Chapter XI: The Victorian Age (1850-1900) (5)

A change is noticeable in Newman's life after his trip to the Mediterranean in 1832. He had begun his life as a Calvinist, but while in Oxford, then the center of religious unrest, he described himself as "drifting in the direction of Liberalism." Then study and bereavement and an innate mysticism led him to a profound sympathy with the mediæval Church. He had from the beginning opposed Catholicism; but during his visit to Italy, where he saw the Roman church at the center of Its power and splendor, many of his prejudices were overcome. In this enlargement of his spiritual horizon Newman was greatly influenced by his friend Hurrell Froude, with whom he made the first part of the journey. His poems of this period (afterwards collected in the _Lyra Apostolica_), among which is the famous "Lead, Kindly Light," are noticeable for their radiant spirituality; but one who reads them carefully sees the beginning of that mental struggle which ended in his leaving the church in which he was born. Thus he writes of the Catholic church, whose services he had attended as "one who in a foreign land receives the gifts of a good Samaritan":

O that thy creed were sound!
For thou dost soothe the heart, thou church of Rome,
By thy unwearied watch and varied round
Of service, in thy Saviour's holy home.
I cannot walk the city's sultry streets,
But the wide porch invites to still retreats,
Where passion's thirst is calmed, and care's unthankful gloom.

On his return to England, in 1833, he entered into the religious struggle known as the Oxford or Tractarian Movement,[245] and speedily became its acknowledged leader. Those who wish to follow this attempt at religious reform, which profoundly affected the life of the whole English church, will find it recorded in the _Tracts for the Times_, twenty-nine of which were written by Newman, and in his _Parochial and Plain Sermons_ (1837- 1843). After nine years of spiritual conflict Newman retired to Littlemore, where, with a few followers, he led a life of almost monastic seclusion, still striving to reconcile his changing belief with the doctrines of his own church. Two years later he resigned his charge at St. Mary's and left the Anglican communion,--not bitterly, but with a deep and tender regret. His last sermon at Littlemore on "The Parting of Friends" still moves us profoundly, like the cry of a prophet torn by personal anguish in the face of duty. In 1845 he was received into the Catholic church, and the following year, at Rome, he joined the community of St. Philip Neri, "the saint of gentleness and kindness," as Newman describes him, and was ordained to the Roman priesthood.

By his preaching and writing Newman had exercised a strong influence over his cultivated English hearers, and the effect of his conversion was tremendous. Into the theological controversy of the next twenty years we have no mind to enter. Through it all Newman retained his serenity, and, though a master of irony and satire, kept his literary power always subordinate to his chief aim, which was to establish the truth as he saw it. Whether or not we agree with his conclusions, we must all admire the spirit of the man, which is above praise or criticism. His most widely read work, _Apologia Pro Vita Sua_ (1864), was written in answer to an unfortunate attack by Charles Kingsley, which would long since have been forgotten had it not led to this remarkable book. In 1854 Newman was appointed rector of the Catholic University in Dublin, but after four years returned to England and founded a Catholic school at Edgbaston. In 1879 he was made cardinal by Pope Leo XIII. The grace and dignity of his life, quite as much as the sincerity of his _Apologia_, had long since disarmed criticism, and at his death, in 1890, the thought of all England might well be expressed by his own lines in "The Dream of Gerontius":

I had a dream. Yes, some one softly said,
"He's gone," and then a sigh went round the room;
And then I surely heard a priestly voice
Cry _Subvenite_; and they knelt in prayer.

WORKS OF NEWMAN. Readers approach Newman from so many different motives, some for doctrine, some for argument, some for a pure prose style, that it is difficult to recommend the best works for the beginner's use. As an expression of Newman's spiritual struggle the _Apologia Pro Vita Sua_ is perhaps the most significant. This book is not light reading and one who opens it should understand clearly the reasons for which it was written. Newman had been accused of insincerity, not only by Kingsley but by many other men, in the public press. His retirement to solitude and meditation at Littlemore had been outrageously misunderstood, and it was openly charged that his conversion was a cunningly devised plot to win a large number of his followers to the Catholic church. This charge involved others, and it was to defend them, as well as to vindicate himself, that Newman wrote the _Apologia_. The perfect sincerity with which he traced his religious history, showing that his conversion was only the final step in a course he had been following since boyhood, silenced his critics and revolutionized public opinion concerning himself and the church which he had joined. As the revelation of a soul's history, and as a model of pure, simple, unaffected English, this book, entirely apart from its doctrinal teaching, deserves a high place in our prose literature.

In Newman's doctrinal works, the _Via Media_, the _Grammar of Assent_, and in numerous controversial essays the student of literature will have little interest. Much more significant are his sermons, the unconscious reflection of a rare spiritual nature, of which Professor Shairp said: "His power shows itself clearly in the new and unlooked-for way in which he touched into life old truths, moral or spiritual.... And as he spoke, how the old truth became new! and how it came home with a meaning never felt before! He laid his finger how gently yet how powerfully on some inner place in the hearer's heart, and told him things about himself he had never known till then. Subtlest truths, which would have taken philosophers pages of circumlocution and big words to state, were dropped out by the way in a sentence or two of the most transparent Saxon." Of greater interest to the general reader are _The Idea of a University_, discourses delivered at Dublin, and his two works of fiction, _Loss and Gain_, treating of a man's conversion to Catholicism, and _Callista_, which is, in his own words, "an attempt to express the feelings and mutual relations of Christians and heathens in the middle of the third century." The latter is, in our judgment, the most readable and interesting of Newman's works. The character of Callista, a beautiful Greek sculptor of idols, is powerfully delineated; the style is clear and transparent as air, and the story of the heroine's conversion and death makes one of the most fascinating chapters in fiction, though it is not the story so much as the author's unconscious revelation of himself that charms us. It would be well to read this novel in connection with Kingsley's _Hypatia_, which attempts to reconstruct the life and ideals of the same period.

Newman's poems are not so well known as his prose, but the reader who examines the _Lyra Apostolica_ and _Verses on Various Occasions_ will find many short poems that stir a religious nature profoundly by their pure and lofty imagination; and future generations may pronounce one of these poems, "The Dream of Gerontius," to be Newman's most enduring work. This poem aims to reproduce the thoughts and feelings of a man whose soul is just quitting the body, and who is just beginning a new and greater life. Both in style and in thought "The Dream" is a powerful and original poem and is worthy of attention not only for itself but, as a modern critic suggests, "as a revelation of that high spiritual purpose which animated Newman's life from beginning to end."

Of Newman's style it is as difficult to write as it would be to describe the dress of a gentleman we had met, who was so perfectly dressed that we paid no attention to his clothes. His style is called transparent, because at first we are not conscious of his manner; and unobtrusive, because we never think of Newman himself, but only of the subject he is discussing. He is like the best French prose writers in expressing his thought with such naturalness and apparent ease that, without thinking of style, we receive exactly the impression which he means to convey. In his sermons and essays he is wonderfully simple and direct; in his controversial writings, gently ironical and satiric, and the satire is pervaded by a delicate humor; but when his feelings are aroused he speaks with poetic images and symbols, and his eloquence is like that of the Old Testament prophets. Like Ruskin's, his style is modeled largely on that of the Bible, but not even Ruskin equals him in the poetic beauty and melody of his sentences. On the whole he comes nearer than any other of his age to our ideal of a perfect prose writer.

