Chapter I: Part 1

Transcriber's note:
Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=).

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

=AND=

COMPOSITION

_FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS._

BY
G. H. ARMSTRONG, M.A., B.Pæd.,
Principal Borden St. School, Toronto.

TORONTO:

THE HUNTER, ROSE CO., LIMITED, TEMPLE BUILDING.

Entered according to Act of Parliament of Canada in the year one
thousand nine hundred and one, by G. H. ARMSTRONG, M.A., B.PÆD.,
in the office of the Minister of Agriculture.

=PREFACE.=

It is not considered necessary to offer an apology for the publication of a work on English grammar and composition for the Public Schools of Ontario.

The plan of the work is inductive and practical, and the author has endeavored to make the book a useful one for the purposes of teaching. Every principle is presented through the observation of examples of good English.

The study of grammar aids the student to master his mother-tongue, but its chief function is to secure mental discipline. For the development of the intellectual powers, the capable teacher, well furnished with rational methods, will find this study superior to all others. It is a study in recognizing similarities, in distinguishing differences, in making abstractions, in forming generalizations. The object of Parts I.-IV. of this book is to contribute something to the science of elementary English grammar.

Part V. treats of composition. The usual exercises in completing half-built sentences, in straightening out wrecks of sentences, in combining simple sentences into complex sentences, in expanding phrases into clauses, etc., will not be found therein. They have done quite enough towards fostering stupidity in our schools. The art of expression is acquired through steady practice, therefore pupils should write compositions not once a week, but during part of every period, about things which they understand. They should be taught good form in expression, and trained to correct their own exercises.

This part of the work, though brief, will be found suggestive. Teachers and pupils have not been deprived of the pleasure and profit of an independent examination of the construction of the prose selections.

This little volume owes something to several English grammars, and the debt is hereby acknowledged.

G. H. ARMSTRONG.

Table of Contents

Part First. —Sentences & Classes of Words
Lessons I—XII

Part Second. —Classes & Inflections of Parts of Speech
Lessons XIII—LV

Part Third. —Syntax
Lessons LVI—LXI

Part Fourth. —Analysis of Sentences
Lessons LXII—LXIV

Part Fifth. —Composition
Lessons LXV—LXXV

Abbreviations

Index

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

PART FIRST.

=LESSON I.=

THE SENTENCE.

Is there a complete thought expressed in each of the following groups of words?—

1. The maple leaf is an emblem of Canada.
2. Honor thy father and thy mother.
3. Who gathered these beautiful flowers?
4. How sweetly the birds sing in spring!

A group of words that expresses a complete thought is called =a sentence=.

Which of the foregoing sentences declares something, which expresses a command, which asks a question, and which expresses a sudden feeling?

A sentence that asserts or declares something is called a =declarative sentence=.

A sentence that expresses a command or request is called an =imperative sentence=.

A sentence that asks a question is called an =interrogative sentence=.

A sentence that expresses a sudden or strong feeling is called an =exclamatory sentence=.

EXERCISE I.

State the use or office of each of the following sentences, and tell the kind of sentence:—

1. The sun rises in the East.
2. Every door opens to a smile.
3. Keep thy heart with all diligence.
4. Who is the author of that book?
5. How tenderly a mother cares for her child!
6. Every morn is the world made new.
7. Sharpen this pencil for me.
8. What bright uniforms the soldiers wear!
9. The plowman homeward plods his weary way.
10. How many lines have you written?

EXERCISE II.

1. Write four declarative sentences.
2. Write four imperative sentences.
3. Write three interrogative sentences.
4. Write two exclamatory sentences.

* * * * *

=LESSON II.=

THE SUBJECT AND THE PREDICATE.

Name the thing which is spoken of in each of the following sentences, and what is said about it:—

1. Gold is a precious metal.
2. Flowers grow in the fields.
3. The sailor’s home is on the sea.
4. The flag of England floats above the citadel.

The part of a sentence that expresses the thing spoken of is called the =subject=.

The part of a sentence that expresses what is said about the subject is called the =predicate=.

The subject of a declarative sentence is generally placed before the predicate, but it is sometimes placed after the predicate; as,

Sweet was _the sound of the evening bell_.
Over the swift rapids went _the boat_.

EXERCISE I.

Name the subject and the predicate of each of the following sentences:—

1. The city of Ottawa is the capital of Canada.
2. Three wives sat up in the lighthouse tower.
3. All the children were gathering flowers.
4. Our friends have arrived in the city.
5. Home they brought her warrior dead.
6. John Cabot discovered Canada in 1497.
7. All along the banks were the skeletons of canoes.
8. Through this forest ran a beautiful river.
9. Colder and louder blew the wind.
10. Down sunk the bell with a gurgling sound.

The subject of an imperative sentence is _thou_, _ye_ or _you_. It is seldom expressed; as,

Listen to the singing of the birds.
Carry these books for me.
Praise _ye_ the Lord.

EXERCISE II.

Name the subject and the predicate and state the kind of sentence of each of the following:—

1. Who hath not lost a friend?
2. Gather up the fragments.
3. Here comes the train!
4. Why did you take away my book?
5. The shades of night were falling fast.
6. How lightly she trips along!
7. In one corner of the room stood my grandfather’s clock.
8. Send this note to the post.
9. How strange our old home looks!
10. At the dawn of day he ascended the hill.

EXERCISE III.

1. Write four examples of an assertive sentence and name the subject and the predicate of each sentence.

2. Write four examples of an imperative sentence and name the subject and the predicate of each sentence.

3. Write four examples of an interrogative sentence and name the subject and the predicate of each sentence.

4. Write four examples of an exclamatory sentence and name the subject and the predicate of each sentence.

* * * * *

=LESSON III.=

NOUNS.

State the words that are used as _names_ in the following sentences:—

1. The shoes worn by the soldiers were made in England.
2. Near this tree is the grave of a pioneer.
3. Chaucer is the father of English poetry.
4. Love had he found in huts where poor men lie.

