to certain other paintings by Masaccio in the
Carmine. He began with a trial piece, a majestic figure of St Paul,
not in the chapel; this has perished. A monochrome of the Procession
for the Consecration of the Chapel, regarded as a wonderful example,
for that early period, of perspective and of grouping, has also
disappeared; it contains portraits of Brunelleschi, Donatello and many
others. In the cloister of the Carmine was discovered in recent years
a portion of a fresco by Masaccio representing a procession; but this,
being in colours and not in monochrome, does not appear to be the
Brancacci procession. As regards the works in the Brancacci chapel
itself, the prevalent opinion now is that Masolino, who used to be
credited with a considerable portion of them, did either nothing, or
at most the solitary compartment which represents St Peter restoring
Tabitha to life, and the same saint healing a cripple. The share which
Filippino Lippi bore in the work admits of little doubt; to him are
due various items on which the fame of Masaccio used principally to be
based--as for instance the figure of St Paul addressing Peter in
prison, which Raphael partly appropriated; and hence it may be
observed that an eloquent and often-quoted outpouring of Sir Joshua
Reynolds in praise of Masaccio ought in great part to be transferred
to Filippino. What Masaccio really painted in the chapel appears with
tolerable certainty to be as follows, and is ample enough to sustain
the high reputation he has always enjoyed:--(1) The "Temptation of
Adam and Eve"; (2) "Peter and the Tribute-Money"; (3) The "Expulsion
from Eden"; (4) "Peter Preaching"; (5) "Peter Baptizing"; (6) "Peter
Almsgiving"; (7) "Peter and John curing the Sick"; (8) "Peter
restoring to Life the Son of King Theophilus of Antioch" was begun by
Masaccio, including the separate incident of "Peter Enthroned," but a
large proportion is by Filippino; (9) the double subject already
allotted to Masolino may perhaps be by Masaccio, and in that case it
must have been one of the first in order of execution. A few words may
be given to these pictures individually. (1) The "Temptation" shows a
degree of appreciation of nude form, corresponding to the feeling of
the antique, such as was at that date unexampled in painting. (2) The
"Tribute-Money," a full, harmonious and expressive composition,
contains a head reputed to be the portrait of Masaccio himself--one of
the apostles, with full locks, a solid resolute countenance and a
pointed beard. (3) The "Expulsion" was so much admired by Raphael
that, with comparatively slight modifications, he adopted it as his
own in one of the subjects of the Logge of the Vatican. (5) "Peter
Baptizing" contains some nude figures of strong naturalistic design;
that of the young man, prepared for the baptismal ceremony, who stands
half-shivering in the raw air, has always been a popular favourite and
an object of artistic study. (8) The restoration of the young man to
life has been open to much discussion as to what precise subject was
in view, but the most probable opinion is that the legend of King
Theophilus was intended.

In 1427 Masaccio was living in Florence with his mother, then for the second time a widow, and with his younger brother Giovanni, a painter of no distinction; he possessed nothing but debts. In 1428 he was working, as we have seen, in the Brancacci chapel. Before the end of that year he disappeared from Florence, going, as it would appear, to Rome, to evade the importunities of creditors. Immediately afterwards, in 1429, when his age was twenty-seven or twenty-eight, he was reported dead. Poisoning by jealous rivals in art was rumoured, but of this nothing is known. The statement that several years afterwards, in 1443, he was buried in the Florentine Church of the Carmine, without any monument, seems to be improbable, and to depend upon a confused account of the dates, which have now, after long causing much bewilderment, been satisfactorily cleared up from extant documents.