OTHER ESSAYISTS OF THE VICTORIAN AGE. We have selected the above five essayists, Macaulay, Carlyle, Arnold, Newman, and Ruskin, as representative writers of the Victorian Age; but there are many others who well repay our study. Notable among these are John Addington Symonds, author of _The Renaissance in Italy_, undoubtedly his greatest work, and of many critical essays; Walter Pater, whose _Appreciations_ and numerous other works mark him as one of our best literary critics; and Leslie Stephen, famous for his work on the monumental _Dictionary of National Biography_, and for his _Hours in a Library_, a series of impartial and excellent criticisms, brightened by the play of an original and delightful humor.

Among the most famous writers of the age are the scientists, Lyell, Darwin, Huxley, Spencer, Tyndall, and Wallace,--a wonderful group of men whose works, though they hardly belong to our present study, have exercised an incalculable influence on our life and literature. Darwin's _Origin of Species_ (1859), which apparently established the theory of evolution, was an epoch-making book. It revolutionized not only our conceptions of natural history, but also our methods of thinking on all the problems of human society. Those who would read a summary of the greatest scientific discovery of the age will find it in Wallace's _Darwinism_,--a most interesting book, written by the man who claims, with Darwin, the honor of first announcing the principle of evolution. And, from a multitude of scientific works, we recommend also to the general reader Huxley's _Autobiography_ and his _Lay Sermons, Addresses, and Reviews_, partly because they are excellent expressions of the spirit and methods of science, and partly because Huxley as a writer is perhaps the clearest and the most readable of the scientists.

THE SPIRIT OF MODERN LITERATURE. As we reflect on the varied work of the Victorian writers, three marked characteristics invite our attention. First, our great literary men, no less than our great scientists, have made truth the supreme object of human endeavor. All these eager poets, novelists, and essayists, questing over so many different ways, are equally intent on discovering the truth of life. Men as far apart as Darwin and Newman are strangely alike in spirit, one seeking truth in the natural, the other in the spiritual history of the race. Second, literature has become the mirror of truth; and the first requirement of every serious novel or essay is to be true to the life or the facts which it represents. Third, literature has become animated by a definite moral purpose. It is not enough for the Victorian writers to create or attempt an artistic work for its own sake; the work must have a definite lesson for humanity. The poets are not only singers, but leaders; they hold up an ideal, and they compel men to recognize and follow it. The novelists tell a story which pictures human life, and at the same time call us to the work Of social reform, or drive home a moral lesson. The essayists are nearly all prophets or teachers, and use literature as the chief instrument of progress and education. Among them all we find comparatively little of the exuberant fancy, the romantic ardor, and the boyish gladness of the Elizabethans. They write books not primarily to delight the artistic sense, but to give bread to the hungry and water to the thirsty in soul. Milton's famous sentence, "A good book is the precious life-blood of a master spirit," might be written across the whole Victorian era. We are still too near these writers to judge how far their work suffers artistically from their practical purpose; but this much is certain,--that whether or not they created immortal works, their books have made the present world a better and a happier place to live in. And that is perhaps the best that can be said of the work of any artist or artisan.

SUMMARY OF THE VICTORIAN AGE. The year 1830 is generally placed at the beginning of this period, but its limits are very indefinite. In general we may think of it as covering the reign of Victoria (1837-1901). Historically the age is remarkable for the growth of democracy following the Reform Bill of 1832; for the spread of education among all classes; for the rapid development of the arts and sciences; for important mechanical inventions; and for the enormous extension of the bounds of human knowledge by the discoveries of science.

At the accession of Victoria the romantic movement had spent its force; Wordsworth had written his best work; the other romantic poets, Coleridge, Shelley, Keats, and Byron, had passed away; and for a time no new development was apparent in English poetry. Though the Victorian Age produced two great poets, Tennyson and Browning, the age, as a whole, is remarkable for the variety and excellence of its prose. A study of all the great writers of the period reveals four general characteristics: (1) Literature in this Age has come very close to daily life, reflecting its practical problems and interests, and is a powerful instrument of human progress. (2) The tendency of literature is strongly ethical; all the great poets, novelists, and essayists of the age are moral teachers. (3) Science in this age exercises an incalculable influence. On the one hand it emphasizes truth as the sole object of human endeavor; it has established the principle of law throughout the universe; and it has given us an entirely new view of life, as summed up in the word "evolution," that is, the principle of growth or development from simple to complex forms. On the other hand, its first effect seems to be to discourage works of the imagination. Though the age produced an incredible number of books, very few of them belong among the great creative works of literature. (4) Though the age is generally characterized as practical and materialistic, it is significant that nearly all the writers whom the nation delights to honor vigorously attack materialism, and exalt a purely ideal conception of life. On the whole, we are inclined to call this an idealistic age fundamentally, since love, truth, justice, brotherhood--all great ideals--are emphasized as the chief ends of life, not only by its poets but also by its novelists and essayists.

In our study we have considered: (1) The Poets; the life and works of Tennyson and Browning; and the chief characteristics of the minor poets, Elizabeth Barrett (Mrs. Browning), Rossetti, Morris, and Swinburne. (2) The Novelists; the life and works of Dickens, Thackeray, and George Eliot; and the chief works of Charles Reade, Anthony Trollope, Charlotte Brontë, Bulwer-Lytton, Kingsley, Mrs. Gaskell, Blackmore, George Meredith, Hardy, and Stevenson. (3) The Essayists; the life and works of Macaulay, Matthew Arnold, Carlyle, Newman, and Ruskin. These were selected, from among many essayists and miscellaneous writers, as most typical of the Victorian Age. The great scientists, like Lyell, Darwin, Huxley, Wallace, Tyndall, and Spencer, hardly belong to our study of literature, though their works are of vast importance; and we omit the works of living writers who belong to the present rather than to the past century.

SELECTIONS FOR READING. Manly's English Poetry and Manly's English Prose (Ginn and Company) contain excellent selections from all authors of this period. Many other collections, like Ward's English Poets, Garnett's English Prose from Elizabeth to Victoria, Page's British Poets of the Nineteenth Century, and Stedman's A Victorian Anthology, may be used to advantage. All important works may be found in the convenient and inexpensive school editions given below. (For full titles and publishers see the General Bibliography.)

_Tennyson_. Short poems, and selections from Idylls of the King, In Memoriam, Enoch Arden, and The Princess. These are found in various school editions, Standard English Classics, Pocket Classics, Riverside Literature Series, etc. Poems by Tennyson, selected and edited with notes by Henry Van Dyke (Athenaeum Press Series), is an excellent little volume for beginners.

_Browning_. Selections, edited by R.M. Lovett, in Standard English Classics. Other school editions in Everyman's Library, Belles Lettres Series, etc.

_Elizabeth Barrett Browning_. Selections, edited by Elizabeth Lee, in Standard English Classics. Selections also in Pocket Classics, etc.

_Matthew Arnold_. Sohrab and Rustum, edited by Trent and Brewster, in Standard English Classics. The same poem in Riverside Literature Series, etc. Selections in Golden Treasury Series, etc. Poems, students' edition (Crowell). Essays in Everyman's Library, etc. Prose selections (Holt, Allyn & Bacon, etc.).

_Dickens_. Tale of Two Cities, edited by J.W. Linn, in Standard English Classics. A Christmas Carol, David Copperfield, and Pickwick Papers. Various good school editions of these novels in Everyman's Library, etc.

_Thackeray_. Henry Esmond, edited by H.B. Moore, in Standard English Classics. The same novel, in Everyman's Library, Pocket Classics, etc.

_George Eliot_. Silas Marner, edited by R. Adelaide Witham, in Standard English Classics. The same novel, in Pocket Classics, etc.

