Chapter XVIII: Part 18

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For Topography: W. M. Davis, _Physical Geography of
Southern New England_ (New York, 1895), and for the western counties,
R. D. Mallary, _Lenox and the Berkshire Highlands_ (New York-London,
1902); also _Inland Massachusetts, Illustrated ..._ (Springfield,
1890); C. F. Warner, _Picturesque Berkshire_ (also Franklin, Hampden,
Hampshire, Northampton, 1890-1893); U.S. Geological Survey, _Bulletin
116_, H. Gannett, "Geographic Dictionary of Massachusetts." On
Minerals: _U.S. Census_, 1900, and _U.S. Geological Survey_, annual
volume on _Mineral Resources_. On Agriculture: _U.S. Census_ and
reports of Mass. Census (alternating with Federal census), and reports
and bulletins of the Board of Agriculture (1852) and the Agricultural
College (1867), and Experiment Station (1883) at Amherst. On
Manufactures, &c.: See _Reports_ of state and Federal censuses; also
_Annual Reports_ (1869) of the state Bureau of Statistics of Labor,
which contain a wealth of valuable material (e.g. 1903, "Race in
Industry"; 1902, "Sex in Industry"; 1885, "Wages and Prices,
1752-1863," &c.); W. R. Bagnall, _The Textile Industries of the United
States_ (vol. i., 1639-1810, Cambridge, 1893); J. L. Hayes, "American
Textile Machinery: its Early History, &c." (Cambridge, 1870;
_Bulletin_ of National Association of Wool Manufacturers), and
literature therein referred to. On Commerce and Communications: _U.S.
Census_, 1902 (vol. on "Electric Railways"); U.S. Interstate Commerce
Commission, annual _Statistics of Railways_; publications of the State
Board of Trade; W. Hill on "First Stages of the Tariff Policy of the
United States" in _American Economic Association Publications_, vol.
viii., no. 6 (1893). On Population: Census reports, state and Federal,
publications of Bureau of Statistics of Labor, Board of Health (1869-;
the Annual Report of 1896 contains an exhaustive analysis of vital
statistics, 1856-1895); Board of Charity (1878- ), &c. On
Administration: G. H. Haynes, _Representation and Suffrage in
Massachusetts_, 1620-1691, in Johns Hopkins University, Studies in
History, xii.; _Manual for the General Court_ (Annual); R. H. Whitten,
_Public Administration in Massachusetts_, in Columbia University,
Studies in History, vol. viii. (1898); H. R. Spencer, _Constitutional
Conflict in Provincial Massachusetts_ (Columbus, O., 1905); and the
annual _Public Documents of Massachusetts_, embracing the reports of
all state officers and institutions. On Taxation: See especially the
official "Report of the Commission Appointed to Inquire into the
Expediency of Revising and Amending the Laws ... Relating to Taxation"
(1897), and vol. xi. of the _Report of the United States Industrial
Commission_ (Wash., 1901); H. G. Friedman, _The Taxation of
Corporations in Massachusetts_ (New York, 1907); and C. J. Bullock,
_Historical Sketch of the Finances and Financial Policy of
Massachusetts_ (1907). On Education: See _Annual Reports_ of the
United States Commissioner of Education; G. G. Bush, _History of
Higher Education in Massachusetts_ (Washington, U.S. Bureau of
Education, 1891); article on HARVARD UNIVERSITY. On History: Elaborate
bibliography is given in J. Winsor's _Narrative and Critical History
of America_ and in his _Memorial History of Boston_. The colonial
historical classics are William Bradford, _History of Plimoth
Plantation_ (pub. by the commonwealth, 1898; also edited by Charles
Deane, in _Collections_ of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 1856,
series 4, vol. iii.); J. Winthrop, _History of New England 1630-1649_,
edited by J. Savage (Boston, 2 vols. 1825-1826, new ed., 1853); S. E.
Sewall, _Diary, 1674-1729_ (3 vols., _Collections_ of the
Massachusetts Historical Society, series 5, vols. v.-vii., 1878-1882),
a fascinating and microscopic picture of colonial life; T. Hutchinson,
_History of ... Massachusetts_ (3 vols., respectively Boston, 1764,
1767, London, 1828); also the very valuable _Hutchinson Papers_ (2
vols., Prince Society, Boston, 1865). For the period 1662-1666, when
Massachusetts was investigated by royal commissioners, see
_Collections_ of the Massachusetts Historical Society, series 2, vol.
viii., 1819; on the Andros period, 1689-1691, see the _Andros Tracts_
(3 vols., Prince Society Publications, v.-vii., Boston, 1868-1874),
ed. by J. H. Whitmore. The one-time-standard general history was that
of J. G. Palfrey, _History of New England_ (5 vols., Boston,
1858-1890), to the War of Independence. It is generally accurate in
facts but written in an unsatisfactorily eulogistic vein. Of
importance in more modern views is a volume of _Lectures Delivered ...
before the Lowell Institute ... by Members of the Massachusetts
Historical Society on Subjects Relating to the Early History of
Massachusetts_ (Boston, 1869), perhaps especially the lectures of G.
E. Ellis, later expanded, and in the process somewhat weakened, into
his _Puritan Age and Rule in the Colony of the Massachusetts Bay,
1629-1685_ (Boston, 1888; 3rd ed., 1891). See C. F. Adams,
_Massachusetts: its Historians and its History_ (Boston, 1893), for a
critique of the "filiopietistic" traditions of Massachusetts writers;
also his _Three Episodes of Massachusetts History_,--namely,
Settlement of the Colony, Antinomianism, and church and town
government in Quincy from 1634-1888 (2 vols., Boston, 1892). On town
government see further E. Channing in Johns Hopkins University,
_Studies in History_ vol. ii. (1884); P. E. Aldrich in American
Antiquarian Society, _Proceedings_, new series, vol. 3, pp. 111-124;
and C. F. Adams and others in Massachusetts Historical Society,
_Proceedings_, 2nd series, vol. vii (1892). On the Pilgrims and
Puritans: See article PLYMOUTH; also E. H. Byington, _The Puritan in
England and America_ (Boston, 1896) and _The Puritan as Colonist and
Reformer_ (Boston, 1899). On the Quaker Persecution: R. P. Hallowell,
_The Quaker Invasion of Massachusetts_ (Boston, 1883; rev. ed., 1887).
On Witchcraft: See C. W. Upham, _Witchcraft in Salem_ (2 vols.,
Boston, 1867); S. G. Drake, _Annals of Witchcraft_ (Boston, 1869) and
_The Witchcraft Delusion in New England_ (3 vols., Roxbury, 1866),
this last a reprint of accounts of the time by Cotton Mather and R.
Calef; W. F. Poole, "Cotton Mather and Salem Witchcraft" (_North
American Review_, April 1869); and controversy of A. C. Goodell and G.
H. Moore in Massachusetts Historical Society, _Proceedings_. On
Slavery: G. H. Moore, _Notes on the History of Slavery_ (New York,
1866); E. Washburn in _Collections_, Massachusetts Historical Society,
series 4, iv., 333-346; C. Deane in same, pp. 375-442, and in
_Proceedings_, American Antiquarian Society, new series, iv., 191-222.
In the essays of J. R. Lowell are two on "New England two Centuries
Ago" and "Witchcraft." For economic history, W. B. Weeden, _Economic
and Social History of New England, 1620-1789_ (2 vols., Boston, 1890);
C. H. J. Douglas, _The Financial History of Massachusetts ... to the
American Revolution_ (in Columbia University Studies, vol i., 1892).
On the revolutionary epoch, Mellen Chamberlain, _John Adams... with
other Essays and Addresses_ (Boston, 1898); T. Hutchinson, _Diary and
Letters_ (2 vols., Boston, 1884-1886); H. A. Cushing, _Transition from
Provincial to Commonwealth Government in Massachusetts_ (Columbia
University Studies in History, vol. iii., 1896); S. B. Harding,
_Contest over the Ratification of the Federal Constitution in
Massachusetts_ (Harvard University Studies, New York, 1896); and on
the Shays Rebellion compare J. P. Warren in _American Historical
Review_ (Oct., 1905). On New England discontent preceding 1812, Henry
Adams, _Documents Relating to New England Federalism, 1780-1815_
(Boston, 1877); T. W. Higginson, _Massachusetts in the Army and Navy
during the War of 1861-65_ (Official, Boston, 2 vols., 1896). For a
list of the historical societies of the state consult A. M. Davis in
_Publications_ of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts, vol. i.; the
most important are the Massachusetts Historical Society, established
1791, publishing _Collections and Proceedings_ (Boston) and the
American Antiquarian Society, established 1812, publishing
_Proceedings_ (Worcester). In many cases the most valuable material on
various periods is indicated under the biographies (or autobiographies
in some cases) of the public men named in the above article, to which
add Timothy Pickering, George Cabot, Joseph Warren, Elbridge Gerry,
Benjamin F. Butler, G. S. Boutwell and George F. Hoar. Many townships
have published their local records, and many township and county
histories contain valuable matter of general interest (e.g. as showing
in detail township action before the War of Independence), though
generally weighted heavily with genealogy and matters of merely local
interest. In American works of fiction, particularly of New England
authors, the reader will find a wealth of description of Massachusetts
and New England life, past and present, as in the writings of William
D. Howells, Sarah O. Jewett, Mary E. Wilkins-Freeman, Harriet B. Stowe
and others.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] At least seventy hills in the state, mainly in this quarter, have
an elevation of 1500 ft. (twenty-four above 2000 ft.).