A word used as a name is called a =noun=.

EXERCISE I.

Name the nouns in the following sentences:—

1. There are seven provinces in Canada.
2. Then the fly lit his lamp of fire.
3. The bloom of that fair face is wasted.
4. The boy stood on the burning deck.
5. And then my heart with pleasure fills,
And dances with the daffodils.
6. He goes on Sunday to the church
And sits among his boys.
7. I hear in the chamber above me
The patter of little feet,
The sound of a door that is opened,
And voices soft and sweet.
8. A violet by a mossy stone,
Half hidden from the eye!
Fair as a star, when only one
Is shining in the sky.

EXERCISE II.

Write sentences containing—

1. The name of a place.
2. The name of a person.
3. The name of a tree.
4. The name of a metal.
5. The name of an article of food.
6. The name of an animal.
7. The name of a quality.
8. The name of an action.

* * * * *

=LESSON IV.=

PRONOUNS.

Name the nouns for which the words printed in italics are used in the following sentences:—

1. The teacher went home when _he_ finished the lesson.
2. The mother kissed _her_ boy when _she_ received _him_.
3. A baby was sleeping,
_Its_ mother was weeping
For _her_ husband was far on the wild raging sea.

A word used for a noun is called a =pronoun=.

By the use of the pronoun, a person or thing is referred to without naming it, and the too frequent repetition of the same noun is avoided.

EXERCISE I.

Select the pronouns in the following sentences, and state the noun for which each is used:—

1. Men find plants where they least expect them.
2. The parents returned home when they found their child.
3. The king took the hand of his friend and pressed it to his
heart.
4. A boy who is always grumbling will lose the friends that he
has, and will not make many new ones.
5. The ball lies where you left it.
6. The boy’s father was anxious to send him to college, and
therefore he studied the Latin grammar till he could bear
it no longer.
7. Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot
O’er the grave where our hero we buried.
8. As John and Charles were walking by the river, they both
fell into it.
9. Tell me what brings you, gentle youth, to Rome;
To make myself a scholar, sir, I come.
10. Then the maiden clasped her hands and prayed
That savèd she might be;
And she thought of Him who stilled the wave
On the Lake of Galilee.

EXERCISE II.

1. Write a sentence containing a pronoun used for the speaker.

2. Write a sentence containing a pronoun used for the names of the speaker and others.

3. Write a sentence containing a pronoun used for the name of a person spoken to.

4. Write a sentence containing a pronoun used for the name of a person spoken of.

5. Write a sentence containing a pronoun used for the names of two or more persons spoken of.

6. Write a sentence containing a pronoun used for the name of a thing that has been previously spoken of.

* * * * *

=LESSON V.=

ADJECTIVES.

Select the words in the following sentences that are used to describe or point out the things named by the nouns:—

1. A tall man gave me this book.
2. That little boy has a kind sister.
3. I bought two sweet oranges.
4. These grassy fields are owned by a rich man.

The word _tall_ describes this particular man. The word _this_ points out the particular book that is meant. Such words modify the nouns with which they are used.

A word used to modify a noun or pronoun is called an =adjective=.

EXERCISE I.

Name the adjectives in the following sentences, and state the use of each:—

1. I found a rusty knife with a silver handle.
2. Wise ministers and brave warriors flourished during
Elizabeth’s reign.
3. The sick girl was watched by a skilful nurse.
4. Otters are much prized for their soft, glossy black fur.
5. I lingered near the hallowed seat with listening ear.
6. His withered cheek and tresses gray,
Seemed to have known a better day.
7. Her aged hand on his strong young arm
She placed; and so, without hurt or harm
He guided the trembling feet along,
Proud that his own were firm and strong.
8. His hair is crisp, and black, and long,
His face is like the tan;
His brow is wet with honest sweat,
He earns whate’er he can,
And looks the whole world in the face,
For he owes not any man.

=Model.=—The adjectives in the first sentence are _a_, _rusty_, _a_ and _silver_. _A_ points out or indicates the species of the thing _knife_. _Rusty_ describes the thing _knife_.

EXERCISE II.

Write sentences containing adjectives used to show:—

1. What quality of thing is spoken of.
2. How many things are spoken of.
3. Which thing is referred to.

* * * * *

=LESSON VI.=

VERBS.

Select the words in the following sentences that tell or assert something of the thing spoken of:—

1. Boys play.
2. The sun shines.
3. The snow melts.
4. Mountains are high.

A word that is used to make an assertion is called a =verb=.

_Note._—The word _verb_ is derived from the Latin word
_verbum_, meaning a word, and this part of speech is so called
because it is _the_ word, the most important word in every
sentence. There can be no sentence without a verb.

EXERCISE I.

Name the verbs in the following sentences, and state what each tells or asserts:—

1. The girls gathered some water-lilies.
2. That house was built last century.
3. He slept for three hours.
4. The gardener fell from a high tree.
5. The coachman struck the horse, and it kicked him.
6. King Edward I. nearly conquered Scotland.
7. She must weep or she will die.
8. And still they rowed amidst the roar
Of waters fast prevailing:
Lord Ullin reached that fatal shore,
His wrath was changed to wailing.

EXERCISE II.

Write sentences containing each of the following words used as subjects, and underline the verbs:—

Plants, rivers, paper, gold, pen, fish, birds, stars, flowers, money.

* * * * *

=LESSON VII.=

ADVERBS.

Name the words in the following sentences that modify the verbs, that show _how_, _when_ or _where_ actions were performed:—

1. The girls recited well.
2. The teacher often read a story.
3. I left my pencil there.

A word that is used to modify the meaning of a verb is called an =adverb=.

An adverb may also modify the meaning of an adjective, as, He is _very_ quiet.

An adverb may also modify the meaning of another adverb; as, She writes _more_ rapidly than you.

An =adverb= is a word that is used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

EXERCISE I.