_Carlyle_. Essay on Burns, edited by C.L. Hanson, in Standard English Classics, and Heroes and Hero Worship, edited by A. MacMechan, in Athenaeum Press Series. Selections, edited by H.W. Boynton (Allyn & Bacon). Various other inexpensive editions, in Pocket Classics, Eclectic English Classics, etc.

_Ruskin_. Sesame and Lilies, edited by Lois G. Hufford, in Standard English Classics. Other editions in Riverside Literature, Everyman's Library, etc. Selected Essays and Letters, edited by Hufford, in Standard English Classics. Selections, edited by Vida D. Scudder (Sibley); edited by C.B. Tinker, in Riverside Literature.

_Macaulay_. Essays on Addison and Milton, edited by H.A. Smith, in Standard English Classics. Same essays, in Cassell's National Library, Riverside Literature, etc. Lays of Ancient Rome, in Standard English Classics, Pocket Classics, etc.

_Newman_. Selections, with introduction by L.E. Gates (Holt); Selections from prose and poetry, in Riverside Literature. The Idea of a University, in Manly's English Prose.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. (note. For full titles and publishers of general reference books, see General Bibliography.) _HISTORY. Text-book_, Montgomery, pp. 357-383; Cheyney, pp. 632-643. _General Works_. Gardiner, and Traill. _Special Works_. McCarthy's History of Our Own Times; Bright's History of England, vols. 4-5; Lee's Queen Victoria; Bryce's Studies in Contemporary Biography.

_LITERATURE. General Works_. Garnett and Gosse, Taine. _Special Works_. Harrison's Early Victorian Literature; Saintsbury's A History of Nineteenth Century Literature; Walker's The Age of Tennyson; same author's The Greater Victorian Poets; Morley's Literature of the Age of Victoria; Stedman's Victorian Poets; Mrs. Oliphant's Literary History of England in the Nineteenth Century; Beers's English Romanticism in the Nineteenth Century; Dowden's Victorian Literature, in Transcripts and Studies; Brownell's Victorian Prose Masters.

_Tennyson_. Texts: Cabinet edition (London, 1897) is the standard. Various good editions, Globe, Cambridge Poets, etc. Selections in Athenaeum Press (Ginn and Company).

Life: Alfred Lord Tennyson, a Memoir by his son, is the standard; by Lyall (in English Men of Letters); by Horton; by Waugh. See also Anne T. Ritchie's Tennyson and His Friends; Napier's The Homes and Haunts of Tennyson; Rawnsley's Memories of the Tennysons.

Criticism: Brooke's Tennyson, his Art and his Relation to Modern Life; A. Lang's Alfred Tennyson; Van Dyke's The Poetry of Tennyson; Sneath's The Mind of Tennyson; Gwynn's A Critical Study of Tennyson's Works; Luce's Handbook to Tennyson's Works; Dixon's A Tennyson Primer; Masterman's Tennyson as a Religious Teacher; Collins's The Early Poems of Tennyson; Macallum's Tennyson's Idylls of the King and the Arthurian Story; Bradley's Commentary on In Memoriam; Bagehot's Literary Studies, vol. 2; Brightwell's Concordance; Shepherd's Bibliography.

Essays: By F. Harrison, in Tennyson, Ruskin, Mill, and Other Literary Estimates; by Stedman, in Victorian Poets; by Hutton, in Literary Essays; by Dowden, in Studies in Literature; by Gates, in Studies and Appreciations; by Forster, in Great Teachers; by Forman, in Our Living Poets. See also Myers's Science and a Future Life.

_Browning_. Texts: Cambridge and Globe editions, etc. Various editions of selections. (See Selections for Reading, above.)

Life: by W. Sharp (Great Writers); by Chesterton (English Men of Letters); Life and Letters, by Mrs. Sutherland Orr; by Waugh, in Westminster Biographies (Small & Maynard).

Criticism: Symons's An Introduction to the Study of Browning; same title, by Corson; Mrs. Orr's Handbook to the Works of Browning; Nettleship's Robert Browning; Brooke's The Poetry of Robert Browning; Cooke's Browning Guide Book; Revell's Browning's Criticism of Life; Berdoe's Browning's Message to his Times; Berdoe's Browning Cyclopedia.

Essays: by Hutton, Stedman, Dowden, Forster (for titles, see Tennyson, above); by Jacobs, in Literary Studies; by Chapman, in Emerson and Other Essays; by Cooke, in Poets and Problems; by Birrell, in Obiter Dicta.

_Elizabeth Barrett Browning_. Texts: Globe and Cambridge editions, etc.; various editions of selections. Life: by J. H. Ingram; see also Bayne's Two Great Englishmen. Kenyon's Letters of E. B. Browning.

Criticism: Essays, by Stedman, in Victorian Poets; by Benson, in Essays.

_Matthew Arnold_. Texts: Poems, Globe edition, etc. See Selections for Reading, above. Life: by Russell; by Saintsbury; by Paul (English Men of Letters); Letters, by Russell.

Criticism: Essays by Woodberry, in Makers of Literature; by Gates, in Three Studies in Literature; by Hutton, in Modern Guides of English Thought; by Brownell, in Victorian Prose Masters; by F. Harrison (see Tennyson, above).

_Dickens_. Texts: numerous good editions of novels. Life: by J. Forster; by Marzials (Great Writers); by Ward (English Men of Letters); Langton's The Childhood and Youth of Dickens.

Criticism: Gissing's Charles Dickens; Chesterton's Charles Dickens; Kitten's The Novels of Charles Dickens; Fitzgerald's The History of Pickwick. Essays: by F. Harrison (see above); by Bagehot, in Literary Studies; by Lilly, in Four English Humorists; by A. Lang, in Gadshill edition of Dickens's works.

_Thackeray_. Texts: numerous good editions of novels and essays. Life: by Melville; by Merivale and Marzials (Great Writers); by A. Trollope (English Men of Letters); by L. Stephen, in Dictionary of National Biography. See also Crowe's Homes and Haunts of Thackeray; Wilson's Thackeray in the United States.

Criticism: Essays, by Lilly, in Four English Humorists; by Harrison, in Studies in Early Victorian Literature; by Scudder, in Social Ideals in English Letters; by Brownell, in Victorian Prose Masters.

_George Eliot_. Texts: numerous editions. Life: by L. Stephen (English Men of Letters); by O. Browning (Great Writers); by her husband, J.W. Cross.

Criticism: Cooke's George Eliot, a Critical Study of her Life and Writings. Essays: by J. Jacobs, in Literary Studies; by H. James, in Partial Portraits; by Dowden, in Studies in Literature; by Hutton, Harrison, Brownell, Lilly (see above). See also Parkinson's Scenes from the George Eliot Country.

_Carlyle_. Texts: various editions of works. Heroes, and Sartor Resartus, in Athenaeum Press (Ginn and Company); Sartor, and Past and Present, 1 vol. (Harper); Critical and Miscellaneous Essays, 1 vol. (Appleton); Letters and Reminiscences, edited by C. E. Norton, 6 vols. (Macmillan).

Life: by Garnett (Great Writers); by Nichol (English Men of Letters); by Froude, 2 vols. (very full, but not trustworthy). See also Carlyle's Reminiscences and Correspondence, and Craig's The Making of Carlyle.

Criticism: Masson's Carlyle Personally and in his Writings. Essays: by Lowell, in My Study Windows; by Harrison, Brownell, Hutton, Lilly (see above).

_Ruskin_. Texts: Brantwood edition, edited by C.E. Norton; various editions of separate works. Life: by Harrison (English Men of Letters); by Collingwood, 2 vols.; see also Ruskin's Praeterita.