[2] In some localities it is not easy to establish irrefutably and in
detail the inter-arrangement of drainage and rock structure that
proves it to be a subaerial peneplain instead of an uplifted
submarine platform; but the general proof is very clear.

[3] The yield of cereals and of such other crops in 1907 as are
recorded in the _Yearbook_ of the United States Department of
Agriculture was as follows: Indian corn, 1,584,000 bushels; oats,
245,000 bushels; barley, 64,000 bushels; buckwheat, 42,000 bushels;
potatoes, 3,600,000 bushels; hay, 760,000 tons; tobacco, 7,167,500
lb. In the same year, according to the same authority, there were in
the state 196,000 milch cows, 92,000 other neat cattle, 45,000 sheep
and 70,000 swine.

[4] _The Green Schists and Associated Granites and Porphyries of
Rhode Island_, Bulletin, U.S. Geological Survey, No. 311, 1907.

[5] In 1905 Massachusetts produced 60.7% of the writing paper
manufactured in the country. Besides writing paper, book paper and
building paper are made in the state, but very little newspaper.

[6] It must be noted, however, that the first successful construction
of cards, drawing and roving, and of spindles, on the Arkwright
principle was by S. Slater at Pawtucket, Rhode Island in 1790.

[7] The tax valuation on ships engaged in foreign trade was lowered
between 1884 and 1900 from $2,801,405 to $147,768.

[8] The population of the state was 378,787 in 1790; 422,845 in 1800;
472,040 in 1810; 523,287 in 1820; 610,408 in 1830; 737,699 in 1840;
994,514 in 1850; 1,231,066 in 1860; 1,457,351 in 1870; 1,783,085 in
1880; 2,238,943 in 1890; and 2,805,346 in 1900. In 1905, according to
the state census, the population was 3,003,680, or about 7.7% more
than in 1900.

[9] In 1910 the following townships each had populations of more than
15,000: Revere, Leominster, Westfield, Attleborough, Peabody, Hyde
Park.

[10] The birth-rates every fifth (census) year up to 1895 varied for
natives from 14.48 to 19.49; for foreigners from 45.87 to 66.68. The
marriage rates in quinquennial periods up to 1905 were 19.6, 18.6,
21.0, 19.8, 15.6, 18.6, 18.6, 18.6, 17.4 and 17.4; the ratio of
marriages to the marriageable population was for males (above 16
years) 61.5, for females (above 14) 46.0; the fecundity of marriages
seemed to have increased, being about twice as high for foreigners as
for natives. See _Annual Report_ of the Board of Health (1896), by S.
W. Abbott; and _Sixty-fourth Report of Births, Marriages and Deaths
in Massachusetts_ (1906).

