Chapter III: Part 3

1. Ah! then and there was hurrying to and fro,
And gathering tears, and tremblings of distress.—_Byron._
2. News of battle! News of battle!
Hark! ’tis ringing down the street.—_Aytoun._
3. Oh! I’m thankful you are gone, Mary,
Where grief can’t reach you more!—_Lady Dufferin._
4. But, hush! hark! a deep sound strikes like a rising
knell.—_Byron._
5. And, lo! from far, as on they pressed, there came a
glittering band.—_Hemans._
6. “Alas,” said I, “man was made in vain!”—_Addison._
7. “Indeed!” said Uncle Tim, “pray, what do you make of the
abstraction of a red cow?”—_Haliburton._
8. “Yet give one kiss to your mother dear!
Alas! my child, I sinned for thee.”
“O mother, mother, mother,” she said,
“So strange it seems to me.”—_Tennyson._
9. Ho! breakers on the weather bow,
And hissing white the sea;
Go, loose the topsail, mariner,
And set the helm a-lee.—_Swain._

* * * * *

PART THIRD.

_SYNTAX._

Syntax treats of the _relations_ which words bear to one another in sentences, and of the _order_ in which the words are arranged. The relation of a word in a sentence is called its _construction_.

_Note._—Many of the leading principles of syntax have been
illustrated already. We shall now study them and others in a
systematic way.

* * * * *

=LESSON LVI.=

RELATIONS OF THE NOUN.

Examine the construction of the italicized nouns in the following sentences:—

1. _Trees_ grow.
2. This man is a _carpenter_.
3. Mr. Brown, the _merchant_, has retired.
4. _Boys_, close the doors.
5. The _wheel_ being broken, I walked home.
6. John lost his _knife_.
7. She lives in the _city_.
8. I bought the _boy_ a hat.
9. We visited our _mother’s_ grave.
10. He lived here ten _years_.
11. I was taught _music_ by my mother.
12. This boy ran a _race_ yesterday.
13. I told him to be a good _boy_.
14. The people chose him _ruler_.

1. =Subject nominative.= The noun may be used as the subject of a verb; as, _Boys_ play. The subject of a verb is in the _nominative case_.

2. =Predicate nominative.= A noun that is used to form a complete predicate, and refers to the same person or thing as the subject, is in the =nominative case= after the verb; as, John became _king_. A noun so used is called a =predicate noun= or =predicate nominative=. The verbs _be_, _seem_, _become_, _appear_, _look_ are followed by a =predicate nominative=.

3. =Apposition.= A noun added to another noun to explain its meaning is said to be in apposition to the first noun; as,

Mr. Henry, our _principal_, is sick. (Nominative in apposition.)

We like your sister _Mary_. (Objective in apposition.)

4. =Nominative of address.= A noun that is used in addressing a person or thing, is in the =nominative case of address=; as, _Man_, thy years are few.

5. =Nominative absolute.= A noun that is not related to any other word in the sentence is in the =nominative absolute case=; as, The _day_ being bright, I went for a drive.

6. =Object of a verb.= A noun or pronoun on which the action expressed by a verb ends, is called the grammatical =object= of the verb; as, I broke my _pen_.

7. =Object of a preposition.= A noun or pronoun which a preposition connects in sense to some other word in the sentence, is called the =object= of the preposition; as, He came from the _country_.

8. =Indirect object.= A noun or pronoun that is used to show _to_ or _for_ whom or what something is done, is called the _indirect_ object; as, He gave _me_ a watch. The word _watch_ is the _direct_ object of _gave_.

9. =Possession.= A noun that is used to denote ownership is in the =possessive= case; as, My _friend’s_ hat is missing.

10. =Adverbial object.= A noun that is used like an adverb to express _time_, _distance_, _weight_, or _value_, is called an =adverbial objective=; as, He walked five _miles_. It is worth eight _dollars_.

11. =Retained object.= When an active verb, taking two objects, is changed into the passive voice, one object becomes the subject of the passive verb, but the other is _retained as object_; as, He was forgiven his _offence_.

12. =Cognate object.= When the objective has a similar or cognate meaning to that of the verb, it is called a =cognate object=; as, She sung us a _song_.

13. =Predicate objective.= When a noun is in the predicate relation to an objective subject, it is called a =predicate objective=; as, I know him to be an honest _man_.

14. =An objective predicate.= A noun that completes the meaning of a transitive verb and describes its object, is called an =objective predicate=; as, They elected him _president_. The verbs _call_, _make_, _appoint_, _choose_, _elect_, and those of like nature, take the =objective predicate=.

* * * * *

=LESSON LVII.=

RELATIONS OF THE PRONOUN.

What is the gender, person, and number of the italicized pronouns in the following sentences?—

1. A little girl gave me _her_ book.
2. The sword has dropped from _its_ sheath.
3. I saw the man of _whom_ you speak.
4. This is the woman _that_ found your purse.

_A pronoun must agree in gender, number, and person with its antecedent._

_Note._—1. The relative pronoun is not always expressed; as, I
know the man (_that_) you admire so much.

2. The word _it_ has sometimes an indefinite use without an
antecedent; as, _It_ rains. _It_ will soon be dark. _This is
called the impersonal use._

3. The word _it_ is sometimes used as a _representative_ subject
while the _real_ subject follows the verb; as, _It_ is certain
_that he did it_. _It_ is right _to defend the truth_.

_The pronoun has the same case-relations as the noun._

EXERCISE.