Criticism: Mather's Ruskin, his Life and Teaching; Cooke's Studies in Ruskin; Waldstein's The Work of John Ruskin; Hobson's John Ruskin, Social Reformer; Mrs. Meynell's John Ruskin; Sizeranne's Ruskin and the Religion of Beauty, translated from the French; White's Principles of Art; W. M. Rossetti's Ruskin, Rossetti, and Pre-Raphaelitism.

Essays: by Robertson, in Modern Humanists; by Saintsbury, in Corrected Impressions; by Brownell, Harrison, Forster (see above).

_Macaulay_. Texts: Complete works, edited by his sister, Lady Trevelyan (London, 1866); various editions of separate works (see Selections for Reading, above). Life: Life and Letters, by Trevelyan, 2 vols.; by Morrison (English Men of Letters).

Criticism: Essays, by Bagehot, in Literary Studies; by L. Stephen, in Hours in a Library; by Saintsbury, in Corrected Impressions; by Harrison, in Studies in Early Victorian Literature; by Matthew Arnold.

_Newman_. Texts: Uniform edition of important works (London, 1868-1881); Apologia (Longmans); Selections (Holt, Riverside Literature, etc.). Life: Jennings's Cardinal Newman; Button's Cardinal Newman; Early Life, by F. Newman; by Waller and Barrow, in Westminster Biographies. See also Church's The Oxford Movement; Fitzgerald's Fifty Years of Catholic Life and Progress.

Criticism: Essays, by Donaldson, in Five Great Oxford Leaders; by Church, in Occasional Papers, vol. 2; by Gates, in Three Studies in Literature; by Jacobs, in Literary Studies; by Hutton, in Modern Guides of English Thought; by Lilly, in Essays and Speeches; by Shairp, in Studies in Poetry and Philosophy. See also Button's Cardinal Newman.

_Rossetti_. Works, 2 vols. (London, 1901). Selections, in Golden Treasury Series. Life: by Knight (Great Writers); by Sharp; Hall Caine's Recollections of Dante Gabriel Rossetti; Gary's The Rossettis; Marillier's Rossetti; Wood's Rossetti and the Pre-Raphaelite Movement; W.M. Hunt's Pre-Raphaelitism and the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.

Criticism: Tirebuck's Rossetti, his Work and Influence. Essays: by Swinburne, in Essays and Studies; by Forman, in Our Living Poets; by Pater, in Ward's English Poets; by F.W.H. Myers, in Essays Modern.

_Morris_. Texts: Story of the Glittering Plain, House of the Wolfings, etc. (Reeves & Turner); Early Romances, in Everyman's Library; Sigurd the Volsung, in Camelot Series; Socialistic writings (Humboldt Publishing Co.). Life: by Mackail; by Cary; by Vallance.

Criticism: Essays, by Symons, in Studies in Two Literatures; by Dawson, in Makers of Modern English; by Saintsbury, in Corrected Impressions. See also Nordby's Influence of Old Norse Literature.

_Swinburne_. Texts: Complete works (Chatto and Windus); Poems and Ballads (Lovell); Selections (Rivington, Belles Lettres Series, etc.). Life: Wratislaw's Algernon Charles Swinburne, a Study.

Criticism: Essays, by Forman, Saintsbury (see above); by Lowell, in My Study Windows; see also Stedman's Victorian Poets.

_Charles Keade_. Texts: Cloister and the Hearth, in Everyman's Library; various editions of separate novels. Life: by C. Reade.

Criticism: Essay, by Swinburne, in Miscellanies.

_Anthony Trollope_. Texts: Royal edition of principal novels (Philadelphia, 1900); Barchester Towers, etc., in Everyman's Library. Life: Autobiography (Harper, 1883).

Criticism: H.T. Peck's Introduction to Royal edition, vol. 1. Essays: by H. James, in Partial Portraits; by Harrison, in Early Victorian Literature. See also Cross, The Development of the English Novel.

_Charlotte and Emily Brontë_. Texts: Works, Haworth edition, edited by Mrs. H. Ward (Harper); Complete works (Dent, 1893); Jane Eyre, Shirley, and Wuthering Heights, in Everyman's Library. Life of Charlotte Brontë: by Mrs. Gaskell; by Shorter; by Birrell (Great Writers). Life of Emily Brontë: by Robinson. See also Leyland's The Brontë Family.

Criticism: Essays, by L. Stephen, in Hours in a Library; by Gates, in Studies and Appreciations; by Harrison, in Early Victorian Literature; by G.B. Smith, in Poets and Novelists. See also Swinburne's A Note on Charlotte Brontë.

_Bulwer-Lytton_. Texts: Works, Knebsworth edition (Routledge); various editions of separate works; Last Days of Pompeii, etc., in Everyman's Library. Life: by his son, the Earl of Lytton; by Cooper; by Ten Brink.

Criticism: Essay, by W. Senior, in Essays in Fiction.

_Mrs. Gaskell_. Various editions of separate works; Cranford, in Standard English Classics, etc. Life: see Dictionary of National Biography. Criticism: see Saintsbury's Nineteenth-Century Literature.

_Kingsley_. Texts: Works, Chester edition; Hypatia, Westward Ho! etc., in Everyman's Library. Life: Letters and Memories, by his wife; by Kaufmann.

Criticism: Essays, by Harrison, in Early Victorian Literature; by L. Stephen, in Hours in a Library.

_Stevenson_. Texts: Works (Scribner); Treasure Island, in Everyman's Library; Master of Ballantrae, in Pocket Classics; Letters, edited by Colvin (Scribner). Life: by Balfour; by Baildon; by Black; by Cornford. See also Simpson's Edinburgh Days; Eraser's In Stevenson's Samoa; Osborne and Strong's Memories of Vailima.

Criticism: Raleigh's Stevenson; Alice Brown's Stevenson. Essays: by H. James, in Partial Portraits; by Chapman, in Emerson and Other Essays.

_Hardy_. Texts: Works (Harper). Criticism: Macdonnell's Thomas Hardy; Johnson's The Art of Thomas Hardy. See also Windle's The Wessex of Thomas Hardy; and Dawson's Makers of English Fiction.

_George Meredith_. Texts: Novels and Selected Poems (Scribner).

Criticism: Le Gallienne's George Meredith; Hannah Lynch's George Meredith. Essays: by Henley, in Views and Reviews; by Brownell, in Victorian Prose Masters; by Monkhouse, in Books and Plays. See also Bailey's The Novels of George Meredith; Curie's Aspects of George Meredith; and Cross's The Development of the English Novel.

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS. (NOTE. The best questions are those which are based upon the books, essays, and poems read by the pupil. As the works chosen for special study vary greatly with different teachers and classes, we insert here only a few questions of general interest.) 1. What are the chief characteristics of Victorian literature? Name the chief writers of the period in prose and poetry. What books of this period are, in your judgment, worthy to be placed among the great works of literature? What effect did the discoveries of science have upon the literature of the age? What poet reflects the new conception of law and evolution? What historical conditions account for the fact that most of the Victorian writers are ethical teachers?

2. _Tennyson_. Give a brief sketch of Tennyson's life, and name his chief works. Why is he, like Chaucer, a national poet? Is your pleasure in reading Tennyson due chiefly to the thought or the melody of expression? Note this figure in "The Lotos Eaters":

Music that gentlier on the spirit lies
Than tired eyelids upon tired eyes.

What does this suggest concerning Tennyson's figures of speech in general? Compare "Locksley Hall" with "Locksley Hall Sixty Years After." What differences do you find in thought, in workmanship, and in poetic enthusiasm? What is Tennyson's idea of faith and immortality as expressed in _In Memoriam_?