[11] The number of representatives from 1832 to 1908 varied from 240
to 635, and the length of session from 58 to 206 days (since 1867
none of under 100 days), with an almost continual increase in both
respects.

[12] However, every office-holder was, and every subject might be,
required to take (though this was not a condition of the franchise)
the oaths enjoined by parliament in the first year of the reign of
William and Mary as a substitute for the oaths of Allegiance and
Supremacy; and the same still applies to the signing of the
Declaration.

[13] From 1887-1900, out of 290 cases settled, only 107 were formal
arbitrations, 124 agreements were effected by the mediation of the
Board, 100 were effected otherwise while proceedings were pending,
and in 59 cases the Board interposed when the parties preferred
hostilities.

[14] For a summary statement of state labour laws in the United
States in 1903 see _Bulletin 54_ of the United States Bureau of
Labor, September 1904; and for a summary of labour laws in force at
the end of 1907 see 22nd _Annual Report_ (for 1907) of the U.S.
Commissioner of Labor (Washington, 1908).

[15] The usual allotment of the cost of this work is as follows: 65%
is paid by the railway company, 25% by the commonwealth and 10% by
the municipality in which the crossing is located.

[16] The cost was apportioned between the commonwealth and the local
government in the proportion of 3 to 1.

[17] Boston remained a township, governed by town-meetings, until
1822, when it had a population of some 47,000. The government of
Brookline (pop. in 1905, 23,436) is an interesting example of the
adaptation of the township system to urban conditions. The town is
frequently referred to as a model residential suburb; its budgets are
very large, its schools are excellent, and, among other things, it
has established a township gymnasium. The town hall is not large
enough for an assemblage of all the voters, but actually the
attendance is usually limited to about 200, and since 1901 there has
been in force a kind of referendum, under which any measure passed by
a town-meeting attended by 700 or more voters may be referred, upon
petition of 100 legal voters, to a regular vote at the polls. Much of
the work of the town-meetings is done through special committees.

[18] E. G. Brown, in _Monographs on Education in the United States_
prepared for the Paris Exposition of 1900 and edited by N. M. Butler.

[19] This is an especially honourable distinction, for William T.
Harris has said that "The history of education since the time of
Horace Mann is very largely an account of the successive
modifications introduced into elementary schools through the direct
or indirect influence of the normal school."

[20] In 1869 the personalty valuation was 60% that of realty; but it
steadily fell thereafter, amounting in 1893 to 32%. From 1874-1882
the assessment of realty increased nearly twelve times as much as
personalty. In the intervening period the assessed valuation of
realty in Boston increased more than 100%, while that of personalty
slightly diminished (the corresponding figures for the entire United
States from 1860 to 1890 being 172% and 12%), yet the most competent
business and expert opinions regarded the true value of personalty as
at least equal to and most likely twice as great as that of realty.

[21] In this document, whose democracy is characteristic of
differences between the Plymouth Colony and that of Massachusetts
Bay, the signatories "solemnly and mutually ... covenant and combine
ourselves together into a civil body politic, for our better ordering
and preservation and furtherance of the ends aforesaid; and by virtue
hereof to enact, constitute and frame--[laws]--unto which we promise
all due submission and obedience." This was signed 11/21 of November
1620 by 41 persons.

[22] Slavery had existed as a social fact from the earliest years,
and legally after 1641; but it was never profitable, and was
virtually abolished long before the War of American Independence;
still it was never abolished explicitly by Massachusetts, though the
slave trade was prohibited in 1788, and though a number of negroes
were declared free after the adoption of the constitution of 1780 on
the strength of the sweeping declaration of human rights in that
instrument.

[23] According to the final report of the U.S. Adjutant-General in
1885, the enlistments were 146,730 men, of whom 13,942 died in war.
These figures are probably less accurate than those of the state.

[24] Endecott, by commission dated the 30th of April 1629, was made
"governor of London's plantation in the Massachusetts Bay." Matthew
Cradock, first governor of the Company, from the 4th of March 1629 to
the 20th of October 1629, was succeeded on the latter date by John
Winthrop, who, on reaching Salem on the 12th of June 1630 with the
charter, superseded Endecott.

[25] During three periods, 1701-1702, in February 1715, and from
April to August 1757 the affairs of the colony were administered by
the Executive Council.

[26] General Gage was military governor, Hutchinson remaining
nominally civil governor.

MASSACRE, a wholesale indiscriminate killing of persons, and also, in a transferred sense, of animals. The word is adopted from the French; but its origin is obscure. The meaning and the old form _macecle_ seem to point to it being a corruption of the Lat. _macellum_, butcher's shop or shambles, hence meat market; this is probably from the root _mac_-, seen in [Greek: machesthai], to fight, [Greek: machaira], sword, and Lat. _mactare_, to sacrifice. Another derivation connects with the Old Low Ger. _matsken_, to cut in pieces; cf. mod. Ger. _metzeln_, to massacre.

MASSAGE. The word _massage_ has of late years come into general use to signify the method of treating disease or other physical conditions by manipulating the muscles and joints. According to Littré the word is derived from the Arabic _mass_, and has the specific meaning of "pressing the muscular parts of the body with the hands, and exercising traction on the joints in order to give suppleness and stimulate vitality." It was probably adopted from the Arabian physicians by the French, who have played a leading part in reviving this method of treatment, which has been practised from time immemorial, and by the most primitive people, but has from time to time fallen into disuse among Western nations. In the _Odyssey_ the women are described as rubbing and kneading the heroes on their return from battle. In India, under the name "shampoo" (_tshampua_), the same process has formed part of the native system of medicine from the most remote times; professional massers were employed there by Alexander the Great in 327 B.C. In China the method is also of great antiquity, and practised by a professional class; the Swedish gymnastic system instituted by Pehr Henrik Ling is derived from the book of Cong-Fou, the bonze of Tao-Sse. Hippocrates describes and enjoins the use of manipulation, especially in cases of stiff joints, and he was followed by other Greek physicians. Oribasius gives an account of the application of friction with the bare hands, which exactly corresponds with the modern practice of massage. It is worthy of note that the treatment, after being held in high esteem by the leading Greek physicians, fell into disrepute with the profession, apparently on account of its association with vicious abuses. The same drawback has made itself felt in the present day, and can only be met by the most scrupulous care in the choice of agents and the manner of their employment. Among the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, and later the Turks, massage came to be part of the ordinary procedure of the bath without any special therapeutic intention, and the usage has survived until to-day; but that mode of application was no doubt a refinement of civilized life. Medical rubbing is older and more elementary than bathing, as we see from its employment by savages. Probably it was evolved independently among different races from the natural instinct--shared by the lower animals--which teaches to rub, press or lick any part of the body in which uneasiness is felt, and is therefore the oldest of all therapeutic means.