Name the case and state the construction of each noun and pronoun in the following sentences:—

1. I travelled with Smith, the grocer.
2. We helped the lady who lost her purse.
3. It is wrong to deceive.
4. The wind having fallen, I mounted my wheel again.
5. Mary broke out in praise to God, that helped
her in her widowhood.—_Tennyson._
6. Set the table, maiden Mabel,
And make the cabin warm:
Your little fisher lover
Is out there in the storm.—_Aldrich._
7. My dear one!—when thou wast alive with the rest,
I held thee the sweetest and loved thee the best.—_E. B.
Browning._
8. But the Christian princes felt that the scene which they had
beheld weighed heavily on their spirits, and although they
assumed their seats at the banquet, yet it was with the
silence of doubt and amazement.—_Scott._
9. By chance it happened that in Atri dwelt
A knight, with spur on heel and sword on belt,
Who loved to hunt the wild boar in the woods,
Who loved his falcons with their crimson hoods.
—_Longfellow._
10. There is no terror, Cassius, in your threats;
For I am armed so strong in honesty,
That they pass by me as the idle wind,
Which I respect not.—_Shakespeare._

* * * * *

=LESSON LVIII.=

RELATIONS OF ADJECTIVES.

Name the adjectives in the following sentences, that are used to modify nouns directly, and those that are used to modify nouns as part of the predication or assertion made about them:—

1. She is a good girl.
2. I have a soft pencil.
3. He was ignorant of this fact.
4. The water is cold.

1. An adjective that modifies a noun directly is said to be in the =attributive= relation; as, A _grand_ tree is the _stately_ oak.

2. An adjective that modifies a noun as part of the predication or assertion made about it, is called a =predicate adjective=; as, This apple is _sweet_. I am _glad_ you succeeded.

3. An adjective that is joined to a noun in a loose and indirect way is said to be used in the =appositive= relation; as, All history, _ancient_ or _modern_ contributes towards my theory.

EXERCISE.

State the relation of each adjective in the following sentences:—

1. A tremendous storm came on.
2. My dear friend is ill.
3. Young, and gay, she heeded not my warning.
4. Full many a gem of purest ray serene,
The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear.—_Gray._
5. Along the crowded path they bore her now, pure as the
newly-fallen snow that covered it.—_Dickens._
6. Sweet was the sound, when oft, at evening’s close,
Up yonder hill the village murmur rose.—_Goldsmith._
7. I met a little cottage girl;
She was eight years old, she said;
Her hair was thick with many a curl
That clustered round her head.—_Wordsworth._

* * * * *

=LESSON LIX.=

RELATIONS OF THE VERB.

What person and number forms are the verbs in the following sentences, and why?—

1. The sun shines brightly.
2. The boys are in the garden.
3. I know thou lovest me.

_The verb agrees with its subject in person and number_; as, The teacher _has_ my pen.

_Note._—In determining the number of the verb we must consider,
not the _form_, but the _meaning_ of the subject.

1. A collective noun requires a verb in the singular when it means the collection as a whole, and a verb in the plural when it means the separate individuals of which it is composed; as, The committee (as a whole) _has decided_ it. The committee (as individuals) _have decided_ it.

2. Two or more singular nouns connected by _and_ take a verb in the plural; as, James and Mary _are_ here. Music and drawing _were taught_ during the term.

If two or more singular nouns connected by _and_ are preceded by _each_, _every_, or _no_, the verb is in the singular, because they refer to things considered separately; as, Every man and woman _was lost_.

3. When two or more singular subjects are thought of as one thing, the verb is singular; as, Bread and butter _is_ sufficient.

4. Two singular subjects connected by _either_—_or_, _neither_—_nor_ take a verb in the singular, but if the subjects are plural, the verb is plural; as, Either a horse or a cow _is_ in the field. Neither the boys nor the girls _are_ here.

EXERCISE.

What is the person and number of the verbs in the following sentences, and give the reason in each case?—

1. Wellington and Nelson were heroes.
2. The audience was dismissed.
3. Her health and strength has failed.
4. Either a pen or a pencil is required.
5. The lowing herd wind slowly o’er the lea.
6. Each boy and girl is to have a medal.
7. Neither cries nor tears avail anything.
8. No man and no animal was seen.
9. The secretary and treasurer is present.
10. The secretary and the treasurer are present.
11. The enormous expense of governments has provoked men to
rebellion.
12. From the ground
Comes up the laugh of children, the soft voice
Of maidens, and the sweet and solemn hymn
Of Sabbath worshippers.—_Bryant._

* * * * *

=LESSON LX.=

RELATIONS OF ADVERBS.

Point out the use of the italicized adverbs in the following sentences:—

1. She walks _rapidly_.
2. My brother is _quite_ sick.
3. He acted _very_ honestly.

_An adverb is used to qualify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb._

An adverb is sometimes used with the value of a predicate adjective; as, The sun is _up_. We were _there_.

An adverb may even qualify a preposition; as, He went _far_ beyond his instructions. The thorn ran _deep_ into his foot.

EXERCISE.

Give the construction of each adverb in the following sentences:—

1. My sister is too sick to see you.
2. We were treated very kindly.
3. They acted more wisely than we.
4. The moon went down behind the clouds.
5. He jumped clear over the fence.
6. I wind about, and in and out,
With here a blossom sailing,
And here and there a lusty trout,
And here and there a grayling.—_Tennyson._
7. I’ve lived since then, in calm and strife,
Full fifty summers a sailor’s life,
With wealth to spend, and power to range,
But never have sought, nor sighed for change.—_Procter._
8. Down came the storm, and smote amain
The vessel in its strength;
She shuddered and paused, like a frighted steed,
Then leaped her cable’s length.—_Longfellow._

* * * * *

=LESSON LXI.=

THE ORDER OF WORDS.

Observe the order of the words in the following sentence:—

The woods tossed their giant branches against a stormy sky.

The logical order of the parts of a sentence is: 1. The subject (with its attributes); 2. The verb; 3. The object (with its attributes) or the complement; 4. The adverbial modifiers.

This order may be changed to secure greater _emphasis_, _clearness_ or _elegance_.

A member of a sentence may be given prominence by taking it out of its logical position and placing it first. This causes the arrangement of the other members to be changed and the sentence thus acquires emphasis by the members being placed out of their ordinary positions.

1. The verb may be placed first; as,
_Flashed_ all their sabres bare.
2. The object may be placed first; as,
_Knowledge_ I do not slight.
3. The complement may be placed first; as,
_Broad_ is the way that leadeth to destruction.
4. The adverbial modifier may be placed first; as,
_Still in thy right hand_ carry gentle peace.