3. _Browning_. In what respects is Browning like Shakespeare? What is meant by the optimism of his poetry? Can you explain why many thoughtful persons prefer him to Tennyson? What is Browning's creed as expressed in "Rabbi Ben Ezra"? Read "Fra Lippo Lippi" or "Andrea del Sarto," and tell what is meant by a dramatic monologue. In "Andrea" what is meant by the lines,

Ah, but a man's reach should exceed his grasp,
Or what's a heaven for?

4. _Dickens_. What experiences in Dickens's life are reflected in his novels? What are his favorite types of character? What is meant by the exaggeration of Dickens? What was the serious purpose of his novels? Make a brief analysis of the _Tale of Two Cities_, having in mind the plot, the characters, and the style, as compared with Dickens's other novels.

5. _Thackeray_. Read _Henry Esmond_ and explain Thackeray's realism. What is there remarkable in the style of this novel? Compare it with _Ivanhoe_ as a historical novel. What is the general character of Thackeray's satire? What are the chief characteristics of his novels? Describe briefly the works which show his great skill as a critical writer.

6. _George Eliot_. Read _Silas Marner_ and make a brief analysis, having in mind the plot, the characters, the style, and the ethical teaching of the novel. Is the moral teaching of George Eliot convincing; that is, does it suggest itself from the story, or is it added for effect? What is the general impression left by her books? How do her characters compare with those of Dickens and Thackeray?

7. _Carlyle_. Why is Carlyle called a prophet, and why a censor? Read the _Essay on Burns_ and make an analysis, having in mind the style, the idea of criticism, and the picture which this essay presents of the Scotch poet. Is Carlyle chiefly interested in Burns or in his poetry? Does he show any marked appreciation of Burns's power as a lyric poet? What is Carlyle's idea of history as shown in _Heroes and Hero Worship_? What experiences of his own life are reflected in _Sartor Resartus_? What was Carlyle's message to his age? What is meant by a "Carlylese" style?

8. _Macaulay_. In what respects is Macaulay typical of his age? Compare his view of life with that of Carlyle. Read one of the essays, on Milton or Addison, and make an analysis, having in mind the style, the interest, and the accuracy of the essay. What useful purpose does Macaulay's historical knowledge serve in writing his literary essays? What is the general character of Macaulay's _History of England_? Rqad a chapter from Macaulay's _History_, another from Carlyle's _French Revolution_, and compare the two. How does each writer regard history and historical writing? What differences do you note in their methods? What are the best qualities of each work? Why are both unreliable?

9. _Arnold_. What elements of Victorian life are reflected in Arnold's poetry? How do you account for the coldness and sadness of his verses? Read _Sohrab and Rustum_ and write an account of it, having in mind the story, Arnold's use of his material, the style, and the classic elements in the poem. How does it compare in melody with the blank verse of Milton or Tennyson? What marked contrasts do you find between the poetry and the prose of Arnold?

10. _Ruskin_. In what respects is Ruskin "the prophet of modern society"? Read the first two lectures in _Sesame and Lilies_ and then give Ruskin's views of labor, wealth, books, education, woman's sphere, and human society. How does he regard the commercialism of his age? What elements of style do you find in these lectures? Give the chief resemblances and differences between Carlyle and Ruskin.

11. Read Mrs. Gaskell's _Cranford_ and describe it, having in mind the style, the interest, and the characters of the story. How does it compare, as a picture of country life, with George Eliot's novels?

12. Read Blackmore's _Lorna Doone_ and describe it (as in the question above). What are the romantic elements in the story? How does it compare with Scott's romances in style, in plot, in interest, and in truthfulness to life?

CHRONOLOGY
_Nineteenth Century_
============================================================================
HISTORY | LITERATURE
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
| 1825. Macaulay's Essay on Milton
| 1826. Mrs. Browning's early poems
1830. William IV | 1830. Tennyson's Poems, Chiefly Lyrical
1832. Reform Bill |
| 1833. Browning's Pauline
| 1833-1834. Carlyle's Sartor Resartus
| 1836-1865. Dickens's novels
1837. Victoria (_d_. 1901) | 1837. Carlyle's French Revolution
| 1843. Macaulay's essays
1844. Morse's Telegraph | 1843-1860. Ruskin's Modern Painters
1846. Repeal of Corn Laws |
| 1847-1859. Thackeray's important novels
| 1847-1857. Charlotte Brontë's novels
| 1848-1861. Macaulay's History
| 1853. Kingsley's Hypatia
| Mrs. Gaskell's Cranford
1854. Crimean War |
| 1853-1855. Matthew Arnold's poems
| 1856. Mrs. Browning's Aurora Leigh
1857. Indian Mutiny |
| 1858-1876. George Eliot's novels
| 1859-1888. Tennyson's Idylls of the King
| 1859. Darwin's Origin of Species
| 1864. Newman's Apologia
| Tennyson's Enoch Arden
| 1865-1888. Arnold's Essays in Criticism
1867. Dominion of Canada |
established | 1868. Browning's Ring and the Book
| 1869. Blackmore's Lorna Doone
1870. Government schools |
established |
| 1879. Meredith's The Egoist
1880. Gladstone prime minister |
| 1883. Stevenson's Treasure Island
| 1885. Ruskin's Praeterita begun
1887. Queen's jubilee |
| 1889. Browning's last work, Asolando
| 1892. Death of Tennyson
1901. Edward VII |
============================================================================

* * * * *

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Every chapter in this book includes two lists, one of selected readings, the other of special works treating of the history and literature of the period under consideration. The following lists include the books most useful for general reference work and for supplementary reading.

A knowledge of history is of great advantage in the study of literature. In each of the preceding chapters we have given a brief summary of historical events and social conditions, but the student should do more than simply read these summaries. He should review rapidly the whole history of each period by means of a good textbook. Montgomery's _English History_ and Cheyney's _Short History of England_ are recommended, but any other reliable text-book will serve the purpose.

For literary texts and selections for reading a few general collections, such as are given below, are useful; but the important works of each author may now be obtained in excellent and inexpensive school editions. At the beginning of the course the teacher, or the home student, should write for the latest catalogue of such publications as the Standard English Classics, Everyman's Library, etc., which offer a very wide range of reading at small cost. Nearly every publishing house issues a series of good English books for school use, and the list is constantly increasing.

_HISTORY_

_Text-books:_ Montgomery's English History; Cheyney's Short History of England (Ginn and Company).

_General Works:_ Green's Short History of the English People, 1 vol., or A History of the English People, 4 vols. (American Book Co.).

Traill's Social England, 6 vols. (Putnam).

Bright's History, of England, 5 vols., and Gardiner's Students' History of England (Longmans).

Gibbins's Industrial History of England, and Mitchell's English Lands, Letters, and Kings, 5 vols. (Scribner).

Oxford Manuals of English History, Handbooks of English History, and Kendall's Source Book of English History (Macmillan).

Lingard's History of England until 1688 (revised, 10 vols., 1855) is the standard Catholic history.

Other histories of England are by Knight, Froude, Macaulay, etc. Special works on the history of each period are recommended in the preceding chapters.

_HISTORY OF LITERATURE_

Jusserand's Literary History of the English People, 2 vols. (Putnam).

Ten Brink's Early English Literature, 3 vols. (Holt).

Courthope's History of English Poetry (Macmillan).

The Cambridge History of English Literature, many vols., incomplete (Putnam).

Handbooks of English Literature, 9 vols. (Macmillan).

Garnett and Gosse's Illustrated History of English Literature, 4 vols. (Macmillan).

Morley's English Writers, 11 vols. (Cassell), extends through Elizabethan literature. It is rather complex and not up to date, but has many quotations from authors studied.