It has been said that Masaccio introduced into painting the plastic boldness of Donatello, and carried out the linear perspective of Paolo Uccello and Brunelleschi (who had given him practical instruction), and he was also the first painter who made some considerable advance in atmospheric perspective. He was the first to make the architectural framework of his pictures correspond in a reasonable way to the proportions of the figures. In the Brancacci chapel he painted with extraordinary swiftness. The contours of the feet and articulations in his pictures are imperfect; and his most prominent device for giving roundness to the figures (a point in which he made a great advance upon his predecessors) was a somewhat mannered way of putting the high lights upon the edges. His draperies were broad and easy, and his landscape details natural, and superior to his age. In fact, he led the way in representing the objects of nature correctly, with action, liveliness and relief. Soon after his death, his work was recognized at its right value, and led to notable advances; and all the greatest artists of Italy, through studying the Brancacci chapel, became his champions and disciples.

Of the works attributed to Masaccio in public or private galleries
hardly any are authentic. The one in the Florentine Academy, the
"Virgin and Child in the Lap of St Anna," is an exception. The
so-called portrait of Masaccio in the Uffizi Gallery is more probably
Filippino Lippi; and Filippino, or Botticelli, may be the real author
of the head, at first termed a Masaccio, in the National Gallery,
London.

An early work on Masaccio was that of T. Patch, _Life with Engravings_
(Florence, 1770-1772). See Layard, _The Brancacci Chapel_, &c. (1868);
H. Eckstein, _Life of Masaccio, Giotto_, &c. (1882); Charles Yriarte,
_Tommaso dei Guidi_ (1894). (W. M. R.)

MASAI, an Eastern Equatorial African people of Negro-Hamitic stock, speaking a Nilotic language. The Hamitic element, which is not great, has probably been derived from the Galla. The Masai were probably isolated in the high mountains or plateaus which lie between the Nile and the Karamojo country. There they originally had their home, and there to-day the Latuka, who show affinities with them, still live. Famine or inter-tribal wars drove the Masai in the direction of Mount Elgon and Lake Rudolf. After a long settlement there they split into two groups, the Masai proper and the Wa-Kuafi or agricultural Masai, and this at no very remote date, as the two tribes speak practically the same language. The more powerful Masai were purely nomadic and pastoral, their wealth consisting in enormous herds. The Wa-Kuafi, losing their cattle to their stronger kinsmen, split up again into the Burkeneji, the Gwas Ngishu, and the Nyarusi (Enjamusi) and settled as agriculturists. Meantime the Masai became masters of the greater part of inner East Africa from Ugogo and the Unyamwezi countries on the south and west to Mount Kenya and Galla-land on the north, and eastward to the hundred-mile strip of more or less settled Bantu country on the coast of the Indian Ocean.

The Masai physical type is slender, but among the finest in Africa. A tall, well-made people, the men are often well over six feet, with slim wiry figures, chocolate-coloured, with eyes often slightly oblique like the Mongolians, but the nose especially being often almost Caucasian in type, with well formed bridge and finely cut nostrils. Almost all the men and women knock out the two lower incisor teeth. For this custom they give the curious explanation that lockjaw was once very common in Masai-land, and that it was found to be easy to feed the sufferer through the gap thus made. All the hair on the body of both sexes is pulled out with iron tweezers; a Masai with a moustache or beard is unknown. The hair of the head is shaved in women and married men; but the hair of a youth at puberty is allowed to grow till it is long enough to have thin strips of leather plaited into it. In this way the hair, after a coating of red clay and mutton fat, is made into pigtails, the largest of which hangs down the back, another over the forehead, and one on each side. The warriors smear their whole bodies with the clay and fat, mixed in equal proportion.