The subject of the sentence may follow the verb:—

1. In interrogative sentences; as, Are _you_ there?

2. In expressing a wish; as, May _you_ succeed.

3. In imperative sentences; as, Seek _ye_ not my face again.

4. In poetry; as,

Then off there flung in smiling joy,
And held himself erect
By just his horse’s mane, a boy.—_Browning._

5. In subjunctive clauses without _if_; as, Had _I_ your advantages I should improve them.

6. In introducing quotations; as, “Pardon!” said the _Emperor_.

7. In inversion for emphasis; as, Flashed all their _sabres_ bare.

8. When the real subject is a clause, and the representative subject is _it_; as, It is well known _that he received money_.

The object may precede the verb that governs it:—

1. When it is an interrogative or relative pronoun; as, _Whom_ did you see? I saw the man _whom_ you want.

2. For emphasis; as, _Honor_ and _fame_ I seek not.

Attributes naturally precede the noun, but they may follow:—

1. When they consist of a phrase or clause; as, I love the song _of birds_. The book _that I found_ is here.

2. When they consist of two or more adjectives; as, And fast through the midnight _dark_ and _drear_, the vessel swept.

3. In poetry; as,

See how from far upon the eastern road
The star-led wizards haste with odors _sweet_!

The adjectives _a_, _an_ and _the_ always precede the noun. When the noun is qualified by another adjective, these adjectives generally precede it, but they stand between the following adjectives and the noun to which they refer:—

1. Such; as, One cannot admire such _a_ man.
2. Many; as, Many _a_ poor man’s son would have lain still.
3. Both; as, Both _the_ boys came home.
4. All; as, All _the_ girls are in the room.
5. What; as, What _a_ trial it was.

The =relative= is always the first word in its clause, but when it is governed by a preposition, the preposition generally precedes it; as, I found the knife _which_ you lost. I know the person _to whom_ you refer.

The =adverbial modifier=, when a phrase, generally follows the verb, or the object if the verb be transitive; as, James fell _into the lake_. He found an apple _on the ground_.

The =adverbial modifier=, when a single word, generally follows an intransitive verb, and either precedes a transitive verb, or follows its object; as, This river flows _rapidly_. He did his work _well_.

When there are a number of adverbial modifiers in a sentence, they should be distributed over the sentence; as, _At the request of my father_, I _gladly_ left my studies, _to accompany him_.

An adverb may stand in any part of the sentence, but its meaning generally varies with its position, hence the adverb should be placed as near as possible to the word or words it modifies.

Observe the following example:—

He-_only_ lost his book. (No one else lost a book.)
He _only_-lost his book. (He did nothing else with it.)
He lost _only_ his book. (He lost nothing else.)
He lost his _only_ book. (His single book.)

Certain adverbs and conjunctions are correlative (that is, _having a mutual relation_) to one another. Be careful to use the proper correlatives; as, He is esteemed _not only_ for his accomplishments, _but also_ for his piety.

The following is a list of correlatives:—

=Adverbs.= =Conjunctions.=
not only, but also,
not, but, but only,
only, not,
so, that,
so, as,
such, that,
both, and,
as, well, soon, as,
neither, nor,
either, or.

The correlatives must be attached to the corresponding words and phrases; as, They gave me _neither_ money _nor_ shoes. I assisted _only_ in the evening, _not_ in the morning.

The preposition generally stands immediately before the word it governs; as, We live _in_ Toronto.

1. When the noun has attributive adjectives, the preposition precedes the adjective; as, I walked _through_ a beautiful park.

2. When the object of the preposition is a relative, the preposition sometimes stands at the end of the clause; as, My brother owns the building which he lives _in_, [_in which he lives_ is preferable.]

3. In poetry the preposition often follows its object; as, The heavy night hung dark the hills and waters _o’er_.

4. When two verbs or adjectives in association are followed by different prepositions, the prepositions must be repeated after each; as, He found him a man whom he agreed _with_ on a few subjects, and differed _from_ on many; or, He found him a man _with_ whom he agreed on a few subjects, _from_ whom he differed on many.

* * * * *

PART FOURTH.

_ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES._

* * * * *

=LESSON LXII.=

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.

=Model I.=—Many brave soldiers lost their lives in that war.

Kind, a simple declarative sentence.
Subject, soldiers.
Adj. modifiers of subj., many, brave.
Predicate, lost.
Object, lives.
Adj. modifier of obj., their.
Adv. modifier of pred., in that war.

=Model II.=—Still in thy right hand carry gentle peace to silence envious tongues.

Kind, a simple imperative sentence.
Subject, [you.]
Predicate, carry.
Object, peace.
Adj. modifier of obj., gentle.
Adv. modifiers of pred., still, in thy right hand, to silence
envious tongues.

=Model III.=—Having crossed the river, he ran into the adjoining wood.

Kind, a simple declarative sentence.
Subject, he.
Participial mod. of subj., having crossed the river.
Predicate, ran.
Adv. mod. of pred., into the adjoining wood.

=Model IV.=—My pupils like to write stories.

Kind, a simple declarative sentence.
Subject, pupils.
Adj. mod. of subj., my.
Predicate, like.
Object, to write stories.
Object of _to write_, stories.

=Model V.=—The scholars gave their teacher a beautiful present.

Kind, a simple declarative sentence.
Subject, scholars.
Adj. mod. of subj., the.
Predicate, gave.
Direct object, present.
Adj. modifiers of direct obj., a, beautiful.
Indirect object, teacher.
Adj. mod. of indirect obj., their.

=Model VI.=—It is wrong to slight your work.

Kind, a simple declarative sentence.
Real subject, to slight your work.
Representative subject, it.
Predicate, { Verb of incomplete predication, _is_.
{ Adj. complement of predicate, _wrong_.

_Note._—When the predicate is completed by an adjunct
describing the subject, the completing adjunct is called the
=complement=.

EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS.