According to Weiss, the therapeutic use of massage was revived in Europe by Hieronymus Fabricius ab Aquapendente (1537-1619), who applied it to stiff joints and similar conditions. Paracelsus in his _De medicina Aegyptiorum_ (1591), gives a description of methodical massage as practised by the Egyptians quite on modern lines. Thereafter it appears to have been adopted here and there by individual practitioners, and various references are made to it, especially by French writers. The word "massage" occurs in an essay written by Pierre Adolphe Piorry (1794-1879) for a large encyclopaedia which appeared in 1818, but it was probably used before. The practice was gradually advocated by an increasing number of medical men. In Great Britain it was called "medical rubbing," and at Edinburgh Beveridge had a staff of eight trained male rubbers. A book published by Estradère in 1863 attracted much attention, but the man who contributed most to the modern popularity of massage was Metzger of Amsterdam, who began to use it tentatively in 1853, and then proceeded to study and apply it methodically. He published an essay on the subject in 1868. The modern refinements of the treatment are chiefly due to him. At the same time, its application by Dr Silas Weir Mitchell to hysterical and other nervous conditions, in conjunction with the "rest cure," has done much to make it known.

Massage, as now practised, includes several processes, some of which are passive and others active. The former are carried out by an operator, and consist of rubbing and kneading the skin and deeper tissues with the hands, and exercising the joints by bending the patient's limbs. The active movements consist of a special form of gymnastics, designed to exercise particular muscles or groups of muscles. In what is called "Swedish massage" the operator moves the limbs while the patient resists, thus bringing the opposing muscles into play. Some writers insist on confining the word "massage" to the rubbing processes, and use the general term "manipulation" to cover all the movements mentioned; but this is a verbal subtlety of no importance. It is evident that alike among the Greeks, the Orientals, and savage races, the two processes have always been applied as part of the same treatment, and the definition quoted above from Littré goes to show that the word "massage" is properly applied to both.

Rubbing has been subdivided into several processes, namely (1)
stroking, (2) kneading, (3) rubbing, and (4) tapping, and some
practitioners attach great importance to the application of a
particular process in a particular way. As a rule, oils and other
lubricants are not used. But, however it may be applied, the treatment
acts essentially by increasing circulation and improving nutrition. It
has been shown by Lauder Brunton that more blood actually flows
through the tissues during and after rubbing. The number of red
corpuscles, and, to some extent, their haemoglobin value, are also
said to be increased (Mitchell). At the same time the movement of the
lymph stream is accelerated. In order to assist the flow of blood and
lymph, stroking is applied centripetally, that is to say, upwards
along the limbs and the lower part of the body, downwards from the
head. The effects of the increased physiological activity set up are
numerous. Functional ability is restored to exhausted muscles by the
removal of fatigue products and the induction of a fresh blood supply;
congestion is relieved; collections of serous fluid are dispersed;
secretion and excretion are stimulated; local and general nutrition
are improved. These effects indicate the conditions in which massage
may be usefully applied. Such are various forms of paralysis and
muscular wasting, chronic and subacute affections of the joints,
muscular rheumatism, sciatica and other neuralgias, local congestions,
sprains, contractions, insomnia and some forms of headache, in which
downward stroking from the head relieves cerebral congestion. It has
also been used in anaemia, hysteria and "neurasthenia," disorders of
the female organs, melancholia and other forms of insanity,
morphinism, obesity, constipation, inflammatory and other affections
of the eye, including even cataract. General massage is sometimes
applied, as a form of passive exercise, to indolent persons whose
tissues are overloaded with the products of incomplete metabolism.

As with other methods of treatment, there has been a tendency on the
part of some practitioners to exalt it into a cure-all, and of others
to ignore it altogether. Of its therapeutic value, when judiciously
used, there is no doubt, but it is for the physician or surgeon to say
when and how it should be applied. Affections to which it is not
applicable are fevers, pregnancy, collections of pus, acute
inflammation of the joints, inflamed veins, fragile arteries, wounds
of the skin and, generally speaking, those conditions in which it is
not desirable to increase the circulation, or in which the patient
cannot bear handling. In such conditions it may have a very injurious
and even dangerous effect, and therefore should not be used in a
haphazard manner without competent advice.

The revival of massage in Europe and America has called into existence
a considerable number of professional operators, both male and female,
who may be regarded as forming a branch of the nursing profession.
Some of these are trained in hospitals or other institutions, some by
private practitioners and some not at all. Similarly some are attached
to organized societies or institutions while others pursue their
calling independently. Several things are required for a good
operator. One is physical strength. Deep massage is very laborious
work, and cannot be carried on for an hour, or even half an hour,
without unusual muscular power. Feeble persons cannot practise it
effectively at all. The duration of a sitting may vary from five or
ten minutes to an hour. For general massage at least half an hour is
required. A masser should have strength enough to do the work without
too obvious exhaustion, which gives the patient an unpleasant
impression. A second requirement is tactile and muscular sensibility.
A person not endowed with a fine sense of touch and resistance is
liable to exert too great or too little pressure; the one hurts the
patient, the other is ineffective. Then skill and knowledge, which can
only be acquired by a course of instruction, are necessary. Finally,
some guarantee of cleanliness and character is almost indispensable.
Independent massers may possess all these qualifications in a higher
degree than those connected with an institution, but they may also be
totally devoid of them, whereas connexion with a recognized hospital
or society is a guarantee for a certain standard of efficiency. In
London there are several such institutions, which train and send out
both male and female massers. The fee is 5s. an hour, or from two to
four guineas a week. On the European continent, where trained massers
are much employed by some practitioners, the fee is considerably
lower; in the United States it is higher. For reasons mentioned above,
it is most desirable that patients should be attended by operators of
their own sex. If this is not insisted upon, a valuable therapeutic
means will be in danger of falling into disrepute both with the
medical profession and the general public. (A. Sl.)