State the adverbs in the following sentences, and name the word which each modifies:—

1. Here let us sit and talk of former times.
2. I never saw so clear a sky.
3. How proudly they strode along!
4. Now let me die in peace.
5. The grass is too damp yet.
6. The face of the country suddenly changed.
7. The next night it came again.
8. The storm came on before its time;
She wandered up and down,
And many a hill did Lucy climb,
But never reached the town.

EXERCISE II.

1. Write four sentences each containing an adverb modifying a verb.

2. Write two sentences each containing an adverb modifying an adjective.

3. Write two sentences each containing an adverb modifying an adverb.

* * * * *

=LESSON VIII.=

PREPOSITIONS.

Name the words in the following sentences that express the relation of a noun or pronoun to some other word:—

1. We withdrew from the room.
2. The boys ran through the hall.
3. This box is made of paper.
4. I went to school with him.

A word that is used to express the relation of a noun or pronoun to some other word in the sentence is called a =preposition=.

The noun or pronoun which the preposition connects in sense with some other word in the sentence, is called its =object=; as, The men are in the _field_.

EXERCISE I.

Select the prepositions, and state the words between which each shows a relation:—

1. He threw the ball over the fence.
2. An old man fell into a pond.
3. A stranger came within our gates.
4. From many lands comes the cry for help.
5. The boat went under the water.
6. This letter was written by my sister.
7. At noon I went home.
8. I chatter over stony ways,
In little sharps and trebles.
I bubble into eddying bays,
I babble on the pebbles.

EXERCISE II.

1. Write three sentences each containing a preposition expressing a relation between a noun and a verb. Underline the object.

2. Write three sentences each containing a preposition expressing a relation between two nouns. Underline the object of the preposition.

3. Write three sentences each containing a preposition expressing a relation between a noun and an adjective.

* * * * *

=LESSON IX.=

CONJUNCTIONS.

Name the words that connect sentences, or words or phrases, used in the same way in the following sentences:—

1. The sun shone out brightly and the mist cleared away.
2. You may go, but I must remain here.
3. Cold and damp was the maiden’s grave.
4. The grass grows in the valley and on the mountain side.

_Note._—A phrase is a group of related words without a verb.

A word that connects sentences, or words, or phrases, used in the same way in a sentence, is called a =conjunction=.

EXERCISE I.

Select the conjunctions in the following sentences, and tell what each connects:—

1. I went to school, but my brother did not.
2. My books are in my bag, or I have lost them.
3. The boys ran away because they were afraid.
4. Though I fail, I shall attempt to do it.
5. He was a king, yet he was not happy.
6. The rich and the poor meet together.
7. Iron is more useful than gold.
8. They had full warning, so that they are without excuse.
9. I am sure that he did it.
10. The morning came, the chaise was brought,
But yet was not allowed
To drive up to the door lest all
Should say that she was proud.

EXERCISE II.

1. Write a sentence containing a conjunction connecting two sentences.

2. Write a sentence containing a conjunction connecting two phrases.

3. Write a sentence containing a conjunction connecting two adverbs.

4. Write a sentence containing a conjunction connecting two nouns.

* * * * *

=LESSON X.=

INTERJECTIONS.

Name the words in the following sentences that express sudden or strong feeling:—

1. Hurrah! the work is done.
2. Alas! we were too late.
3. Hush! she is sleeping now.
4. Bravo! he has reached the boat.

A word used to express some sudden or strong feeling is called an =interjection=.

An interjection is not related to any word in the sentence.

Interjections express a variety of feelings, such as joy, sorrow, surprise, pain, contempt and strong desire.

EXERCISE I.

Select the interjections in the following sentences, and state the feeling expressed by each:—

1. Oh! my tooth is aching again.
2. Alas! he heeded not my warning.
3. Hark! what means that distant cry?
4. Pshaw! it is nothing but the wind.
5. Hurrah! for England’s Queen.
6. Ho! breakers on the weather bow.
7. But O! eternity’s too short
To utter all Thy praise.
8. Hold! if ’twas wrong, the wrong is mine.

EXERCISE II.

Write six sentences, each containing an interjection.

Underline the interjections.

* * * * *

=LESSON XI.=

We have now learned all the different classes of words in our language and the name of each class.

Since each class performs a certain office or _part_ in the sentence, the different classes are called =parts of speech=.

EXERCISE.

State the office of each word in the following sentences, and tell what part of speech it is:—

1. A rolling stone gathers no moss.
2. I live for those who love me.
3. The man walked across the bridge.
4. The cherries on this tree are ripe.
5. I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers.
6. This boy lost his kite in a tree.
7. The village master taught his little school.
8. Slowly and sadly we laid him down.
9. Crash! a terrific cry broke from three hundred hearts.
10. I never was on the dull, tame shore,
But I loved the great sea more and more.

* * * * *

=LESSON XII.=

The part of speech or grammatical value of words is always determined by their use or function in the sentence.

EXERCISE I.

State the use or function of the italicized words in the following sentences, and tell the part of speech of each word:—

1. We have a quire of _paper_.
2. Our friends _paper_ their walls every year.
3. He put his hat in a _paper_ box.
4. It is a _fine_ day.
5. Magistrates _fine_ those who break the laws.
6. The penalty is a _fine_ of twenty dollars.
7. I know _that_ story.
8. He has the book _that_ I require.
9. We know _that_ he is just.
10. The word _that_ is sometimes used to connect sentences.
11. Give him the _iron_ pail.
12. The girls _iron_ the clothes in the morning.
13. He has a piece of _iron_.

EXERCISE II.

Show that the following words may have different grammatical values:—

in, water, ring, pin, cover.
round, this, lock, cork, silver.

=Model=:— Come _in_. An adverb.
My hat is _in_ the room. A preposition.
The word _in_ was omitted. A noun.

_Note._—The foregoing example is printed in italics. Pupils
will underline their examples.

* * * * *

PART SECOND.

_CLASSES AND INFLECTIONS OF THE PARTS_
_OF SPEECH._

=LESSON XIII.=

CLASSES OF NOUNS.