1. My father gave me a fine pony.
2. At this moment the noise grew louder.
3. There are eight girls in the class.
4. Seek the company of the good.
5. It is a sin to deceive anyone.
6. How could he mark thee for the silent tomb!
7. Crossing the field, I found a knife, rusty and broken.
8. On an eminence above the sea paces a strong, rough
Cornishman.
9. On the eastern side of the Nile lies the temple of Karnak.
10. For their lean country much disdain,
We English often show.
11. Home they brought her warrior dead.—_Tennyson._
12. Bright-eyed beauty once was she.—_Lucy Larcom._
13. Do men gather figs from thorns?—_Bible._
14. The lowing herd winds slowly o’er the lea.—_Gray._
15. These are the gardens of the desert.—_Bryant._
16. Soon on the hill’s steep verge he stood.—_Scott._
17. The Indian knows his place of rest far in the cedar
shade.—_Hemans._
18. Through all eternity, to Thee
A joyful song I’ll raise.—_Addison._
19. The uncertain vacillating temper common to all Indians now
began to declare itself.—_Parkman._
20. The fine English cavalry then advanced to support their
archers, and to attack the Scottish line.—_Scott._
21. So saying, from the ruined shrine he stept.—_Tennyson._
22. Yet Fortune was bending over him, just ready to let fall a
burden of gold.—_Hawthorne._
23. On the first day of his fasting,
Through the leafy woods he wandered.—_Longfellow._
24. Raising his head, he looked the lustrous stranger in the
face.—_Hawthorne._
25. At daybreak on the bleak sea-beach,
A fisherman stood aghast,
To see the form of a maiden fair
Lashed close to a drifting mast.—_Longfellow._
26. Well had the boding tremblers learned to trace
The day’s disasters in his morning face.—_Goldsmith._
27. All the livelong day, Oliver paced softly up and down the
garden, raising his eyes every instant to the sick
chamber, and shuddering to see the darkened
window.—_Dickens._
28. By Nebo’s lonely mountain,
On this side Jordan’s wave,
In a vale in the land of Moab,
There lies a lonely grave.—_Mrs. Alexander._
29. Wolfe had discovered a narrow path winding up the side of
the steep precipice from the river.—_Warburton._
30. Along the cool sequestered vale of life
They kept the noiseless tenor of their way.—_Gray._
31. The silent influence of Shakespeare’s poetry on millions of
young hearts in England, in Germany, in all the world,
shows the almost superhuman power of human
genius.—_Müller._
32. Now see him mounted once again
Upon his nimble steed,
Full slowly pacing o’er the stones,
With caution and good heed.—_Cowper._
33. By comparing the words of these inscriptions with many
others, the proper method of interpreting this peculiar
language was ascertained.—_Ontario Reader._
34. Failing in this, they set themselves, after their custom on
such occasions, to building a rude fort of their own in
the neighboring forest.—_Parkman._
35. I heard a brooklet gushing
From its rocky fountain near,
Down into the valley rushing,
So fresh and wondrous clear.—_Longfellow._
36. Up from the meadows rich with corn,
Clear in the cool September morn,
The clustered spires of Frederick stand
Green-walled by the hills of Maryland.—_Whittier._
37. No nightingale did ever chant
So sweetly to reposing bands
Of Travellers in some shady haunt
Among Arabian sands.—_Wordsworth._
38. The French, blown and exhausted, inferior beside in weight
both of man and horse, offered but a short
resistance.—_Lever._
39. Looking, looking for the mark,
Down the others came,
Struggling through the snowdrifts stark,
Calling out his name.—_Lushington._
40. A voice so thrilling ne’er was heard
In spring-time from the Cuckoo bird,
Breaking the silence of the seas
Among the farthest Hebrides.—_Wordsworth._

* * * * *

=LESSON LXIII.=

CLAUSES.

The leading thought of a sentence is called the =principal clause=.

A clause that has the function of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb, is called a =subordinate clause=.

Select the principal clauses and the subordinate clauses in the following sentences, and state the function of each subordinate clause:—

1. They knew who did it.
2. The book which you gave me, is here.
3. I shall go when he returns.

A clause that has the function of a noun, is called a noun clause; as, He said _he knew his lesson_. How I shall reach my destination_ is the question.

A noun clause may be used:—

1. As the object of a verb; as, He knew _what I did_.
2. As the subject of a verb; as, _What course he pursued_ is
seen now.
3. As the object of a preposition; as, My friend annoyed me by
_what he said_.
4. As a predicate nominative; as, The end of it all is (_that_)
_he receives his choice_.

A clause that has the use or function of an adjective, is called an =adjective clause=; as, He found the book _which he lost_.

A clause that has the use or function of an adverb, is called an =adverbial clause=; as, I shall go _where they are_. He will destroy it _unless we hinder him_.

A sentence that consists of one principal clause, and one or more subordinate clauses, is called a =complex sentence=; as, I have met the person of whom you speak.

A sentence that consists of two or more independent clauses, is called a =compound sentence=; as, James came home, but John remained there.

A compound sentence that is made up of complex sentences, or simple and complex sentences, is called a =compound-complex sentence=; as, We entered the building, and a man who was working there, gave us information about it.

EXERCISES.

Name the clauses in the following sentences, and state the kind and relation (if any) of each:—

1. Whilst I was thus musing, I cast my eyes towards the summit of a rock that was not far from me, where I discovered one in the habit of a shepherd, with a musical instrument in his hand.—_Addison._

=Model.=—

_Whilst . . . . musing_ is an adv. clause, mod. cast.

_I cast . . . . a rock_ is a principal clause.

_That . . . . . me_ is an adj. clause, mod. _summit of a rock_.

_Where I . . . hand_ is an adj. clause, mod. _summit of a rock_.