MASSAGETAE, an ancient warlike people described by Herodotus (i. 203-216; iv. 22, 172) as dwelling beyond the Araxes (i.e. the Oxus) in what is now Balkh and Bokhara. It was against their queen Tomyris that Cyrus undertook the expedition in which according to one story he met his end. In their usages some tribes were nomads like the people of Scythia (q.v.), others with their community of wives and habit of killing and eating their parents recalled the Issedones (q.v.); while the dwellers in the islands of the river were fish-eating savages. Probably the name denoted no ethnic unity, but included all the barbarous north-eastern neighbours of the Persians. Herodotus says they only used gold and copper (or bronze), not silver or iron. Their lavish use of gold has caused certain massive ornaments from southern Siberia, now in the Hermitage at St Petersburg, to be referred to the Massagetae. (E. H. M.)

MASSA MARITTIMA, a town and episcopal see of the province of Grosseto, Tuscany, Italy, 24 m. N.N.W. of Grosseto direct and 16 m. by rail N.E. of Follonica (which is 28 m. N.W. of Grosseto on the main coast railway), 1444 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), (town) 9219; (commune) 17,519. It has a cathedral of the 13th century containing a Romanesque font (1267 with a cover of 1447) and a Gothic reliquary (1324) of the saint Cerbone, to whom the cathedral is dedicated. The battlemented municipal palace of the 13th century is picturesque. There are mineral springs, mines of iron, mercury, lignite and copper, with foundries, ironworks and olive-oil mills. At Follonica on the coast, but in this commune, are the furnaces in which are smelted the iron ore of Elba.

MASSAWA, or MASSOWAH, a fortified town on the African coast of the Red Sea, chief port of the Italian colony of Eritrea, in 15° 36´ N. and 39° 28´ E. Pop. about 10,000. The town stands at the north end of the bay of Massawa and is built partly on a coral island of the same name--where was the original settlement--and partly on the islets of Tautlub and Sheik Said, and the neighbouring mainland. Massawa Island is from 20 to 25 ft. above the sea, its length does not exceed ½ m. and its breadth is about ¼ m. The harbour is formed by the channel between the island and the mainland. It affords good anchorage in from 5 to 9 fathoms. The town possesses several good public buildings, chiefly built of coral, as are the houses of the principal European and Arab merchants. Landward the town is guarded by forts erected by the Italians since 1885. Water was formerly scarce; but in 1872 an ancient aqueduct from Mokullu (5 m. distant westward) was restored and continued by an embankment to the town. A railway connects Massawa with Asmara, the capital of the colony. Besides the Abyssinians, who speak a Tigré dialect corrupted with Arabic, the inhabitants comprise Italian officials and traders, Greeks, Indians, Arabs from Yemen and Hadramut, Gallas and Somalis. Massawa is the natural port for northern Abyssinia but commerce is undeveloped owing to the lack of rapid means of communication. The trade done consists mainly in exporting hides, butter, Abyssinian coffee and civet, and importing European and Indian cotton goods and silks. It increased in value from about £65,000 per annum in 1865 (the last year of Turkish control) to from £240,000 to £280,000 between 1879 and 1881, when under the administration of Egypt. Under the Italians trade greatly developed. The returns for the five years 1901-1905 showed an average annual value of £1,800,000, about two-thirds being imports.

The island of Massawa has probably been inhabited from a very early date. It appears to have formed part of the Abyssinian dominions for many centuries. It was at Massawa (Matzua, as it is called by the Portuguese chroniclers) that Christopher da Gama and his comrades landed in July 1541 on their way to aid the Abyssinians against the Moslem invaders. Captured by the Turks in 1557, the island remained a Turkish possession over two hundred years. A military colony of Bosnians settled at Arkiko (a port on the bay 4 m. south of Massawa Island) was appointed not only to defend it in case of attack from the mainland, but to keep it supplied with water in return for $1400 per month from the town's customs. For some time at the close of the 18th century Massawa was held by the sherif of Mecca, and it afterwards passed to Mehemet Ali of Egypt. The Turks were reinstated about 1850, but in 1865 they handed the island back to Egypt for an annual tribute of 2½ million piastres. In February 1885 Massawa was occupied by an Italian force, the Egyptian garrison stationed there being withdrawn in the November following (see EGYPT; ITALY; ABYSSINIA). The port was the capital of the Italian colony until 1900 when the seat of administration was removed to Asmara (see ERITREA).

For a description of the town in 1769 see the _Travels_ of James
Bruce. At that time the governor, though appointed by the Turks, paid
one half of the customs receipts to the negus of Abyssinia in return
for the protection of that monarch.