Select in the following sentences the nouns that are names of particular persons or things, and the nouns that are names of all the members of a class of persons or things:—

1. These little girls live with their parents in Toronto.
2. Mary and Harold are going to visit their friends.
3. On a little mound, Napoleon
Stood on our storming day.—_Browning._

A name of a particular or individual person or thing is called a =proper noun=; as, Mary, Saturday, Lake Ontario.

Proper nouns begin with capital letters.

A name that applies to all the members of a class of persons or things is called a =common noun=; as, girl, desk, river.

EXERCISE.

1. Write five sentences, each containing a proper noun, and underline the example in each sentence.

2. Write five sentences, each containing a common noun, and underline the example in each sentence.

II. CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT.

Select in the following sentences the nouns that are names of objects which have a real and separate existence outside of the mind, and those which are names of things that have no real existence and are only thought of in the mind:—

1. Contentment is better than gold.
2. Virtue is its own reward.
3. Truth crushed to earth, shall rise again,—
The eternal years of God are hers.—_Bryant._

A noun that is the name of an object which has a real and separate existence outside of the mind, is called a =concrete noun=; as, gold, water.

A noun that is the name of something which has not a real and separate existence outside of the mind, is called an =abstract noun=; as, truth, justice.

EXERCISE.

1. Write five sentences each containing a concrete noun, and underline the example in each sentence.

2. Write five sentences each containing an abstract noun, and underline the example in each sentence.

_Note._—All nouns may be classified into (1) proper and common, (2) concrete and abstract, hence the two preceding classifications are perfect. The classifications which follow are imperfect, since they do not include all nouns.

III. COLLECTIVE NOUNS.

Name the nouns in the following sentences that denote a collection of objects:—

1. His family live in England.
2. The army advanced during the night.
3. The verdict is given by a jury.
4. A committee of six was appointed by the members.

A noun of the singular form that stands for a collection or number of things is called a =collective noun=; as, He owns a _herd_ of cattle.

EXERCISE.

Write five sentences each containing a collective noun, and underline the example in each sentence.

IV. VERBAL NOUNS.

Select the nouns ending in _ing_ that are derived from verbs and have lost all verbal function in the following sentences:—

1. That is good ploughing.
2. His writing is very legible.
3. The singing was admired by all.

A noun ending in _ing_ that is derived from a verb and has lost all verbal function, is called a verbal noun; as, There is good _sleighing_ now.

EXERCISE.

Write five sentences each containing a verbal noun, and underline the example in each sentence.

* * * * *

=LESSON XIV.=

V. GENDER-NOUNS.

Which of the following words denote males, and which denote females?

boy, man, uncle, hero, emperor,
girl, woman, aunt, heroine, empress.

Sex is one of the two divisions of animals, male and female.

The distinction of sex is called =gender=.

A noun that denotes a male is of the masculine gender; as, father.

A noun that denotes a female is of the feminine gender; as, mother.

Some nouns are either masculine or feminine gender; as, friend, neighbor.

Nouns that denote things neither male nor female, have no gender; as, book, tree.

Gender is distinguished by different words; as,—

=Masculine.= =Feminine.=
gentleman, lady,
husband, wife,
king, queen,
monk, nun,
nephew, niece,
sir, madam,
son, daughter,
uncle, aunt,
bachelor, maid or spinster,
drake, duck,
hart, roe,
ram, ewe,
stag, hind,
buck, doe,
earl, countess,
wizard, witch.

Gender is distinguished by different endings; as,—

=Masculine.= =Feminine.=
heir, heiress,
baron, baroness,
count, countess,
prince, princess,
negro, negress,
actor, actress,
Jew, Jewess,
lion, lioness,
governor, governess,
abbot, abbess,
victor, victress,
marquis, marchioness,
peer, peeress,
host, hostess,
duke, duchess,
master, mistress,
deacon, deaconess,
poet, poetess,
executor, executrix,
hero, heroine,
czar, czarina,
sultan, sultana,
infante, infanta,
widower, widow,
bridegroom, bride,
fox, vixen.

Gender is sometimes distinguished by prefixing words; as,—

=Masculine.= =Feminine.=
man-servant, maid-servant,
cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow,
he-goat, she-goat.

EXERCISE.

Select the gender-nouns in the following sentences, and give the gender of each:—

1. Mary and her friend went for a sail on the lake.
2. The hero of this story is a young boy.
3. Great authors are seldom seen by the people.
4. Tell my mother that her other sons shall comfort her old
age.
5. He fled with his wife and child.
6. My sister went home with her aunt.
7. Both a prince and a poet were there.
8. Little Effie shall go with me to-morrow to the green,
And you’ll be there, too, mother, to see me made the Queen:
For the shepherd lads on every side ’ill come from far away,
And I’m to be Queen of the May, mother, I’m to be Queen of
the May.—_Tennyson._

* * * * *

=LESSON XV.=

NUMBER.

Which form of the following words denotes one thing, and which more than one thing?—

pen, slate, church, city, tooth,
pens, slates, churches, cities, teeth.

The form of a word which names one thing is called =singular=, and the noun is said to be in the _singular number_. The form of a word which names more than one thing is called =plural=, and the noun is said to be in the _plural number_.

1. The plural is generally formed by adding _s_ to the singular form; as _pin_, _pins_; _book_, _books_.

2. Some nouns form the plural by adding _es_ to the singular form; as, _match_, _matches_; _tax_, _taxes_.

Note the following words:—fox, bush, glass, loss, hero, negro, cargo, echo, potato, tomato.

3. Nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a vowel, form the plural by adding _s_ to the singular form; as, _day_, _days_; _valley_, _valleys_.

Nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant, form the plural by changing the _y_ into _i_ and adding _es_; as, _lily_, _lilies_; _copy_, _copies_.

4. Some nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ form the plural by changing _f_ or _fe_ to _v_ and adding _es_; as, _knife_, _knives_.

Note the following:—wife, life, wolf, loaf, half, leaf, thief, shelf, calf, self.