2. King Harold had a rebel brother in Flanders, who was a vassal of Harold Hardrada, king of Norway.—_Dickens._

3. Those who knew him best affirmed that this Mr. Toil was a very worthy character, and that he had done more good, both to children and grown people, than anybody else in the world.—_Hawthorne._

4. Portia, when she returned, was in that happy temper of mind which never fails to attend the consciousness of having performed a good action; her cheerful spirits enjoyed everything she saw: the moon never seemed to shine so brightly before; and when that pleasant moon was hid behind a cloud, then a light which she saw from her house at Belmont as well pleased her charmed fancy.—_Lamb._

5. Once upon a time, there lived a very rich man, and a king besides, whose name was Midas; and he had a little daughter, whom nobody but himself ever heard of, and whose name I either never knew, or have entirely forgotten. So, because I love odd names for little girls, I choose to call her Marygold.—_Hawthorne._

6. I rose and prepared to leave the Abbey. As I descended the flight of steps which lead into the body of the building, my eye was caught by the shrine of Edward the Confessor, and I ascended the small staircase that conducts to it, to take from thence a general survey of this wilderness of tombs.—_Irving._

7.

All things that love the sun are out of doors;
The sky rejoices in the morning’s birth;
The grass is bright with rain-drops;—on the moors
The hare is running races in her mirth.—_Wordsworth._

8.

I thought of a mound in sweet Auburn
Where a little headstone stood;
How the flakes were folding it gently,
As did robins the babes in the wood.—_Lowell._

9.

Lightly they’ll talk of the spirit that’s gone,
And o’er his cold ashes upbraid him;
But little he’ll reck if they let him sleep on
In the grave where a Briton has laid him.—_Wolfe._

10.

The humble boon was soon obtained;
The Aged Minstrel audience gained.
But, when he reached the room of state,
Where she, with all her ladies, sate,
Perchance he wished his boon denied:
For when to tune his harp he tried,
His trembling hand had lost the ease
Which marks security to please.—_Scott._

* * * * *

=LESSON LXIV.=

ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.

=Model I.=—Love had he found in huts where poor men lie.

Kind, a complex sentence.

=Analysis of (A.)=
Kind, a principal clause.
Subject, he.
Predicate, had found.
Object, love.
Adv. mod. of predicate, in huts _where poor men lie_.

=Analysis of (B.)=
Kind, an adj. clause, mod. _huts_.
Subject, men.
Adj. mod. of subj., poor.
Predicate, lie.
Adv. mod. of pred., where.

=Model II.=—Tell me who did it.

Kind, a complex sentence.

=Analysis of (A.)=
Kind, a principal clause.
Subject, [you.]
Predicate, tell.
Direct object, _who did it_.
Indirect object, me.

=Analysis of (B.)=
Kind, a noun clause, direct obj. of _tell_.
Subject, who.
Predicate, did.
Object, it.

=Model III.=—He goes home when I return.

Kind, a complex sentence.

=Analysis of (A.)=
Kind, a principal clause.
Subject, he.
Predicate, goes.
Adv. modifiers of pred., home, _when I return_.

=Analysis of (B.)=
Kind, an adv. clause, mod. _goes_.
Subject, I.
Predicate, return.
Adv. mod. of pred., when.

=Model IV.=—It doth appear you are a worthy judge.

Kind, a complex sentence.

=Analysis of (A.)=
Kind, a principal clause.
Real subject, _you are a worthy judge_.
Representative subject, it.
Predicate, doth appear.

=Analysis of (B.)=
Kind, a noun clause, real subj. of _doth appear_.
Subject, you.
Predicate, { verb incomplete predication, _are_.
{ complement of predicate, _a worthy judge_.

=Model V.=—The boy does not know this part of the wood, but he runs on.

Kind, a compound sentence.

=Analysis of (A.)=
Kind, a principal clause.
Subject, boy.
Adj. mod. of subj., the.
Predicate, does know.
Object, part.
Adj. modifiers of obj., this, of the wood.
Adv. mod. of pred., not.

=Analysis of (B.)=
Kind, a principal clause.
Subject, he.
Predicate, runs.
Adv. mod. of pred., on.

=Model VI.=—

From yonder ivy-mantled tower
The moping owl does to the moon complain
Of such as, wandering near her secret bower,
Molest her ancient, solitary reign.—_Gray._

Kind, a complex sentence.

=Analysis of (A.)=
Kind, a principal clause.
Subject, owl.
Adj. modifiers of subj., the, moping.
Predicate, does complain.
Adv. modifiers of pred.,
from yonder ivy-mantled
tower, to the moon,
of such _as, wandering_ . . . .
. . . . _reign_.

=Analysis of (B.)=
Kind, an adj. clause, mod. _such_.
Subject, as.
Adj. mod. of subj., wandering near her secret bower.
Predicate, molest.
Object, reign.
Adj. modifies of obj., her, ancient, solitary.

=Model VII.=—Train up a child in the way he should go; and when he is old, he will not depart from it.—_Bible._

Kind, a compound-complex sentence.

=Analysis of (A.)=
Subject, [you.]
Predicate, train.
Object, child.
Adj. mod. of obj., a.
Adv. modifiers of pred., up, in the way _he should go_.

=Analysis of (B.)=
Kind, an adj. clause, mod. _way_.
Subject, he.
Predicate, the verb-phrase, should go.

=Analysis of (C.)=
Kind, an adv. clause, mod. _will depart_.
Subject, he.
Predicate, { verb of incomplete predication, _is_.
{ complement of predicate, _old_.
Adv. of mod. of pred., when.
=Analysis of (D.)=
Kind, a principal clause.
Subject, he.
Predicate, will depart.
Adv. modifiers of pred., not, from it, _when he is old_.

EXERCISES.

1. The evil that men do lives after them.—_Shakespeare._

2. An idler is a watch that wants both hands.—_Cowper._

3. If sinners entice thee, consent thou not.—_Bible._

4. “I have it ready,” said Bassanio; “here it is.”—_Lamb._

5. I think of those upon whose rest he tramples.—_Bryant._

6. It is a great day when the sled is loaded with the buckets, and the procession starts for the woods.—_Warner._

7. Meantime the French had given way, and were flying in all directions.—_Warburton._

8. I believe there is no permanent greatness to a nation except it be based upon morality.—_Bright._

9. Gilliatt had thrust his arm deep into the opening; the monster had snapped at it.—_Hugo._

10. The things we have described occupied only a few minutes.—_Hugo._

11. The Turks spread gradually over the battlefield below us, slaughtering as they advanced.—_Forbes._

12. There were many boys in the room by whom that little scene was taken to heart before they slept.—_Hughes._

13. General Brock, who had risen as usual before day-break, hearing the cannonading, galloped from Niagara to the scene of action.—_Miss Machar._

14. In walking one day up the mountain behind Montreal, I leaned over a paling which enclosed the water reservoir of the city.—_Argyle._

15. Then was committed that fearful crime, memorable for its singular atrocity, memorable for the tremendous retribution which followed.—_Macaulay._

16.