MASSÉNA, ANDRÉ, or _Andrea_, duke of Rivoli, prince of Essling (1756-1817), the greatest of Napoleon's marshals, son of a small wine merchant, it is said of Jewish origin, was born at Nice on the 6th of May 1756. His parents were very poor, and he began life as a cabin boy, but he did not care much for the sea, and in 1775 he enlisted in the Royal-Italien regiment. He quickly rose to be under-officer-adjutant; but, finding his birth would prevent his ever getting a commission, he left the army in 1789, retired to his native city, and married. At the sound of war, however, and the word republic, his desire to see service increased, and he once more left Italy, and joined the 3rd battalion of the volunteers of the Var in 1791. In those days when men elected their officers, and many of the old commissioned officers had emigrated, promotion to a man with a knowledge of his drill was rapid, and by February 1792 Masséna was a lieutenant-colonel. His regiment was one of those in the army which occupied Nice, and in the advance to the Apennines which followed, his knowledge of the country, of the language, and of the people was so useful that in December 1793 he was already a general of division. In command of the advanced guard he won the battle of Saorgio in August 1794, capturing ninety guns, and after many successes he at last, on the 23rd of November 1795, with the right wing of the army of Italy, had the greatest share in the victory of Loano, won by Schérer over the Austrians and Sardinians. In Bonaparte's great campaign of 1796-97 Masséna was his most trusted general of division; in each battle he won fresh laurels, up to the crowning victory of Rivoli, from which he afterwards took his title. It was during this campaign that Bonaparte gave him the title of _enfant gâté de la victoire_, which he was to justify till he met the English in 1810. In 1798 he commanded the army of Rome for a short time, but was displaced by the intrigues of his subordinate Berthier. Masséna's next important service was in command of the army in Switzerland, which united the army in Germany under Moreau, and that in Italy under Joubert. There he proved himself a great captain, as he had already proved himself a great lieutenant; the archduke Charles and Suvarov had each been successful in Germany and in Italy, and now turned upon Masséna in Switzerland. That general held his ground well against the archduke, and then suddenly, leaving Soult to face the Austrians, he transported his army to Zürich, where, on the 26th of September 1799, he entirely defeated Korsakov, taking 200 guns and 5000 prisoners. This campaign and battle placed his reputation on a level with that of his compatriot Bonaparte, and he might have made the revolution of Brumaire, but he was sincerely attached to the republic, and had no ambition beyond a desire to live well and to have plenty of money to spend. Bonaparte, now First Consul, sent him to Genoa to command the débris of the army of Italy, and he nobly defended Genoa from February to June to the very last extremity, giving time for Bonaparte to strike his great blow at Marengo. He now went to Paris, where he sat in the Corps Législatif in 1803, and actually defended Moreau without drawing upon himself the ill-will of Napoleon, who well knew his honesty and lack of ambition.

In 1804 he was made one of the first marshals of France of the new régime, and in 1805 was decorated with the Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honour. In that year Napoleon needed an able general to keep in check the archduke Charles in Italy, while he advanced through Germany with the grand army. Masséna was chosen; he kept the archduke occupied till he received news of the surrender of Ulm, and then on the 30th of October defeated him in the battle of Caldiero. After the peace of Pressburg had been signed, Masséna was ordered to take possession of the kingdom of Naples, and to place Joseph Bonaparte on the throne. This task done, Napoleon summoned Masséna to Poland, where he as usual distinguished himself, and where he for the time gave up his republican principles. In 1808 he was made duke of Rivoli. In 1808 he was accidentally wounded by his old enemy Berthier when both were in attendance on the emperor at a shooting party, and he lost the sight of one eye. In the campaign in 1809 he covered himself with glory at Landshut and at Eckmühl, and finally at the battle of Aspern-Essling his magnificent leadership made what would without him have been an appalling disaster into a mere reverse of which the enemy could make no use. On the field of Wagram Masséna, though too ill to ride, directed from his carriage the movements of the right wing. For his great services he was created prince of Essling, and given the princely castle of Thouars. He was then ordered to Spain to "drive the English into the sea." (For the campaigns of 1810 and 1811, the advance to and the retreat from Torres Vedras see PENINSULAR WAR.) Masséna himself, with some justice, ascribed his failure to the frequent disobedience of his subordinates Ney, Reynier and Junot, and public opinion attributed this disobedience to the presence with the army of Masséna's mistress, and to the resentment thereat felt by the wives of the three generals. Still, unsuccessful as he was, Masséna displayed the determination of the defence of Genoa and the fertility in expedients of the campaign of Zürich, and kept his army for five weary months close up to Wellington's impregnable position before retiring. His retreat through a devastated country was terrible, but his force of character kept his men together, and Ney having shown the worst side of his character now showed the best in the frequent and brilliant rearguard actions, until a new act of insubordination at last made the old marshal dismiss Ney from his command. Soon Masséna was once again ready to try his fortune, and he nearly defeated Wellington at Fuentes d'Oñoro, though much hampered by Bessières. But his recall soon followed this and he returned home to find his prestige gone. The old marshal felt he had a right to complain of Ney and of Napoleon himself, and, it is said, opened communications with Fouché and the remnant of the republican party. Whether this be true or not, Napoleon gave his greatest marshal no more employment in the field, but made him merely a territorial commandant at Marseilles. This command he still held at the restoration, when Louis XVIII. confirmed him in it, and with true Bourbon stupidity gave him letters of naturalization, as if the great leader of the French armies had not ceased to be an Italian. When Napoleon returned from Elba, Masséna, probably by the advice of Fouché, kept Marseilles quiet to await events, the greatest service he could do the royalists, but afterwards imputed to him as a fault. After the second restoration Masséna was summoned to sit on the court-martial which tried Marshal Ney, but, though he had been on bad terms with that general, and attributed his own disgrace to him, the old soldier would not be his comrade's judge. This refusal was used by the royalists to attack the marshal, against whom they raked up every offence they could think of. This annoyance shortened his life, and on the 4th of April 1817 the old hero died. He was buried in Père-la-Chaise, with only the word "Masséna" upon his tombstone.

In private life indolent, greedy, rapacious, ill-educated and morose, in war Masséna was, like Napoleon, the incarnation of battle. Only his indolence and his consequent lack of far-ranging imagination prevented him being as great in strategy as in tactics. His genius needed the presence of the enemy to stimulate it, but once it sprang to life Masséna became an ideal leader, absolutely brave, resourceful, unrelenting and indefatigable. He was as great a master of the strategy of forces in immediate contact--of gathering up as it were the threads of the fugue into a "stretto." For the planning of a whole perfect campaign he had neither knowledge nor inclination, and he falls short therefore of the highest rank amongst great generals; but his place amongst the greatest of soldiers is beyond challenge.

See Thiébault's _Éloge funèbre_, and Koch's _Mémoires de Masséna_ (4
vols., 1849), a valuable work, carefully compiled. In more modern
times E. Gachot has produced several important works dealing with
Masséna's campaigns.