5. A few nouns form the plural by adding _en_ to the singular form; as, _ox_, _oxen_; _child_, _children_; _brother_, _brethren_.

6. Some nouns form the plural by changing the vowel of the singular; as, _man_, _men_; _goose_, _geese_.

7. Most nouns taken from foreign languages retain their foreign plurals:

=Singular.= =Plural.=
radius, radii.
beau, beaux.
analysis, analyses.
index, indices.
axis, axes.
basis, bases.
seraph, seraphim.
memorandum, memoranda.
phenomenon, phenomena.
crisis, crises.
erratum, errata.
stratum, strata.
oasis, oases.
cherub, cherubim.

8. Some compound nouns make the principal word plural, and some make both words plural; as, _son-in-law_, _sons-in-law_; _man-servant_, _men-servants_.

EXERCISE.

Write the plural of the following nouns:—

1. desk, woman, calf, foot, mouse, class.
2. cargo, piano, sky, toy, crisis, potato.
3. story, church, enemy, spoonful, chimney.
4. lily, valley, mother-in-law, wolf, pencil.
5. memorandum, sheaf, child, man-of-war.

* * * * *

=LESSON XVI.=

Note the following peculiarities:

1. Nouns used only in the plural:—

aborigines, antipodes, annals, banns, bellows, breeches,
matins, measles, news, nuptials, oats, pincers,
scissors, shears, tidings, trousers, vespers, victuals.

2. Nouns that have the same form in both numbers:—

deer, trout, sheep, heathen, perch,
grouse, salmon, swine, cannon, pike.

3. Nouns with _two_ plurals, differing in meaning:—

=Singular.= = Plural.= =Plural.=
penny, pennies (a number.) pence (a sum.)
pea, peas (a number.) pease (a quantity.)
brother, brothers (same family.) brethren (same society.)
die, dies (for stamping.) dice (for gaming.)
cloth, cloths (kinds of cloth.) clothes (garments.)
index, indexes (to a book.) indices (in algebra.)
genius, geniuses (men of talent.) genii (spirits.)

4. Nouns with a different meaning in the plural:—

compass, compasses,
iron, irons,
good, goods,
salt, salts,
corn, corns.

5. Nouns with _two meanings_ in the plural:—

=Singular.= =Plural.= =Plural.=
custom, customs (habits.) customs (revenue duties.)
letter, letters (alphabet.) letters (literature.)
number, numbers (in counting.) numbers (poetry.)
part, parts (divisions.) parts (abilities.)

* * * * *

=LESSON XVII.=

CASE.

Which of the italicized words in the following sentences is used as the subject of the sentence, which to denote ownership, and on which does the action expressed by the verb end?

1. The _boy_ is here.
2. The _boy’s_ book is on the table.
3. He sent the _boy_ with it.

The word upon which the action expressed by the verb ends is called the =object= of the verb.

Point out in the following sentence a noun used as the subject of the verb, a noun used to denote ownership, a noun used as the object of a verb, and a noun used as the object of a preposition:—

That girl’s father shot a bear in the forest.

The relation which a noun or pronoun bears to some other word in the sentence is called =case=.

A noun used as the subject of a verb is in the =nominative case=; as, The _slate_ is broken. A noun used to denote ownership or possession is in the =possessive case=; as, _Mary’s_ book is torn. A noun used as the object of a verb or a preposition is in the =objective case=; as, He left his _pencil_ on the _desk_.

EXERCISE I.

Name the case of all the nouns and pronouns in the following sentences, and state the reason for the case of each:—

1. I sailed a boat on the lake.
2. This man’s hat was carried off by the wind.
3. Eight horses drew the Queen’s carriage.
4. On the deck stood the captain of the ship.
5. Oft I had heard of Lucy Gray;
And, when I crossed the wild,
I chanced to see at break of day
The solitary child.—_Wordsworth._

EXERCISE II.

1. Write four sentences each containing a noun in the nominative case, and underline examples.

2. Write four sentences each containing a noun in the possessive case, and underline examples.

3. Write four sentences each containing a noun in the objective case, and underline examples.

* * * * *

=LESSON XVIII.=

Point out the nouns in the possessive case in the following sentences, and state how the possessive is formed:—

1. This is a girl’s hat.
2. The girls’ yard is very clean.
3. He found a woman’s shawl.
4. The women’s waiting room is a large one.

The possessive case of a singular noun is always formed by adding ’s to the word.

The possessive case of a plural noun that ends in s is formed by adding the ’ (apostrophe) only; as _boys_, _boys’_.

The possessive case of a plural noun that does not end in s is formed by adding the ’s; as _men_, _men’s_.

EXERCISE.

Form the possessive case, singular and plural, of the following nouns:—

hat, horse, mother, lady,
knife, child, servant, grocer,
friend, fox, father-in-law, country,
deer, artist, prince, mouse.

_Note._—Possession is sometimes expressed by the objective case
with the preposition _of_; as, The eyes of children are bright,
for children’s eyes are bright.

* * * * *

=LESSON XIX.=

State the case of the italicized nouns in the following sentences:—

1. My _hands_ are cold.
2. He is a _lawyer_.
3. Smith, the _grocer_, has moved away.
4. _John_, shut the door.
5. The _storm_ having ceased, I went on.

A noun that is used as the subject of a sentence is said to be in the =subject nominative case=, or briefly in the =nominative case=; as, The _sun_ shines brightly.

A noun that is used in the predicate with the verb _to be_ to make a statement, is said to be in the =predicate nominative case= to the verb; as, This man is a _poet_.

_Note._—The verb _to be_ (am, is, are, was, were, shall be, will be, have been, had been, etc.,) expresses _being_, never action, and hence cannot take a grammatical _object_.

A noun that is added to another noun to explain it, is said to be in the =appositive= (apposition) =nominative case=; as Brown, the _merchant_, is here.

A noun that is used as the name of a person or thing addressed is said to be in the =nominative of address=; as I wish you long life, my _friend_.