Taine's English Literature (many editions), is brilliant and interesting, but unreliable.

_LITERARY CRITICISM_

Lowell's Literary Essays.

Hazlitt's Lectures on the English Poets.

Mackail's The Springs of Helicon (a study of English poetry from Chaucer to Milton).

Dowden's Studies in Literature, and Dowden's Transcripts and Studies.

Minto's Characteristics of English Poets.

Matthew Arnold's Essays in Criticism.

Stevenson's Familiar Studies in Men and Books.

Leslie Stephen's Hours in a Library.

Birrell's Obiter Dicta.

Hales's Folia Litteraria.

Pater's Appreciations.

NOTE. Special works on criticism, the drama, the novel, etc., will be found in the Bibliographies on pp. 9, 181, etc.

_TEXTS AND HELPS_ (inexpensive school editions).

Standard English Classics, and Athenaeum Press Series (Ginn and Company).

Everyman's Library (Dutton).

Pocket Classics, Golden Treasury Series, etc. (Macmillan).

Belles Lettres Series (Heath).

English Readings Series (Holt).

Riverside Literature Series (Houghton, Mifflin).

Canterbury Classics (Rand, McNally).

Academy Classics (Allyn & Bacon).

Cambridge Literature Series (Sanborn).

Silver Series (Silver, Burdett).

Student's Series (Sibley).

Lakeside Classics (Ainsworth).

Lake English Classics (Scott, Foresman).

Maynard's English Classics (Merrill).

Eclectic English Classics (American Book Co.).

Caxton Classics (Scribner).

The King's Classics (Luce).

The World's Classics (Clarendon Press).

Little Masterpieces Series (Doubleday, Page).

Arber's English Reprints (Macmillan).

New Mediaeval Library (Duffield).

Arthurian Romances Series (Nutt).

Morley's Universal Library (Routledge).

Cassell's National Library (Cassell).

Bohn Libraries (Macmillan).

Temple Dramatists (Macmillan).

Mermaid Series of English Dramatists (Scribner).

NOTE. We have included in the above list all the editions of which we have any personal knowledge, but there are doubtless others that have escaped attention.

* * * * *

Biography

Dictionary of National Biography, 63 vols. (Macmillan), is the standard.

English Men of Letters Series (Macmillan).

Great Writers Series (Scribner).

Beacon Biographies (Houghton, Mifflin).

Westminster Biographies (Small, Maynard).

Hinchman and Gummere's Lives of Great English Writers (Houghton, Mifflin) is a good single volume, containing thirty-eight biographies.

NOTE. For the best biographies of individual writers, see the Bibliographies at the ends of the preceding chapters.

_SELECTIONS_

Manly's English Poetry and Manly's English Prose (Ginn and Company) are the best single-volume collections, covering the whole field of English literature.

Pancoast's Standard English Poetry, and Pancoast's Standard English Prose (Holt).

Oxford Book of English Verse, and Oxford Treasury of English Literature, 3 vols. (Clarendon Press).

Page's British Poets of the Nineteenth Century (Sanborn).

Stedman's Victorian Anthology (Houghton, Mifflin).

Ward's English Poets, 4 vols.; Craik's English Prose Selections, 5 vols.; Chambers's Encyclopedia of English Literature, etc.

_MISCELLANEOUS_

The Classic Myths in English Literature (Ginn and Company).

Adams's Dictionary of English Literature.

Ryland's Chronological Outlines of English Literature.

Brewer's Reader's Handbook.

Botta's Handbook of Universal Literature.

Ploetz's Epitome of Universal History.

Hutton's Literary Landmarks of London.

Heydrick's How to Study Literature.

For works on the English language see Bibliography of the Norman period, p. 65.

* * * * *

INDEX

KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

[=a], as in fate; [)a], as in fat; ä, as in arm; [a:], as in all; [a.], as in what; â, as in care

[=e], as in mete; [)e], as in met; ê, as in there

[=i], as in ice; [)i], as in it; ï, as in machine

[=o], as in old; [)o], as in not; [o:], as in move; [.o], as in son; ô, as in horse; [=oo] as in food; [)oo], as in foot

[=u], as in use; [)u], as in up; û, as in fur; [:u], as in rule; [.u], as in pull

[=y], as in fly; [)y], as in baby

c, as in call; ç, as in mice; ch, as in child; [-c]h, as in school

g, as in go; [.g], as in cage

s, as in saw; [s=], as in is

th, as in thin; th, as in then

x, as in vex; [x=], as in exact.

NOTE. Titles of books, poems, essays, etc., are in _italics_.

_Absalom and Achitophel_ ([=a]-chit'o-fel) _Abt Vogler_ (äpt v[=o]g'ler) Actors, in early plays; Elizabethan Addison; life; works; hymns; influence; style _Adonais_ (ad-[=o]-n[=a]'is) Aesc (esk) Aidan, St. ([=i]'dan) _Aids to Reflection_ _Alastor_ ([)a]-l[)a]s-tôr) _Alchemist, The_ _Alexander's Feast_ Alfred, King; life and times; works _All for Love_ _Alysoun_, or Alisoun (äl'[)y]-sown or äl'[)y]-zoon), old form of Alice _Amelia_ _American Taxation_, Burke's speech on _An Epistle_ _Anatomy of Melancholy_ _Ancren Riwle_ (angk'ren rol) _Andrea del Sarto_ (än-dr[=a]'yä del sär't[=o]) _Andreas_ Angeln Angles, the Anglo-Norman Period; literature; ballads; lyrics; summary; selections for reading; bibliography; questions on; chronology _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ Anglo-Saxon Period; early poetry; springs of poetry; language; Christian writers; source books; summary; selections for reading; bibliography; questions on; chronology Anglo-Saxons; the name; life; language; literature, _see_ Anglo-Saxon Period. _Annus Mirabilis_ Anselm _Apologia_, Newman's _Apologie for Poetrie_ _Arcadia_ _Areopagitica_ ([)a]r'=[=e]-[)o]p-[)a]-j[)i]t'[)i]-cä) Arnold, Matthew; life; poetry; prose works; characteristics Art, definition of Arthurian romances Artistic period of drama Artistic quality of literature Ascham, Roger Assonance _Astraea Redux_ ([)a]s-tr[=e]'ä r[=e]'duks) _Astrophel and Stella_ ([)a]s'tr[=o]-fel) _Atalanta in Calydon_ ([)a]t-[)a]-l[)a]n'tä, k[)a]l'[)i]-d[)o]n) Augustan Age, meaning. _See_ Eighteenth-century literature _Aurora Leigh_ ([a:]-r[=o]'rä l[=e]) Austen, Jane; life; novels; Scott's criticism of