MASSENBACH, CHRISTIAN KARL AUGUST LUDWIG VON (1758-1827), Prussian soldier, was born at Schmalkalden on the 16th of April 1758, and educated at Heilbronn and Stuttgart, devoting himself chiefly to mathematics. He became an officer of the Württemberg army in 1778, and left this for the service of Frederick the Great in 1782. The pay of his rank was small, and his appointment on the quartermaster-general's staff made it necessary to keep two horses, so that he had to write mathematical school-books in his spare time to eke out his resources. He was far however from neglecting the science and art of war, for thus early he had begun to make his name as a theorist as well as a mathematician. After serving as instructor in mathematics to the young prince Louis, he took part with credit in the expedition into Holland, and was given the order _Pour le mérite_. On returning to Prussia he became mathematical instructor at the school of military engineering, leaving this post in 1792 to take part as a general staff officer in the war against France. He was awarded a prebend at Minden for his services as a topographical engineer on the day of Valmy, and after serving through the campaigns of 1793 and 1794 he published a number of memoirs on the military history of these years. He was chiefly occupied however with framing schemes for the reorganization of the then neglected general staff of the Prussian army, and many of his proposals were accepted. Bronsart von Schellendorf in his _Duties of the General Staff_ says of Massenbach's work in this connexion, "the organization which he proposed and in the main carried out survived even the catastrophes of 1806-1807, and exists even at the present moment in its original outline." This must be accounted as high praise when it is remembered how much of the responsibility for these very disasters must be laid to Massenbach's account. The permanent gain to the service due to his exertions was far more than formal, for it is to him that the general staff owes its tradition of thorough and patient individual effort. But the actual doctrine taught by Massenbach, who was now a colonel, may be summarized as the doctrine of positions carried to a ludicrous excess; the claims put forward for the general staff, that it was to prepare cut-and-dried plans of operations in peace which were to be imposed on the troop leaders in war, were derided by the responsible generals; and the memoirs on proposed plans of campaign to suit certain political combinations were worked out in quite unnecessary detail. It was noteworthy that none of the proposed plans of campaign considered France as an enemy.

In 1805 came threats of the war with Napoleon which Massenbach had strongly opposed. He was made quartermaster-general (chief of staff) to Prince Hohenlohe, over whom he soon obtained a fatal ascendancy. War was averted for a moment by the result of the battle of Austerlitz, but it broke out in earnest in October 1806. Massenbach's influence clouded all the Prussian operations. The battles of Jena and Auerstädt were lost, and the capitulation of Prince Hohenlohe's army was negotiated. Even suggestions of disloyalty were not wanting; an attempt to try him by court-martial was only frustrated by Prince Hohenlohe's action in taking upon himself, as commander-in-chief, the whole responsibility for Massenbach's actions. He then retired to his estate in the Posen province, and occupied himself in writing pamphlets, memoirs, &c. When his estates passed into the grand duchy of Warsaw, he chose to remain a Prussian subject, and on the outbreak of the war of liberation he asked in vain for a post on the Prussian staff. After the fall of Napoleon he took part in Württemberg politics, was expelled from Stuttgart and Heidelberg, and soon afterwards arrested at Frankfurt, delivered over to the Prussian authorities and condemned to fourteen years' fortress imprisonment for his alleged publication of state secrets in his memoirs. He was kept in prison till 1826, when Frederick William III., having recovered from an accident, pardoned those whom he considered to have wronged him most deeply. He died on the 21st of November 1827, at his estate of Bialokoscz, Posen.

The obituary in _Neuer Nekrolog der Deutschen_, pt. ii. (Ilmenau,
1827) is founded on a memoir (_Der Oberst C. v. Massenbach_) which was
published at the beginning of his imprisonment.

MASSENET, JULES ÉMILE FRÉDÉRIC (1842- ), French composer, was born at Montaud, on the 12th of May 1842. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire, where he obtained the Grand Prix de Rome in 1863 with the cantata _David Rizzio_. Massenet became one of the most prolific composers of his time. His operas include the following: _La Grande tante_, one act, opéra comique (1867); _Don César de Bazan_, three acts, opéra comique (1872); _Le Roi de Lahore_, five acts, opera (1877); _Hérodiade_, five acts (Brussels, 1881); _Manon_, five acts, opéra comique (1884); _Le Cid_, four acts, opera (1885); _Esclarmonde_, four acts, opéra comique (1889); _Le Mage_, five acts, opera (1891); _Werther_, four acts (Vienna, 1892); _Thaïs_, three acts, opera (1894); _Le Portrait de Manon_, one act, opéra comique (1894); _La Navarraise_, two acts (Covent Garden, 1894); _Sapho_, opéra comique (1897); _Cendrillon_, opéra comique (1900); _Grisélidis_, opéra comique (1901); _Le Jongleur de Notre Dame_ (Mentone, 1902). Of these the most popular is Manon. Massenet's other works include _Marie Madeleine_, sacred drama (1873); _Eve_, a mystery (1875); _La Vierge_, sacred legend (1880); six orchestral suites entitled _Scènes hongroises_, _Scènes pittoresques_, _Scènes dramatiques_, _Scènes napolitaines_, _Scènes de féerie_, _Scènes alsaciennes_; music to the tragedy _Les Erynnies_, to _Théodora_, _Le Crocodile_, _L'Hetman_; a requiem, _Narcisse_; an idyll, _Biblis_; a _Scène antique_; several sets of songs, entitled _Poème d'avril_, _Poème d'amour_, _Poème d'hiver_, _Poème d'octobre_, _Poème pastoral_, _Poème du souvenir_; also a large number of detached songs. He was professor of composition at the Conservatoire from 1878 to 1896, among his pupils being Hillemacher, Marty, Bruneau, Vidal, Pierné, Leroux and Charpentier. Massenet undoubtedly possesses a style of his own. He is at his best in music descriptive of the tender passion, and many of the love scenes in his operas are very beautiful.