A noun that has no relation to any word in the sentence is said to be in the =nominative absolute=; as, The _game_ being over, I withdrew.

EXERCISE.

Select all the nominatives in the following sentences, and state the class to which each belongs:—

1. Napoleon was a man of determination.
2. My friend, the captain, is a citizen of Montreal.
3. Good morning, Mr. Henry, will you come in?
4. William the Norman, the enemy of Harold, crossed the
Channel.
5. The boat having disappeared, I turned my face homewards.

* * * * *

=LESSON XX.=

How many grammatical objects has each verb in the following sentences?—

1. He taught me music.
2. The tailor made him a coat.
3. I asked them the way.
4. He sent his sister a letter.

The object which represents that which is directly affected by the action of the verb, is called the =direct object=; as, This man taught me _drawing_.

The object which represents that which is less directly affected by the action of the verb, and a relation which may be expressed by the prepositions _to_ or _for_, is called the =indirect object=; as, This man taught _me_ drawing.

EXERCISE.

Select all the objects in the following sentences, and classify them into _direct_ and _indirect_:—

1. This girl brought me some flowers.
2. The Queen gave him a present.
3. I told him that story.
4. My father bought me a horse.
5. She sent my uncle a guinea.

* * * * *

=LESSON XXI.=

PARSING.

To parse a noun is to state the class to which it belongs, its gender, number, case, and its grammatical relation to other words in the sentence.

The changes in meaning and use which nouns undergo with or without a change in form, are called their =inflections=.

The inflections of the noun are number and case.

EXERCISE.

Parse all the nouns in the following sentences:—

1. John lost his brother’s book on the street.
2. The boys have bought a new boat.
3. This little girl’s doll fell into the water.
4. His son is an excellent writer.
5. Mr. Wilson, the tailor, has a fine shop.
6. James, take this book to your sister.
7. My father gave that boy a beautiful pony.
8. Our friends are fond of driving.
9. Sympathy is the greatest power in the moral world.
10. But the half of our heavy task was done,
When the clock struck the hour for retiring;
And we heard the distant and random gun,
That the foe was sullenly firing.—_Wolfe._

=Model.=—_John_, a proper, concrete noun; masculine gender; singular number; nominative case, subject of _lost_.

_Teacher’s_, a common, concrete noun; masculine or feminine gender; singular number; possessive case, possessing _book_.

_Book_, a common, concrete noun; singular number; objective case, object of the verb _lost_.

_Street_, a common, concrete noun; singular number; objective case, object of the preposition _on_.

* * * * *

=LESSON XXII.=

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

Name the pronouns in the following sentences, and state which denote the speaker, which the person spoken to, and which the person or thing spoken of:—

1. He asked me to go with him.
2. You will be sorry when you see it.
3. I asked her to come with us.

A pronoun that shows by its form whether it denotes the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person spoken of, is called a =personal pronoun=.

A pronoun that denotes the speaker or any company of whom the speaker is one, is in the =first person=; as, _I_ am here. _We_ are going soon.

A pronoun that denotes a person spoken to, is in the =second person=; as, _You_ look well.

A pronoun that denotes the person or thing spoken of, is in the =third person=; as, I found _it_.

THE DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

=First Person.=
=Singular.= =Plural.=
Nom. Poss. Obj. Nom. Poss. Obj.
I, mine, or my, me. we, ours, or our, us.

Second Person.
Singular. Plural.
Nom. Poss. Obj. Nom. Poss. Obj.
thou, thine, or thy, thee. you, or ye, yours, or your, you.

The second person singular is used now chiefly in prayer and poetry.

The second person plural is used now in common speech in addressing one person.

Third Person.
Singular. Plural.
Nom. Poss. Obj. Nom. Poss. Obj.
Masc. he, his, him. they, theirs, or their, them.
Fem. she, hers, or her, her. they, theirs, or their, them.
Neut. it, its, it. they, theirs, or their, them.

EXERCISE.

Select the personal pronouns in the following sentences, state the person of each, and the noun to which each pronoun of the third person refers:—

1. I visited my friend and helped him with his work.
2. We bought some nuts and gave them to the children.
3. This woman has lost her purse.
4. I met two boys and they told me where to find you.
5. I had a little daughter,
And she was given to me
To lead me gently backward
To the Heavenly Father’s knee.
That I by the force of nature,
Might in some dim wise divine
The depths of His infinite patience
To this wayward soul of mine.—_Lowell._

_Note._—The possessive forms _my_, _thy_, _her_, _our_, _your_
and _their_ are used with nouns, and the forms _mine_, _thine_,
_hers_, _ours_, _yours_ and _theirs_ are used alone; as, That is
_my_ hat. That hat is _mine_.

* * * * *

=LESSON XXIII.=

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

Name the pronouns in the following sentences that point out or call attention to anything:—

1. This is a book, and that is a roll of paper.
2. These are sheep, and those are goats.

Pronouns which point out or call attention to the objects for which they stand, are called =demonstrative pronouns=.

The demonstrative pronouns are _this_, and _that_ with their plurals _these_, and _those_.

_This_ and _these_ are used to refer to something nearer; _that_ and _those_ to something farther off. _You_ is sometimes a demonstrative pronoun; as, _You_ are the winner. The personal pronoun of the third person is sometimes classed as a demonstrative pronoun, because it is said to point out or call attention to the object for which it stands.

It is sometimes demonstrative, and sometimes personal in its use.

_Compare_: I am sure _he_ did it. I saw your brother and _he_ is going to come to-morrow.

* * * * *

=LESSON XXIV.=

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

Point out the pronouns in the following sentences, that are used to express _emphasis_, and those that are used as reflexives, that is, as _objects_ denoting the same person or thing as the _subject_:—

1. I myself wrote that letter.
2. He himself gave the cane to me.
3. We often injure ourselves.
4. They praised themselves.

Pronouns that are used to express emphasis, and those that are used as reflexives, are called =compound personal pronouns=.