Bacon, Francis; life; works; place and influence Bacon, Roger Ballad, the _Ballads and Sonnets_ _Barchester Towers_ _Bard, The_ _Bard of the Dimbovitza_ (dim-bo-vitz'ä), Roumanian folk songs _Battle of Agincourt_ (English, [)a]j'in-k[=o]rt) _Battle of Brunanburh_ _Battle of the Books_ Baxter, Richard Beaumont, Francis (b[=o]'mont) _Becket_ Bede; his history; his account of Cædmon _Bells and Pomegranates_ Benefit of clergy _Beowulf_ (b[=a]'[=o]-wulf), the poem; history; poetical form; manuscript of Beowulf's Mount Bibliographies, study of literature; Anglo-Saxon Period; Norman; Chaucer; Revival of Learning; Elizabethan; Puritan; Restoration; Eighteenth century; Romanticism; Victorian; general _Bickerstaff Almanac_ _Biographia Literaria_ Blackmore, Richard Blake, William; life; works Blank verse _Blessed Damozel_ _Blot in the 'Scutcheon, A_ Boethius (b[=o]-[=e]'thi-us) Boileau (bwa-l[=o]'), French critic _Boke of the Duchesse_ _Book of Martyrs_ _Borough, The_ Boswell, James. _See also_ Johnson Boy actors Breton, Nicholas Brontë, Charlotte and Emily Browne, Thomas; works Browning, Mrs. Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Robert; life; works; obscurity of; as a teacher; compared with Shakespeare; with Tennyson; periods of work; soul studies; place and message _Brut_, Layamon's; quotation from Brutus, alleged founder of Britain Bulwer Lytton Bunyan, John; life; works; his style Burke, Edmund; life; works; analysis of his orations Burney, Fanny (Madame D'Arblay) Burns, Robert; life; poetry; Carlyle's essay on Burton, Robert Butler, Samuel Byron; life; works; compared with Scott

Cædmon (k[)a]d'mon), life; works; his _Paraphrase_; school of _Cain_ _Callista_ Calvert, Raisley Camden, William _Campaign, The_ Campion, Thomas _Canterbury Tales_; plan of; prologue; Dryden's criticism of Canynge's coffer Carew, Thomas Carlyle; life; works; style and message Carols, in early plays _Casa Guidi Windows_ (kä'sä gw[=e]'d[=e]) _Castell of Perseverance_ _Castle of Indolence_ _Cata_ Cavalier poets Caxton; specimen of printing Celtic legends _Chanson de Gestes_ _Chanson de Roland_ Chapman, George; his _Homer_; Keats's sonnet on Chatterton, Thomas Chaucer, how to read; life; works; form of his poetry; melody; compared with Spenser Chaucer, Age of: history; writers; summary; selections for reading; bibliography; questions on; chronology Chester plays Cheyne Row _Childe Harold_ _Child's Garden of Verses_ Chocilaicus (k[=o]-kil-[=a]'[=i]-cus) _Christ, The_, of Cynewulf _Christabel_ _Christian Year_ _Christmas Carol, A_ Christ's Hospital, London _Chronicle, The Anglo-Saxon_ Chronicle plays Chronicles, riming Chronology: Anglo-Saxon Period; Norman-French; Age of Chaucer; Revival of Learning; Elizabethan; Puritan; Restoration; Eighteenth Century; Romanticism; Victorian _Citizen of the World_ _Clarissa_ Classic and classicism Classic influence on the drama _Cloister and the Hearth_ Clough, Arthur Hugh _Cockaygne, Land of_ (k[=o]-k[=a]n') Coleridge; life; works; critiqal writings Collier, Jeremy Collins, William Comedy, definition; first English; of the court _Complete Angler, The_ _Comus, Masque of_ _Conciliation with America_, Burke's speech _Confessions of an English Opium-Eater_ _Consolations of Philosophy_ _Cotter's Saturday Night_ Couplet, the Court comedies Covenant of 1643 Coventry plays Cowley, Abraham Cowper, William; life; works Crabbe, George _Cranford_ Crashaw, Richard Critic, meaning of Critical writing, Dryden; Coleridge; in Age of Romanticism; in Victorian Age Criticism, Arnold's definition Cross, John Walter _Crown of Wild Olive_ _Culture and Anarchy_ _Curse of Jfehama_ (k[=e]-hä'mä) _Cursor Mundi_ Cycles, of plays; of romances Cynewulf (kin'[)e]-wulf), 36-38 _Cynthia's Revels_ (sin'thi-ä)

Daniel, Samuel _Daniel Deronda_ D'Arblay, Madame (Fanny Burney) Darwin and _Darwinism_ Death, Raleigh's apostrophe to _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ _Defense of Poesie_ _Defensio pro Populo Anglicano_ Defoe; life; works Dekker, Thomas _Delia_ Democracy and Romanticism; in Victorian Age _Dear's Lament_ De Quincey; life; works; style _De Sapientia Veterum_ _Deserted Village, The_ _Dethe of Blanche the Duchesse_ _Diary_, Evelyn's; Pepys's; selections from Dickens; life; works; general plan of novels; his characters; his public; limitations _Dictionary_, Johnson's _Discoverie of Guiana_ (g[=e]-ä'nä) _Divina Commedia_ (d[=e]-v[=e]'nä kom-m[=a]'d[=e]-ä) _Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde_ Domestic drama Donne, John his poetry Dotheboys Hall (do-the-boys) Drama, in Elizabethan Age origin, periods of, miracle and mystery plays, interludes, classical influence on, unities, the English, types of, decline of. _See also_ Elizabethan Age, Shakespeare, Jonson, Marlowe, etc. Dramatic unities Dramatists, methods of _See_ Shakespeare, Marlowe, etc. _Drapier's Letters_ Drayton, Michael _Dream of Gerontius, The_ (j[)e]-r[)o]n'sh[)i]-us) Dryden life, works, influence, criticism of _Canterbury Tales_ _Duchess of Malfi_ (mäl'f[=e]) _Dunciad, The_ (dun's[)i]-ad)

Ealhild, queen ([=e]-äl'hild) _Earthly Paradise_ _Eastward Ho_! Economic conditions, in Age of Romanticism Edgeworth, Maria _Edward II_ _Egoist, The_ Eighteenth-Century Literature: history of the period, literary characteristics, the Classic Age, Augustan writers, romantic revival, the first novelists, summary, selections for reading, bibliography, questions, chronology, _Eikon Basilike_ ([=i]'kon b[)a]-sil'[)i]-k[=e]) Eikonoklastes ([=i]-kon-[=o]-klas't[=e]z) _Elegy_, Gray's _Elene_ Elizabethan Age history, non-dramatic poets, first dramatists, Shakespeare's predecessors, Shakespeare, Shakespeare's contemporaries and successors, prose writers, summary, selections, bibliography, questions, chronology _Endymion_ _English Bards and Scotch Reviewers_ _English Humorists_ _English Idyls_ Eormanric ([=e]-or'man-ric) _Epicaene_ ([)e]p'[=i]-sen), or _The Silent Woman_ _Epithalamium_ ([)e]p-[)i]-th[=a]-l[=a]'m[)i]-um) Erasmus _Essay concerning Human Understanding_ _Essay of Dramatic Poesy_ _Essay on Burns_ _Essay on Criticism_ _Essay on Man_ _Essay on Milton_ _Essays_, Addison's, Bacon's _Essays in Criticism_ _Essays of Elia_ ([=e]'l[)i]-ä) _Ethics of the Dust_ _Euphues_ and euphuism ([=u]'f[=u]-[=e]z) Evans, Mary Ann. _See_ George Eliot Evelyn, John _Everlasting No_, and _Yea, The_ _Every Man in His Humour_ _Everyman_ _Excursion, The_ _Exeter Book_

Faber, Frederick _Fables_, Dryden's _Faery Queen_ _Fall of Princes_ _Faust_ (foust), _Faustus_ (fas'tus) _Ferrex and Porrex_ Fielding, novels, characteristics _Fight at Finnsburgh_ _Fingal_ (fing'gal) First-folio Shakespeare Fletcher, Giles Fletcher, John Ford, John Formalism _Four Georges, The_ Foxe, John _Fragments of Ancient Poetry_ French influence in Restoration literature French language in England French Revolution, influence of _French Revolution_, Carlyle's Fuller, Thomas