No tattooing or scarring is performed on the men, but Sir Harry
Johnston noticed women with parallel lines burnt into the skin round
the eyes. In both sexes the lobes of the ears are distended into great
loops, through holes in which large disks of wood are thrust. Bead
necklaces, bead and wood armlets are worn by men, and before marriage
the Masai girl has thick iron wire wound round her legs so tightly as
to check the calf development. The women wear dressed hides or calico;
the old men wear a skin or cloth cape. The warriors wind red calico
round their waists, a circle of ostrich feathers round their face (or
a cap of lion or colobus skin) and fringes of long white fur round the
knee. Masai houses are of two kinds. The agricultural tribes build
round huts with walls of reeds or sticks, and conical, grass-thatched
roofs. The true Masai nomads, however, have houses unlike those of any
other neighbouring negro tribe. Long, low (not more than 6 ft. high),
flat-roofed, they are built on a framework of sticks with strong
partitions dividing the structure into separate compartments, each a
dwelling, with low, oblong door. Mud and cow-dung are plastered on to
the brushwood used in the roofing. Beds are made of brushwood neatly
stacked and covered with hides. The fireplace is a circle of stones.
The only furniture, besides cooking-pots, consists of long gourds used
as milkcans, half-gourds as cups, and small three-legged stools cut
out of a single block of wood and used by the elder men to sit on.
The Masai are not hunters of big game except lions, but they eat the
eland and kudu. The domestic animals are cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys
and dogs. Only women and the married men smoke. The dead are
ordinarily not buried, but the bodies are carried a short distance
from the village and left on the ground to be devoured by hyenas,
jackals and vultures. Important chiefs are buried, however, and a year
later the eldest son or successor recovers the skull, which is
treasured as a charm. The medicine men of Masai are often the chiefs,
and the supreme chief is almost always a medicine man.

The Masai believe in a nature-god as a supreme being--Ngai
("sky")--and his aid is invoked in cases of drought by a ceremonial
chant of the children, standing in a circle after sunset, each with a
bunch of grass in its hand. They have creation-myths involving four
gods, the black, white, grey and red deities. They believe there is no
future for women or common people, but that such distinction is
reserved for chiefs. Pythons and a species of snake are revered as the
reincarnated forms of their more celebrated ancestors. A kind of
worship is paid to the hyena in some districts: the whole tribe going
into mourning if the beast crosses their path. The Masai also have a
vague tree-worship, and grass is a sacred symbol. When making peace a
tuft is held in the right hand, and when the warriors start out on a
raid their sweethearts throw grass after them or lay it in the forks
of trees. But the oddest of their superstitious customs is the
importance attached to spitting. To spit upon a person or thing is
regarded as a sign of reverence and goodwill, as among other Nilotic
tribes. Newly born children are spat on by every one who sees them.
Johnston states that every Masai before extending his hand to him spat
on it first. They spit when they meet and when they part, and bargains
are sealed in this way. Joseph Thomson writes, "being regarded as a
wizard of the first water, the Masai flocked to me ... and the more
copiously I spat on them the greater was their delight." The Masai has
no love for work, and practises no industries. The women attend to his
personal needs; and trades such as smelting and forging are left to
enslaved tribes such as the Dorobo (Wandorobo). These manufacture
spears with long blades and butts and the peculiar swords or _simés_
like long slender leaves, very narrow towards the hilt and broad at
the point. Most of the Masai live in the British East Africa
Protectorate.

See A. C. Hollis, _The Masai, their Language and Folklore_ (1905); M.
Merker, _Die Nasai_ (1904); Sir H. H. Johnston, _Kilimanjaro
Expedition_ (1886) and _Uganda Protectorate_ (1902); Joseph Thomson,
_Through Masai-land_ (1885); O. Baumann, _Durch Massai-land zur
Nilquelle_ (1894); F. Kallenberg, _Auf dem Kriegspfad gegen die
Massai_ (1892).