Compound personal pronouns are formed by adding _self_ to the simple pronouns.

=Singular.= =Plural.=
First Person. myself, ourselves,

Second Person. {thyself,
{yourself, yourselves,

{himself
Third Person. {herself, themselves.
{itself,

* * * * *

=LESSON XXV.=

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

Select the pronouns that relate, or carry the mind back, to a noun going before, and join to that noun a modifying statement, in the following sentences:—

1. My brother found the ball which he lost.
2. I saw the man who made that wheel.
3. Mary has the book that I bought.

A sentence that is part of a larger sentence is called a =clause=.

The clause that expresses the principal thought of a sentence is called the =principal= or =independent clause=; as, _My brother found the ball_ which he lost.

The clause that depends on some other part of the sentence for its meaning is called a =dependent= or =subordinate clause=; as, My brother found the ball _which he lost_.

A word that relates to a preceding noun or pronoun, and connects a dependent clause with that noun or pronoun, is called a =relative pronoun=.

The word to which a pronoun relates is called its =antecedent=.

The relative pronouns are, _who_, _which_, _that_, _what_, _as_, and _but_.

1. _Who_ is applied to persons; as, He knew the man _who_ did it.

2. _Which_ is applied to animals and to things without life; as This is the deer _which_ he shot. I want the pen _which_ you have.

3. _That_ is applied to persons, to animals, and to things; as, This is the lady _that_ was hurt. Here is the knife _that_ I found.

4. _What_ does not have its antecedent expressed; as, I know _what_ [that which] you require.

5. When _as_ is used as a relative it is generally preceded by _such_; as, We are such stuff _as_ dreams are made on.

6. When _but_ is used as a relative it has a negative force, equivalent to _that not_; as,

There is no fireside, howsoe’er defended,
_But_ has one vacant chair.

_Note._—Some relative clauses add another fact to the
antecedent; as, He owns a farm, _which he was given by his
uncle_.

Other relative clauses restrict the meaning of the antecedent;
as, The boy _that works_ succeeds.

_Who_ and _which_ are declined as follows:—

SINGULAR OR PLURAL.

Nom. Case who, which,
Poss. Case whose, whose,
Obj. Case whom, which.

COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

Pronouns that are formed by adding _so_, _ever_, and _soever_, to the simple pronouns, are called =compound relative pronouns=; as _whoso_, _whichever_, _whatsoever_.

EXERCISE I.

Name the relative pronouns, their antecedents, the clauses they connect, and the case of each:—

1. I require the pencil that I lent you.
2. Those who are down need fear no fall.
3. He gave me what I desired.
4. The men shot a bear which was roaming about.
5. The long ranks on which I looked tramped steadily on.
6. Let the mighty mounds
That overlook the rivers, or that rise
In the dim forest crowded with old oaks, answer.—_Bryant._

EXERCISE II.

Classify the relatives in the following sentences into those that add new facts to their antecedents, and into those that restrict or limit their meaning:

1. I live on the street which leads to the park.
2. Those who live without a plan have never any leisure.
3. A short distance from the house I discovered a box, which
was made of iron.
4. I met a policeman, who told me about the fire.
5. We were the first that ever burst
Into that silent sea.—_Coleridge._
6. There, at the foot of yonder nodding birch,
That wreaths its old fantastic roots so high,
His listless length at noontide would he stretch,
And pore upon the brook that babbles by.—_Gray._

* * * * *

=LESSON XXVI.=

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

Point out the pronouns in the following sentences, that are used in asking questions:—

1. Who did this?
2. What are you going to do next?
3. Which of the boys lost his knife?

A pronoun that is used in asking a question is called an =interrogative pronoun=; as, _Who_ gave you the orange?

The interrogative pronouns are _who_, _which_, and _what_.

_Who_ and _which_ are declined like the relatives.

_Who_ refers to persons; _which_ refers to persons or to things; _what_ refers to things.

_Note._—_Which_ differs from _who_ in being selective; as, _Which_ of the books is yours?

EXERCISE.

Select the interrogative pronouns in the following sentences, and give the case of each:—

1. Who received the first prize in your class?
2. Of what is this article composed?
3. Which of the girls has the pencil?
4. What are you going to do next?
5. Whom did he send with the horse?

* * * * *

=LESSON XXVII.=

Point out the pronouns in the following sentences that do not stand for any particular persons or things:—

1. Many went home before nine o’clock.
2. Each has his work to do.
3. All are here now.

Pronouns which do not stand for particular or definite persons or things, are called =indefinite pronouns=; as, _Few_ believed him.

The principal words used as indefinite pronouns are _all_, _any_, _other_, _another_, _both_, _some_, _such_, _few_, _many_, _one_, _none_, _each_, _either_, _neither_, and words made by joining _some_, _any_, _every_ and _no_ to the words _one_, _thing_ and _body_.

EXERCISE.

Select the indefinite pronouns in the following sentences, and give the case of each:—

1. Some have gone home already.
2. I knew both of the boys.
3. He has not any to give to me.
4. Everybody goes to the wharf in the evening.
5. I told some one to bring it with him.

* * * * *

=LESSON XXVIII.=

PARSING.

To parse a pronoun is to state the class to which it belongs, its gender, person, number, case, and its grammatical relation to other words in the sentence.

Parse all the pronouns in the following sentences:—

1. I have the knife which you gave me.
2. He saw the letter that I wrote.
3. Who told you they did it?
4. Few shall meet where many part.—_Campbell._
5. He is the freeman whom the truth makes free.—_Cowper._
6. There’s a divinity that shapes our ends,
Rough-hew them as we will.—_Shakespeare._
7. I have seen him buy such bargains as would amaze
one.—_Goldsmith._
8. Ye, therefore, who love mercy, teach your sons
To love it too.—_Cowper._
9. I dare do all that may become a man,
Who dares do more is none.—_Shakespeare._
10. Breathes there a man with soul so dead,
Who never to himself hath said,
This is my own, my native land.—_Scott._

=Model:=—I have the knife _which you_ gave _me_.