MASSEREENE, JOHN CLOTWORTHY, 1ST VISCOUNT (d. 1665), Anglo-Irish politician, was a son of Sir Hugh Clotworthy, sheriff of county Antrim. He was elected to the Irish parliament as member for county Antrim in 1634, and was a member both of the Short and of the Long Parliament in England. Clotworthy was a vehement opponent of the earl of Stafford, in whose impeachment he took an active share. He also took part in the prosecution of Archbishop Laud. Having unsuccessfully negotiated with Ormond for the surrender of Dublin to the Parliamentary forces in 1646, he was accused in the following year of having betrayed his cause, and also of embezzlement; in consequence of these charges he fled to the Continent, but returned to parliament in June 1648. On the 12th of December in that year he was arrested, and remained in prison for nearly three years. Having taken an active part in forwarding the Restoration, he was employed in Ireland in arranging the affairs of the soldiers and other adventurers who had settled in Ireland Clotworthy in no way abated his old animosity against "papists" and high Anglicans, and he championed the cause of the Irish Presbyterians; but being personally agreeable to Charles II., his ecclesiastical views were overlooked, and on the 21st of November 1660 he was created Baron Loughneagh and Viscount Massereene in the Irish peerage, with remainder in default of male heirs to his son-in-law, Sir John Skeffington. Massereene died without male issue in September 1665, and the title devolved on Skeffington, whose great-grandson, the fifth viscount, was created earl of Massereene in 1756. The earldom became extinct on the death of the fourth earl without male issue in 1816, the viscounty and barony of Loughneagh descending to his daughter Harriet, whose husband, Thomas Foster, took the name of Skeffington, and inherited from his mother in 1824 the titles of Viscount Ferrard and Baron Oriel of Collon in the Irish peerage, and from his father in 1828 that of Baron Oriel of Ferrard in the peerage of the United Kingdom.

MASSEY, SIR EDWARD (c. 1619-c. 1674), English soldier in the Great Rebellion, was the son of John Massey of Coddington, Cheshire. Little is known of his early life, but it is said that he served in the Dutch army against the Spaniards. In 1639 he appears as a captain of pioneers in the army raised by Charles I. to fight against the Scots. At the outbreak of the Great Rebellion he was with the king at York, but he soon joined the Parliamentary army. As lieutenant-colonel under the earl of Stamford he became deputy governor of Gloucester, where he remained till towards the end of the first Civil War, becoming governor early in 1643. He conducted minor operations against numerous small bodies of Royalists, and conducted the defence of Gloucester against the king's main army in August 1643, with great steadiness and ability, receiving the thanks of parliament and a grant of £1000 for his services. In 1644 Massey continued to keep the field and to disperse the local Royalists, and on several occasions he measured swords with Prince Rupert. In May 1644 he was made general of the forces of the Western Association. In 1645 he took the offensive against Lord Goring and the western Royalists, advanced to the relief of Taunton, and in the autumn co-operated effectively with Sir Thomas Fairfax and the New Model army in the Langport campaign. After taking part in the desultory operations which closed the first war, he took his seat in the House of Commons as member for Gloucester. He then began to take an active part in politics on the Presbyterian side, and was one of the generals who was impeached by the army on the ground that they were attempting to revive the Civil War in the Presbyterian interests. Massey fled from England in June 1647, and though he resumed his seat in the house in 1648 he was again excluded by Pride's Purge, and after a short imprisonment escaped to Holland. Thence, taking the side of the king openly and definitely like many other Presbyterians, he accompanied Charles II. to Scotland. He fought against Cromwell at the bridge of Stirling and Inverkeithing, and commanded the advanced guard of the Royalist army in the invasion of England in 1651. It was hoped that Massey's influence would win over the towns of the Severn valley to the cause of the king, and the march of the army on Worcester was partly inspired by this expectation. However, he effected little, and after riding with the king for some distance from the field of Worcester, fell into the hands of his former comrades and was lodged in the Tower. He again managed to escape to Holland. While negotiating with the English Presbyterians for the restoration of Charles, he visited England twice, in 1654 and 1656. In 1660 he was active in preparing for Charles's return, and was rewarded by a knighthood and a grant of £3000. The rest of his life was spent in political, and occasionally in military and administrative business, and he is said to have died in Ireland in 1674 or 1675.

MASSEY, GERALD (1828-1907), English poet, was born near Tring, Hertfordshire, on the 29th of May 1828. His parents were in humble circumstances, and Massey was little more than a child when he was set to hard work in a silk factory, which he afterwards deserted for the equally laborious occupation of straw-plaiting. These early years were rendered gloomy by much distress and deprivation, against which the young man strove with increasing spirit and virility, educating himself in his spare time, and gradually cultivating his innate taste for literary work. He was attracted by the movement known as Christian Socialism, into which he threw himself with whole-hearted vigour, and so became associated with Maurice and Kingsley. His first public appearance as a writer was in connexion with a journal called the _Spirit of Freedom_, of which he became editor, and he was only twenty-two when he published his first volume of poems, _Voices of Freedom and Lyrics of Love_. These he followed in rapid succession by _The Ballad of Babe Christabel_ (1854), _War Waits_ (1855), _Havelock's March_ (1860), and _A Tale of Eternity_ (1869). Many years afterwards in 1889, he collected the best of the contents of these volumes, with additions, into a two-volume edition of his poems called _My Lyrical Life_. He also published works dealing with spiritualism, the study of Shakespeare's sonnets (1872 and 1890), and theological speculation. It is generally understood that he was the original of George Eliot's _Felix Holt_. Massey's poetry has a certain rough and vigorous element of sincerity and strength which easily accounts for its popularity at the time of its production. He treated the theme of Sir Richard Grenville before Tennyson thought of using it, with much force and vitality. Indeed, Tennyson's own praise of Massey's work is still its best eulogy, for the Laureate found in him "a poet of fine lyrical impulse, and of a rich half-Oriental imagination." The inspiration of his poetry is essentially British; he was a patriot to the core. It is, however, as an Egyptologist that Gerald Massey is best known in the world of letters. He first published _The Book of the Beginnings_, followed by _The Natural Genesis_; but by far his most important work is _Ancient Egypt: The Light of the World_, published shortly before his death. He died on the 29th of October 1907.

See an article by J. Churton Collins in the _Contemporary Review_ (May
1904).