MASANIELLO, an abbreviation of TOMMASO ANIELLO (1622-1647), an Amalfi fisherman, who became leader of the revolt against Spanish rule in Naples in 1647. Misgovernment and fiscal oppression having aroused much discontent throughout the two Sicilies, a revolt broke out at Palermo in May 1647, and the people of Naples followed the example of the Sicilians. The immediate occasion of the latter rising was a new tax on fruit, the ordinary food of the poor, and the chief instigator of the movement was Masaniello, who took command of the malcontents. The outbreak began on the 7th of July 1647 with a riot at the city gates between the fruit-vendors of the environs and the customs officers; the latter were forced to flee, and the customs office was burnt. The rioters then poured into Naples and forced their way into the palace of the viceroy, the hated Count d'Arcos, who had to take refuge first in a neighbouring convent, then in Castel Sant' Elmo, and finally in Castelnuovo. Masaniello attempted to discipline the mob and restrain its vandalic instincts, and to some extent he succeeded; attired in his fisherman's garb, he gave audiences and administered justice from a wooden scaffolding outside his house. Several rioters, including the duke of Maddaloni, an opponent of the viceroy, and his brother Giuseppe Caraffa, who had come to Naples to make trouble, were condemned to death by him and executed. The mob, which every day obtained more arms and was becoming more intractable, terrorized the city, drove off the troops summoned from outside, and elected Masaniello "captain-general"; the revolt was even spreading to the provinces. Finally, the viceroy, whose negotiations with Masaniello had been frequently interrupted by fresh tumults, ended by granting all the concessions demanded of him. On the 13th of July, through the mediation of Cardinal Filomarino, archbishop of Naples, a convention was signed between D'Arcos and Masaniello as "leader of the most faithful people of Naples," by which the rebels were pardoned, the more oppressive taxes removed, and the citizens granted certain rights, including that of remaining in arms until the treaty should have been ratified by the king of Spain. The astute D'Arcos then invited Masaniello to the palace, confirmed his title of "captain-general of the Neapolitan people," gave him a gold chain of office, and offered him a pension. Masaniello refused the pension and laid down his dignities, saying that he wished to return to his old life as a fisherman; but he was entertained by the viceroy and, partly owing to the strain and excitement of the past days, partly because he was made dizzy by his astonishing change of fortune, or perhaps, as it was believed, because he was poisoned, he lost his head and behaved like a frenzied maniac. The people continued to obey him for some days, until, abandoned by his best friends, who went over to the Spanish party, he was murdered while haranguing a mob on the market-place on the 16th of July 1647; his head was cut off and brought by a band of roughs to the viceroy and the body buried outside the city. But the next day the populace, angered by the alteration of the measures for weighing bread, repented of its insane fury; the body of Masaniello was dug up and given a splendid funeral, at which the viceroy himself was represented.

Masaniello's insurrection appealed to the imagination of poets and composers, and formed the subject of several operas, of which the most famous is Auber's La Muelle de Portici (1828).

See Saavedra, _Insurreccion de Napoli en 1647_ (2 vols., Madrid,
1849); A. von Reumont, _Die Caraffa von Maddaloni_ (2 vols., Berlin,
1849); Capasso, _La Casa e famiglia di Masaniello_ (Naples, 1893); V.
Spinazzola, _Masaniello e la sua famiglia, secondo un codice bolognese
del sec. xvi_. (in the review Flegrea, 1900); A. G. Meissner,
_Masaniello_ (in German); E. Bourg, _Masaniello_ (in French); F.
Palermo, _Documenti diversi sulle novità accadute in Napoli l'anno
1647_ (in the _Archivio storico italiano_, 1st series, vol. ix.). See
also NAPLES.

MASAYA, the capital of the department of Masaya, Nicaragua, 13 m. W.N.W. of Lake Nicaragua and the city of Granada, on the eastern shore of Lake Masaya, and on the Granada-Managua railway. Pop. (1905), about 20,000. The city is built in the midst of a very fertile lowland region, which yields large quantities of tobacco. The majority of the inhabitants are Indians or half-castes. Lake Masaya occupies an extinct crater; the isolated volcano of Masaya (3000 ft.) on the opposite side of the lake was active at the time of the conquest of Nicaragua in 1522, and the conquerors, thinking the lava they saw was gold, had themselves lowered into the crater at the risk of their lives. The volcano was in eruption in 1670, 1782, 1857 and 1902.