_I_, a personal pronoun; masculine or feminine gender; first
person; singular number; nominative case, subject of _have_.

_which_, a relative pronoun; third person; singular number;
objective case, direct object of the verb _gave_.

_you_, a personal pronoun; masculine or feminine gender; second
person; singular or plural number; nominative case, subject of
the verb _gave_.

_me_, a personal pronoun; masculine or feminine gender; first
person; singular number; objective case, indirect object of the
verb _gave_.

* * * * *

=LESSON XXIX.=

_CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES._

ADJECTIVES OF QUALITY.

Point out the adjectives in the following sentences that express _quality_ or _kind_ in the objects named by the nouns with which they are used:—

1. This is a sweet apple.
2. I bought an oak table and a silver tray.
3. These girls are happy.

Adjectives that express quality or kind in the objects named by the nouns with which they are used, are called =qualifying adjectives=; as, These _kind_ girls took some _fresh_ flowers to a _sick_ woman.

Qualifying adjectives that are formed from proper nouns are called =proper adjectives=. They begin with capital letters; as, He gave her an _English_ coin.

EXERCISE.

Select the qualifying adjectives in the following sentences, and state the nouns they qualify:—

1. A wise man considers his words.
2. Gentle, loving Nell was dead.
3. Her sleep was beautiful and calm.
4. Wonderful animals are to be seen in African forests.
5. With a slow and noiseless footstep
Comes that messenger divine.—_Longfellow._
6. Like other dull men, the king was all his life suspicious of
superior people.—_Thackeray._
7. O Caledonia! stern and wild,
Meet nurse for a poetic child!
Land of brown heath and shaggy wood,
Land of the mountain and the flood.—_Scott._

* * * * *

=LESSON XXX.=

ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY.

Point out the adjectives in the following sentences, that express the _quantity_ or _number_ of the objects named by the nouns with which they are used:—

1. This man has little strength left.
2. I wish you much success in your studies.
3. There are three boys in the yard.

Adjectives that express the quantity or number of the objects named by the nouns with which they are used, are called =quantifying adjectives=; as, He won the _second_ prize.

EXERCISE.

Select the quantifying adjectives in the following sentences, and state the noun each modifies:—

1. William has twenty marbles.
2. Much study is a weariness of the flesh.
3. My brother has the third place in his class.
4. This poor man has little coal for the winter.

* * * * *

=LESSON XXXI.=

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.

Which of the italicized words are used as pronouns and which as adjectives?

1. _This_ belongs to my brother.
2. _This_ book belongs to my brother.
3. _Which_ is your pen?
4. _Which_ pencil will you have?
5. _All_ are lying on the bank.
6. _All_ men are mortal.
7. _Mine_ are in the house.
8. _My_ slate is broken.

Adjectives that are sometimes used as pronouns are called =pronominal adjectives=; as, _These_ books are mine. _All_ boys can learn.

There are five kinds of =pronominal adjectives=.

1. =Possessive adjectives.= These are the possessive forms of the personal pronouns used as adjectives. They are given in Lesson XXII., and are as follows:—_my_ or _mine_, _thy_ or _thine_, _our_ or _ours_, _your_ or _yours_, _his_, _her_ or _hers_, _its_, _their_ or _theirs_.

2. =Interrogative adjectives.= These are _which_ and _what_ when used with a noun to ask a question; as, _Which_ poem will you recite? _What_ wrong have you done?

3. =Relative adjectives.= These are the words _which_ and _what_ used relatively _with a noun_; as, I know _which_ pen you prefer. I see _what_ course you are taking.

4. =Indefinite adjectives.= These are the words which, when used without nouns, are indefinite pronouns; as, _Few_ persons believe his story. [See Lesson XXVII.]

5. =Demonstrative adjectives.= These are _this_, _these_; _that_, _those_; _yon_, _yonder_, when used with nouns; as, _That_ tree is very tall. _Yon_ ship is coming nearer.

To the foregoing list of demonstrative adjectives we may add _a_, _an_, and _the_, since they are _demonstrative in their nature_, that is they are used _to point out_, but they have _no pronominal use_; as, _The_ man is well again. _An_ apple is on the table.

_Note._—_An_ is used before a word beginning with a vowel
sound; as, _An_ orange is yellow. _An_ hour contains sixty
minutes.

_A_ is used before a word beginning with a consonant sound; as,
_A_ pencil is on the desk. Many _a_ one has succeeded. (_One_
begins with the consonant sound of _w_.)

EXERCISE.

Select the pronominal adjectives in the following sentences, give the _kind_ of each and the word it modifies:—

1. Which way did he go?
2. That lady explained my lesson.
3. Any other pen will do.
4. I do not know what work he did.
5. Their father bought them some fruit.
6. Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree’s shade,
Where heaves the turf in many a mouldering heap,
Each in his narrow cell forever laid,
The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep.—_Gray._

* * * * *

=LESSON XXXII.=

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

In the following sentences what degree of quality do the different forms of the adjective _large_ express?

1. John has a large ball.
2. I have a larger ball than John’s.
3. James has the largest ball in the yard.

In sentence number 2, two balls are _compared_. In sentence number 3, three or more balls are _compared_. Hence the change of form of adjectives to express different _degrees_ of quality is called =comparison=.

The form of the adjective, which merely expresses the quality, is called the =positive degree=; as, I have a _small_ pen.

The form of the adjective that expresses a higher or lower degree of the quality, is called the =comparative degree=; as, Charles has a _smaller_ pen than mine.

The form of the adjective that expresses the highest or the lowest degree of the quality, is called the =superlative degree=; as, The teacher has the _smallest_ pen in the room.

Most adjectives of one syllable form the comparative by adding _er_ to the simple form, and the superlative by adding _est_ to the same form; as,

=Positive.= = Comparative.= =Superlative.=
tall, taller, tallest.
fine, finer, finest.

_Note._—If the simple form ends in _e_, one e is omitted in the
comparison.