_Gammer Gurton's Needle_ Gaskell, Mrs. Elizabeth _Gawain and the Green Knight_ (gä'-w[=a]n) Gawain cycle of romances, 57 _Gebir_ (g[=a]-b[=e]r') Geoffrey of Monmouth (jef'r[)i]) George Eliot; life; works; characteristics; as a moralist Gest (_or_ jest) books _Geste of Robin Hood_ Gibbon, his history _Gifts of God, The_ Girondists (j[)i]-ron'dists) Gleemen, _or_ minstrels Goldsmith; life; works _Good Counsel_ _Gorboduc_ (gôr'b[=o]-duk) _Gorgeous Gallery_ Gower _Grace Abounding_ Gray, Thomas; life; works _Greatest English Poets_ Greene, Robert Gregory, Pope Grendel; story of; mother of Grubb Street _Gulliver's Travels_ _Gull's Hornbook_

Hakluyt, Richard (h[)a]k'loot) Hallam, his criticism of Bacon Hardy, Thomas Hastings, battle of Hathaway, Anne Hazlitt, William Hengist (h[)e]ng'gist) _Henry Esmond_ Herbert, George; life; poetry of _Hero and Leander_ _Heroes and Hero Worship_ Heroic couplet _Heroic Stanzas_ Herrick, Robert _Hesperides and Noble Numbers_ (h[)e]s-p[)e]r'[)i]-d[=e]z) Heywood, John Heywood, Thomas Hilda, abbess Hildgund (hild'gund) Historical novel _History, of England_, Macaulay's; _of Frederick the Great_, Carlyle's; _of Henry VIII_, Bacon's; _of the Reformation in Scotland_, Knox's; _of the Wortd_, Raleigh's Hnæf (n[e=]f) Hobbes, Thomas Holofernes (hol-[=o]-fer'n[=e]z) in _Judith_ _Holy and Profane State_ _Holy Living_ _Holy War_ _Homer_, Chapman's; Dryden's; Pope's; Cowper's Hooker, Richard Hooker, Thomas _Hours in a Library_ _Hours of Idleness_ _House of Fame_ _House of Life_ Hrothgar (r[)o]th'gar) _Hudibras_ (h[=u]'d[)i]-bras) Humanism _Humphrey Clinker_ Hunt, Leigh _Husband's Message_ Huxley, Hygelac (h[=i]-j[=e]'lak) Hymn book, first English _Hymn to Intellectual Beauty_ _Hymns_, Addison's; Cowper's _Hypatia_ (h[=i]-p[=a]'shia) _Hyperion_ (h[=i]-p[=e]'r[)i]-on)

Idealism of Victorian Age Ideals Idols, of Bacon _Idylls of the King_ _Il Penseroso_ (il pen-s[)e]-r[=o]'s[=o]) _Iliad_, Pope's translation; Chapman's; Dryden's _Imaginary Conversations_ _Impeachment of Warren Hastings_ _In Memoriam_ _Instauratio Magna_ (in-sta-r[=a]'shi-o) Interludes _Intimations of Immortality_

Jacobean poets _Jane Eyre_ (âr) Jeffrey, Francis Jest (_or_ gest) books _Jew of Malta_ _John Gilpin_ Johnson, Samuel; life; works; his conversations; Boswell's _Life of Johnson_ _Jonathan Wild_ Jonson, Ben; life; works _Joseph Andrews_ _Journal of the Plague Year_ _Journal to Stella_ _Judith_ _Juliana_

Keats; life; works; place in literature Kilmarnock Burns, the _Kings' Treasuries_ Kingsley, Charles _Knight's Tale, The_ Knox, John _Kubla Khan_ (kob'lä kän) Kyd, Thomas

_L'Allegro_ (läl-[=a]'gr[=o]) _Lady of the Lake_ Lake poets, the Lamb, Charles; life; works; style Lamb, Mary _Lamia_ (l[=a]'mi-ä) _Land of Cockaygne_ (k[)o]-kän') _Land of Dreams_ Landor, Walter Savage; life; works Langland, William Language, our first speech; dual character of; Teutonic origin _Last Days of Pompeii_ (pom-p[=a]'y[=e]) Law, Hooker's idea of _Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity,_ _Lay Sermons_ Layamon _Lays of Ancient Rome_ _Lead, Kindly Light_ _Lectures on Shakespeare_ _Legends of Goode Wimmen_ _Leviathan_ Lewes, George Henry _Liberty of Prophesying_ Life, compared to a sea voyage _Life of Johnson_ _Life of Savage_ Lindsay, David Literary Club, the Literary criticism. _See also_ Critical writing. _Literary Reminiscences_ Literature, definition; qualities; tests; object in studying; importance; Goethe's definition; spirit of modern _Literature and Dogma_ _Lives_, Plutarch's; Walton's _Lives of the Poets_ Locke, John Lockhart, John _Lorna Doone_ _Lost Leader, The_ Lovelace, Richard _Lycidas_ (lis'[)i]-das) Lydgate, John Lyly, John (lil'[)i]) _Lyra Apostolica_ _Lyrical Ballads_ Lytton, Edward Bulwer

Macaulay; life; works; characteristics Macpherson, James (mak-fer'son) Magazines, the modern _Maldon, The Battle of_ Malory _Mandeville's Travels_ _Manfred_ Marlowe; life; works; and Milton; and Shakespeare _Marmion_ Marvell, Andrew Massinger, Philip Matter of France, Rome, and Britain Melodrama _Memoirs of a Cavalier_ Meredith, George _Merlin and the Gleam_ Metaphysical poets Metrical romances Middleton, Thomas _Miles Gloriosus_ (m[=e]'les gl[=o]-r[)i]-[=o]'s[u:]s) _Mill on the Floss_ Milton; life; early or Horton poems; prose works; later poetry; and Shakespeare; Wordsworth's sonnet on _Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border_ Miracle plays _Mirror for Magistrates_ _Mr. Badman, Life and Death of_ Modern literature, spirit of _Modern Painters_ _Modest Proposal, A_ _Moral Epistles_ Moral period of the drama Moral purpose in Victorian literature Morality plays More, Hannah More, Thomas Morris, William _Morte d'Arthur_ (mort där'ther) _Mother Hubbard's Tale_ _Mulèykeh_ (m[=u]-l[=a]'k[)a]) _My Last Duchess_ _Mysteries of Udolpho, The_ ([=u]-dol'f[=o]) Mystery plays

_New Atalantis_ _Newcomes, The_ Newman, Cardinal; life; prose works; poems; style Newspapers, the first _Nibelungenlied_ (n[=e]'b[)e]-lung-en-l[=e]d) _Noah, Play of_ Norman Conquest Norman pageantry Norman period. _See_ Anglo-Norman Normans; union with Saxons; literature of North, Christopher (John Wilson) North, Thomas Northanger Abbey (north'[=a]n-jer) _Northern Antiquities_ Northumbrian literature; decline of; how saved Novel, meaning and history; precursors of; discovery of modern Novelists, the first English. _See_ Scott, Dickens, etc. _Novum Organum_ (or'g[)a]-num)

_Ode on the Morning of Christ's Nativity_ _Ode to Dejection_ _Ode to the West Wind_ Odes, Pindaric _Odyssey_, Pope's; Chapman's; Dryden's _Old Fortunatus_ (for-t[=u]-n[=a]'tus) _Oliver Cromwell_, Carlyle's _Oliver Twist_ _Origin of Species_ _Orlando Furioso_ (or-lan'd[=o] foo-r[=e]-[=o]'s[=o]) Orm, _or_ Orme; his _Ormulum_ Orosius ([=o]-r[=o]'si-us), his history Ossian (osh'ian) and Ossianic poems _Owl and Nightingale, The_ Oxford movement