MASCAGNI, PIETRO (1863- ), Italian operatic composer, was born at Leghorn, the son of a baker, and educated for the law; but he neglected his legal studies for music, taking secret lessons at the Instituto Luigi Cherubini. There a symphony by him was performed in 1879, and various other compositions attracted attention, so that money was provided by a wealthy amateur for him to study at the Milan Conservatoire. But Mascagni chafed at the teaching, and soon left Milan to become conductor to a touring operatic company. After a somewhat chequered period he suddenly leapt into fame by the production at Rome in 1890 of his one-act opera _Cavalleria Rusticana_, containing a tuneful "intermezzo," which became wildly popular. Mascagni was the musical hero of the hour, and _Cavalleria Rusticana_ was performed everywhere. But his later work failed to repeat this success. _L'Amico Fritz_ (1891), _I Rantzau_ (1892), _Guglielmo Ratcliff_ (1895), _Silvano_ (1895), _Zanetto_ (1896), _Iris_ (1898), _Le Maschere_ (1901), and _Amica_ (1905), were coldly or adversely received; and though _Cavalleria Rusticana_, with its catchy melodies, still held the stage, this succession of failures involved a steady decline in the composer's reputation. From 1895 to 1903 Mascagni was director of the Pesaro Conservatoire, but in the latter year, having left his post in order to tour through the United States, he was dismissed from the appointment.

MASCARA, chief town of an arrondissement in the department of Oran, Algeria, 60 m. S.E. of Oran. It lies 1800 ft. above the sea, on the southern slope of a range forming part of the Little Atlas Mountains, and occupies two small hills separated by the Wad Tudman, which is crossed by three stone bridges. The walls, upwards of two miles in circuit, and strengthened by bastions and towers, give the place a somewhat imposing appearance. Mascara is a town of the French colonial type, few vestiges of the Moorish period remaining. Among the public buildings are two mosques, in one of which Abd-el-Kader preached the _jihad_. The town also contains the usual establishments attaching to the seat of a sub-prefect and the centre of a military subdivision. The principal industry is the making of wine, the white wines of Mascara being held in high repute. There is also a considerable trade in grains and oil. A branch railway eight miles long connects Mascara with the line from the seaport of Arzeu to Ain Sefra. Access is also gained by this line to Oran, Algiers, &c. Pop. (1906) of the town, 18,989; of the commune, which includes several villages, 22,934; of the arrondissement, comprising eleven communes, 190,154.

Mascara (i.e. "mother of soldiers") was the capital of a Turkish
beylik during the Spanish occupation of Oran from the 16th to the
close of the 18th century; but for the most of that period it occupied
a site about two miles distant from the present position. On the
removal of the bey to Oran its importance rapidly declined; and it was
an insignificant place when in 1832 Abd-el-Kader, who was born in the
neighbourhood, chose it as the seat of his power. It was laid in ruins
by the French under Marshal Clausel and the duke of Orleans in 1835,
the amir retreating south. Being reoccupied by Abd-el-Kader in 1838,
Mascara was again captured in 1841 by Marshal Bugeaud and General
Lamoricière.

MASCARENE ISLANDS (occasionally MASCARENHAS), the collective title of a group in the Indian Ocean cast of Madagascar, viz. Mauritius, Réunion and Rodriguez (q.v.). The collective title is derived from the Portuguese navigator Mascarenhas, by whom Réunion, at first called Mascarenhas, was discovered.

MASCARON, JULES (1634-1703), French preacher, was the son of a barrister at Aix. Born at Marseilles in 1634, he early entered the French Oratory, and obtained great reputation as a preacher. Paris confirmed the judgment of the provinces; in 1666 he was asked to preach before the court, and became a great favourite with Louis XIV., who said that his eloquence was one of the few things that never grew old. In 1671 he was appointed bishop of Tulle; eight years later he was transferred to the larger diocese of Agen. He still continued, however, to preach regularly at court, being especially in request for funeral orations. A panegyric on Turenne, delivered in 1675, is considered his masterpiece. His style is strongly tinged with _préciosité_; and his chief surviving interest is as a glaring example of the evils from which Bossuet delivered the French pulpit. During his later years he devoted himself entirely to his pastoral duties at Agen, where he died in 1703.

Six of his most famous sermons were edited, with a biographical sketch
of their author, by the Oratorian Borde in 1704.