She was a phantom of delight
When first she gleamed upon my sight.—_Wordsworth._

17.

He that died at Azan gave
This to those who made his grave.—_Arnold._

18.

He sendeth the springs into the valleys,
Which run among the hills.—_Bible._

19.

Thy dress was like the lilies,
And thy heart as pure as they.—_Longfellow._

20.

A pound of that same merchant’s flesh is thine;
The court awards it, and the law doth give it.—_Shakespeare._

21. Happy is the man whose good intentions have borne fruit in deeds and whose evil thoughts have perished in the blossom.—_Scott._

22. There was one tall Norman knight who rode before the Norman army on a prancing horse, throwing up his heavy sword and catching it, and singing of the bravery of his countrymen.—_Dickens._

23. This dashed the spirits of the Iroquois, and they sent a canoe to call to their aid five hundred of their warriors, who were mustered near the mouth of the Richelieu.—_Parkman._

24. The parent who sends his son into the world uneducated, defrauds the community of a useful citizen and bequeaths to it a nuisance.—_Chancellor Kent._

25. The smoke which hung upon the field rolled in slow and heavy masses back upon the French lines, and gradually discovered to our view the entire of the army.—_Lever._

26.

As o’er the verdant waste I guide my steed,
Among the high, rank grass that sweeps his sides,
The hollow beating of his footsteps seems
A sacrilegious sound.—_Bryant._

27.

Scarcely the hot assault was staid,
The terms of truce were scarcely made,
When they could spy, from Branksome’s towers,
The advancing march of martial powers.—_Scott._

28.

I made a footing in the wall,
It was not therefrom to escape,
For I had buried one and all,
Who loved me in a human shape.—_Byron._

29.

So the storm subsides to calm;
They see the green trees wave
On the heights o’erlooking Grève;
Hearts that bled are stanched with balm.—_Browning._

30.

He who from zone to zone
Guides through the boundless sky thy certain flight
In the long way that I must tread alone
Will lead my steps aright.—_Bryant._

31. Columbus tried to pacify them with gentle words and promises of large rewards; but finding that they only increased in clamor, he assumed a decided tone.—_Irving._

32. Wolfe and the troops with him leaped on shore; the light infantry, who found themselves borne by the current a little below the intrenched path, clambered up the steep hill, staying themselves by the roots and boughs of the maple and spruce and ash trees that covered the precipitous declivity.—_Bancroft._

33. The boys, who were twelve and ten years old, aided by the soldiers, whom her words had inspired with some little courage, began to fire from the loop-holes upon the Iroquois.—_Parkman._

34. She had told Tom, however, that she would like him to put the worms on the hook for her, although she accepted his word when he assured her that worms couldn’t feel.—_George Eliot._

35. The beadle, who performed it, had filled his left hand with yellow ochre, through which, after every stroke, he drew the lash of his whip, leaving the appearance of a wound upon the skin, but in reality not hurting him at all.—_Cowper._

36.

On a rock whose haughty brow
Frowns o’er old Conway’s foaming flood,
Robed in the sable garb of woe,
With haggard eyes the Poet stood.—_Gray._

37.

Between the dark and the daylight,
When the night is beginning to lower,
Comes a pause in the day’s occupations
That is known as the Children’s Hour.—_Longfellow._

38.

The gallant youth, who may have gained,
Or seeks, a “Winsome Marrow,”
Was but an infant in the lap
When first I looked on Yarrow.—_Wordsworth._

39.

She told me all her friends had said;
I raged against the public liar;
She talked as if her love were dead,
But in my words were seeds of fire.—_Tennyson._

40.

The dwarf, who feared his master’s eye
Might his foul treachery espy,
Now sought the castle buttery,
Where many a yeoman, bold and free,
Revelled as merrily and well
As those that sat in lordly selle.—_Scott._

* * * * *

PART FIFTH.

_COMPOSITION._

* * * * *

=LESSON LXV.=

CAPITAL LETTERS.

1. The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital letter.

2. The pronoun _I_ and the interjection _O_ should be written in capitals; as, _O father! I hear the church bells ring_.

3. A proper noun should begin with a capital letter; as, _Toronto is in Ontario_.

4. A proper adjective should begin with a capital letter; as, _We speak the English language_.

5. The first word of every line of poetry should begin with a capital letter; as,

_If thou wouldst view fair Melrose aright,_
_Go visit it by the pale moonlight._

6. The names of the days of the week and the names of the months of the year should begin with capital letters; as, _Saturday_, _August_.

7. Titles of individuals, and titles of books and newspapers should begin with capital letters; as, _Lord Aberdeen_, _Governor-General of Canada_. _Harper’s Round Table_.

8. All names of the Deity, and words standing for His name, should begin with capital letters; as, _Creator_, _Supreme Being_.

9. Names of peoples and languages should begin with capital letters; as, _Italians_, _Greek_.

10. The first word of a direct quotation should begin with a capital letter; as, _She answered_, “_This shall never be_.”

_In all your reading, note carefully how capital letters are used._

* * * * *

LESSON LXVI.

PUNCTUATION.

1. A declarative or assertive sentence, and an imperative sentence should be followed by a period; as, _Your friend gave me a book_. _Open the door._

2. An interrogative sentence should be followed by the interrogation mark; as, _When did you come?_

3. An exclamatory word or sentence should be followed by the exclamation mark; as, _But hush! hark! A deep sound strikes like a rising knell!_

4. Every abbreviated word should be followed by a period; as, _Mr._, _Rev._

5. The title of a composition, the address and the signature of a person, should be followed by a period.

6. Words that are in the same grammatical relation should be separated by commas; as, _He is honest, capable, and sympathetic._

Two words that are in the same grammatical relation and connected by _and_, _or_, or _nor_, should not be separated by a comma; as, _She is kind and good_.

7. Words or phrases in apposition should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; as, _Lady Aberdeen, the wife of the Governor of Canada, has gone on an ocean voyage_.

8. A transposed phrase or clause, not closely united with the sentence, should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma; as, _In their large cities, the Egyptians built massive temples_.

9. Words or phrases placed between closely related parts of a sentence should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; as, _Their whole army, in fact, did not exceed thirty thousand men_.

10. The name of a person addressed should be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma; as, _James, hand me the brush._

11. The clauses of a compound sentence, when short and closely connected, should be separated by a comma; as, _I finished my work, and then came home._

12. The clauses of a compound sentence, if they are contracted, or are long, or are not closely connected, should be separated by a semicolon; as, _Man counts his life by years; the oak, by centuries. His left hand only was free; his open knife was in this hand._

13. A direct quotation should be enclosed by quotation marks; as, _He said, “I shall go.” “He is a tall and stately king,” said Harold; “but his end is near.”_

14. If a quotation is short, it should be separated from the preceding part of the sentence by a comma; as, _He replied, “I am a Briton born.”_

15. If a quotation is long, or if it is formally introduced by _as follows_, _these words_, _etc._, it should be separated from the preceding part of the sentence by a colon; as, _He replied in these words: “I am a Briton born, and a Briton I shall die.”_

16. When an unexpected break, pause, or turn occurs in a sentence, it should be indicated by a dash; as,

_To-night will be a stormy night_—
_You to the town must go._

17. Explanatory words which are not necessary to the sense of the passage, should be enclosed in marks of parenthesis; as,

_Know, then, this truth (enough for man to know),_
_Virtue alone is happiness below._

18. The parts of a compound word when they have not become united into one word, are connected by a hyphen; as, _to-day_, _wind-organ_.

A hyphen is also used at the end of a line when a word is divided into syllables.

* * * * *

=LESSON LXVII.=

THE USE OF WORDS.

Every one who desires to become a good speaker or writer must acquire a knowledge of words; he must possess a large vocabulary, and be master of the significance and application of the words of which it is composed.

To this end he should read the best authors, converse with the educated, and use the words he thus acquires in his own conversation. The dictionary should be in daily use to learn the exact meaning and force of new words.

* * * * *

1. Select the words that are familiar to the educated, and that are used by good writers.

2. Employ words in the sense they are used by the best writers and speakers. This knowledge is obtained from the dictionary and from observation in reading the best authors.

3. Use the word that expresses the exact meaning intended to be conveyed. A knowledge of the distinction of synonyms is best acquired by keeping a list of words of nearly the same meaning, and carefully studying the sense in which each is used.

EXERCISE.

Distinguish the meaning of the following words, and write sentences in which they are accurately used:—

Sit, set; may, can; think, guess; expect, suspect; lie, lay; hanged, hung; teach, learn; stop, stay; fly, flee; among, between; each other, one another.

* * * * *

=LESSON LXVIII=.

THE SENTENCE.

A complete thought expressed in words is called a sentence. In a single sentence every part should be subordinate to one principal assertion.

KINDS OF SENTENCES.

Sentences are classified into Periodic, Loose, Balanced, Short and Long.

A sentence that is so constructed that the complete meaning is delayed till the close, is called a =periodic sentence=; as, _From many lands, comes the cry for help. Even on the driest day this vapor is never absent from our atmosphere._

A sentence that is so constructed that it may be stopped before the end, sometimes in several places, and still be complete in sense, is called a =loose sentence=; as, _Those scenes, rude and humble as they are, have kindled beautiful emotions in his soul,_ | _noble thoughts, and definite resolves;_ | _and he speaks forth what is in him, not from any outward call of vanity or interest, but because his heart is too full to be silent._—_Carlyle._

A sentence that is so constructed that the different elements are made to answer to each other and set each other off by similarity of form, is called a =balanced sentence=; as, _In peace, children bury their parents; in war, parents bury their children. He defended him when living, amidst the clamors of his enemies; and praised him when dead, amidst the silence of his friends._

A short sentence is more easily understood and more animated than a long sentence.

A long sentence gives more scope than a short one, for the addition of particulars, and for the expansion of the main thought.

_Note._—The loose sentence is adapted to ordinary composition,
being simple and clear. The periodic sentence is suitable to
compositions of a forcible nature; the balanced sentence to
compositions in which characters or subjects are compared.
Variety is secured by the due alternation of long and short
sentences.

=Emphatic places of the Sentence.= The natural emphatic places of a sentence are the beginning and the end. If we wish to give special distinction to some particular word or phrase, it must occupy one of these positions. Since the beginning and the end of a sentence are the natural places for the subject and predicate respectively, the subject is made emphatic by placing it at the end, and the predicate by placing it at the beginning of the sentence; as, _Flashed_ all their sabres bare.

* * * * *

=LESSON LXIX.=

THE PARAGRAPH.

A connected series of sentences dealing with a single topic is called =a paragraph=. It is a whole composition and is complete in itself.

_Note._—A paragraph begins on a new line and the opening word
is withdrawn towards the middle of the line.

THE PRINCIPLES OF THE PARAGRAPH.

1. Every paragraph should possess _unity_, that is, it should have a definite subject or topic to which all parts of the structure are related, forming elements, in its development.

2. The sentences that compose a paragraph should follow one another in natural order, showing a logical progress of thought. This principle is called _continuity_.

3. The connection of each sentence in the paragraph, with the preceding one, should be made clear, and also the connection between the paragraphs themselves.

This connection or explicit reference is secured in the following ways:—

1. By conjunctions and adverbs.
2. By demonstrative words and phrases.
3. By a clear and unmistakable _connection in sense_.

EXERCISE.

He kept his course westward taking advantage of the trade wind which blows steadily from west to east between the tropics. (Topic sentence). _With this favorable breeze_ (Explicit reference) they were wafted gently but speedily over a tranquil sea, so that for many days they did not shift a sail.

Nevertheless the situation of Columbus was daily becoming critical; his crews began to grow extremely uneasy at the length of the voyage; they were already beyond the reach of succor, and beheld themselves still borne onward over the boundless wastes of what appeared to them a mere watery desert. They were full of vague terrors, and harassed their commander by incessant murmurs, or fed each other’s discontents, gathering together in little knots, and stirring up a spirit of mutiny. There was great danger of their breaking forth into open rebellion, and compelling Columbus to turn back. In their secret conferences they exclaimed against him as a mad desperado, and even talked of throwing him into the sea.—_Irving._

1. What is the topic sentence of the second paragraph?

2. How does the author make connection or attain explicit reference between the two paragraphs?

3. Show that the sentences of the second paragraph follow one another in a natural and logical order.

4. In the second paragraph, point out the means by which the author relates each sentence to the preceding one.

5. Is there any statement in this paragraph that does not bear on the topic?

* * * * *

=LESSON LXX.=

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.

The two great divisions of composition are prose and poetry. The grand distinction in form is metre or measure. The chief object of prose is to instruct, to convince, or to persuade; while the chief object of poetry is to give pleasure or inspiration. Both kinds of composition employ figurative or representative language to please, to adorn, to illustrate, or to explain.

1. An expressed comparison is called a =simile=; as, _He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water. Blue were her eyes as the fairy flax._

2. An implied comparison is called a =metaphor=; as, _She is an angel. This news was a dagger to his heart._

3. When the name of one object is put for some other, so related that one naturally suggests the other, the figure is called =metonymy=; as, _The pen shall supersede the sword. No man reveres the crown more than I do._

4. When life and mind are attributed to inanimate objects, the figure is called =personification=; as, _The mountains looked on Marathon, and Marathon looked on the sea. The smiling spring comes round once more._

5. When two unlike things are contrasted, that each may appear more striking, the figure is called =antithesis=; as, _Go or stay, whichever you will. Success wins attention; failure wins neglect._

6. When the mind is aroused by a contradiction between the form of the language and the meaning really intended, the figure is called an =epigram=; as, _The favorite has no friend. Genius is an immense capacity for taking trouble._

7. When something absent is addressed as if present, the figure is called =apostrophe=; as, _O, death, where is thy sting?_

8. When the language expresses the contrary of what is meant, the figure is called =irony=; as, _No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom will die with you._—_Job._

EXERCISE.

Name the figures in the following passages, and state what is gained by the use of each:—

1. Some people are too foolish to commit follies.
2. Youth and beauty must be laid in the grave.
3. A true friend, like a mirror, will tell us of our faults.
4. War flings his blood-stained banner to the breeze.
5. The light of the Constitution shines in the palace and the
cottage.
6. Though gentle, yet not dull;
Strong, without rage; without o’erflowing, full.—_Denham._
7. There is a tide in the affairs of men,
Which, taken at the flood, leads on to
fortune.—_Shakespeare._
8. Sweet friends! What the women lave
For its last bed of the grave,
Is a hut which I am quitting,
Is a garment no more fitting.—_Arnold._
9. Ayr, gurgling, kissed his pebbled shore,
O’erhung with wild woods, thickening green;
The fragrant birch and hawthorn hoar
Twined amorous round the raptured scene.—_Burns._
10. And, as a bird each fond endearment tries
To tempt its new-fledged offspring to the skies,
He tried each art, reproved each dull delay,
Allured to brighter worlds, and led the way.—_Goldsmith._

* * * * *

=LESSON LXXI.=

STYLE.

The skilful adaptation of expression to thought is called =style=. The essential qualities of style in composition are =clearness=, =force=, and =beauty=.

Some of the means by which =clearness= is secured are:—(1) by discrimination in the choice of words; (2) by explicit reference; (3) by contrast; (4) by the orderly arrangement of phrases and sentences.

The quality of =force= is gained by means of—(1) brevity; (2) suggestive words; (3) illustrations and comparisons; (4) the use of interrogation and exclamation; (5) the employment of contrast; (6) the repetition of words; (7) the order of words; (8) the use of the particular instead of the general term.

The quality of =beauty= is secured by means of—(1) good taste in the use of words; (2) alliteration; (3) happy phrases; (4) balanced structure; (5) rhythm. The composition must possess elevation of thought withal.

Other qualities of style sometimes present in good writing are:—=simplicity=, =pathos=, =picturesqueness=, =humour=, =satire=, and =harmony=.

MODEL.

TRAILING ARBUTUS.

. . . The ground was white in spots with half-melted snow. A few whirls of snow had come down in the night, and the air was too cold to change to rain. Some green leaves, in sheltered nooks, had accepted the advances of the sun and were preparing for the summer. But that which I came to search after was trailing arbutus, one of the most exquisite of all Nature’s fondlings.

I did not seek in vain. The hills were covered with it. Its gay whorls of buds peeped forth from ruffles of snow in the most charming beauty. Many blossoms, too, quite expanded, did I find; some pure white, and a few more deliciously suffused with pink. For nearly an hour I wandered up and down, in pleasant fancies, searching, plucking, and arranging these most beautiful of all early blossoms.

Who would suspect by the leaf what rare delicacy was to be in the blossom? Like some people of plain and hard exterior, but of sweet disposition, it was all the more pleasant from the surprise of contrast. All winter long the little thing must have slumbered with dreams, at least, of spring. It has waited for no pioneer or guide, but started of its own self and led the way for all the flowers on the hillside.

Its little viny stem creeps close to the ground, humble, faithful, and showing how the purest white may lay its cheek in the very dirt without soil or taint.

The odor of the arbutus is exquisite, and as delicate as the plant is modest. Some flowers seem determined to make an impression on you. They stare at you. They dazzle your eyes. If you smell them, they overfill your sense with their fragrance. They leave nothing for your gentleness and generosity, but do everything themselves.