Chapter I (1)

Besides the higher-grade deities, whose worship is enjoined and treated of in the Shastras and Puranas, numerous other minor deities, none of whom however find a place in the Scriptures, are worshipped by the lower classes. The principle underlying the whole fabric of the worship of these minor deities, who for the most part are the spirits of dead ancestors or heroes, has more in it of fear for their power of harming than of love for their divine nature. All untoward occurrences in domestic affairs, all bodily ailments and unusual natural phenomena, inexplicable to the simple mind of the villager, are attributed to the malignant action of these nameless and numerous spirits, hovering over and haunting the habitations of men. [1] The latent dread of receiving injuries from these evil spirits results in the worship by the low-class people of a number of devas and matas, as they are called. The poor villager, surrounded on all sides by hosts of hovering spirits, ready to take offence, or even to possess him, on the smallest pretext, requires some tangible protector to save him from such malign influences. He sets up and enshrines the spirit that he believes to have been beneficent to him, and so deserving of worship, and makes vows in its honour, often becoming himself the officiating priest. Each such deity has its own particular thanak (sthana) or locality. Thus there is hardly a village which has not a particular deity of its own. But in addition to this deity, others in far off villages are generally held in high esteem.

There are a number of ways in which these lower-class deities can be installed. Their images are made either of wood, stone, or metal. [2] No temples or shrines are erected in their honour. [3] An ordinary way of representing them is by drawing a trident, (trishul, a weapon peculiar to god Shiva) in red-lead and oil on an upright slab of stone on a public road, on any dead wall, on the confines of a village, or a mountain side, or a hill top, in an underground cellar, or on the bank of a stream. [4] Some people paint tridents in their own houses. The trishul, or trident, may also be made of wood, in which case its three points are plastered with red-lead and oil and covered with a thin coating of tin. [5] Sometimes carved wooden images in human shape, daubed over with red-lead and oil, are placed in a small wooden chariot or in a recess about a foot square. In some shrines two brooms or whisks of peacock's feathers are placed on either side of the image. [6] A slight difficulty overcome or a disease remedied by a vow in honour of any of these deities offers the occasion for an installation, and in all future emergencies of the same kind similar vows are observed. A mata installed to protect a fortress or a street is called a Gadheri Mata, and the worshippers of a fortress, or street, mother are known as Pothias. [7] At the time of installation flags are hoisted near the dedicated places. A troop of dancers with jingling anklets recite holy verses, while the bhuva, exorcist-priest, performs the ceremonies. Generally installations are frequent during the Navaratra [8] holidays when, if no human-shaped image is set up, a trishul at least is drawn in red-lead and oil. [9] Some of these evil deities require, at the time of their installation, the balidan (sacrifice or oblation) of a goat or a he-buffalo. Also, when a spirit is to be exorcised, the symbol of the familiar spirit of the exorcist is set up and invoked by him. After the installation, no systematic form of worship is followed in connection with them. [10] Regular forms are prescribed for the real gods of the Puranas. But upon these the low-caste people are not authorised to attend.

Still, in practice there are two forms of worship: ordinary or samanya-puja and special or vishesha-puja. [11] Ordinary worship is performed by bathing the deity--which can be done by sprinkling a few drops of water over it--burning a ghi, or an oil, lamp before it, and by offering a cocoanut and a pice or a half-anna piece. The last is taken away by the bhuva, or priest, who returns generally half or three-quarters of the cocoanut as a prasad of the god.

There are no particular days prescribed for such worship, but Sundays and Tuesdays would seem to be the most favoured. [12] On such days, offerings are made for the fulfilment of a vow recorded in order to avoid a badha, or impending evil. In the observance of this vow the devotee abstains from certain things, such as ghi, butter, milk, rice, juvar, betelnut till the period of the vow expires. When a vow is thus discharged, the devotee offers flowers, garlands, incense, food or drink according to the terms of his vow. The dhupa, i.e., burning incense of gugal (balsamodendron) is one of the commonest methods of worship.

The days for special worship are the Navaratra holidays, the second day of the bright half of Ashadh, the ninth month of the Hindu Calendar, [13] Divasa [14] or the fifteenth day of the dark half of Ashadh, and Kali-chaudas [15] or the fourteenth day of the dark half of Ashvin, the last month; besides other extraordinary occasions when a spirit has to be exorcised out of a sick person.

The Navaratra days are said to be the most auspicious days for devi-worship. People believing in the power of the matas observe fast on these days. Most of them at least fast on the eighth day of the Navaratra known as Mata-ashtami, taking only a light meal which consists of roots, as a rule, especially the suran (Amorphophallus campanulatus), and of dates and milk. [16] On the Navaratra days red-lead and oil are applied to the images of the devis, and a number of oblations, such as loaves, cooked rice, lapsi [17], vadan [18] and bakla [19] are offered. [20] The utmost ceremonial cleanliness is observed in the preparation of these viands. The corn is sifted, cleaned, ground or pounded, cooked, treated with frankincense, offered to the gods and lastly partaken of before sunset, and all these operations must be performed on the same day; for the offerings must not see lamp-light. [21] Girls are not allowed to partake of these offerings. All ceremonies should be conducted with much earnestness and reverence; otherwise the offerings will fail to prove acceptable to the matas or devis.

On Mata-ashtami and Kali-chaudas devotees sometimes offer rams, goats or buffaloes as victims to the devis or devas in addition to the usual offerings of lapsi, vadan and bakla. The night of Kali-chaudas is believed to be so favourable for the efficacious recitation (sadhana) of certain mantras, mysterious incantations possessing sway over spirits, that bhuvas (exorcists) leave the village and sit up performing certain rites in cemeteries, on burning-ghats, and in other equally suitable places where spirits are supposed to congregate. [22]

On Divasa, the last day of Ashadh, the ninth month, low-caste people bathe their gods with water and milk, besmear them with red-lead and oil, and make offerings of cocoanuts, lapsi, bakla of adad (Phaseoleus radiatus) or kansar [23]. Particular offerings are believed to be favoured by particular deities: for instance, khichdo (rice and pulse boiled together) and oil, or tavo (flat unleavened loaves) are favoured by the goddess Meldi, boiled rice by Shikotar and lapsi by the goddess Gatrad. [24]

On these holidays, as well as on the second day of the bright half of Ashadh the devotees hoist flags in honour of the spirits, and play on certain musical instruments producing discordant sounds. Meanwhile bhuvas, believed to be interpreters of the wills of evil spirits, undergo self-torture, with the firm conviction that the spirits have entered their persons. Sometimes they lash themselves with iron chains or cotton braided scourges. [25] At times a bhuva places a pan-full of sweet oil over a fire till it boils. He then fries cakes in it, and takes them out with his unprotected hands, sprinkling the boiling oil over his hair. He further dips thick cotton wicks into the oil, lights them and puts them into his mouth and throws red-hot bullets into his mouth, seemingly without any injury. [26] This process secures the confidence of the sevakas or followers, and is very often used by bhuvas when exorcising spirits from persons whose confidence the bhuvas wish to gain. A bowl-full of water is then passed round the head of the ailing person (or animal) to be charmed, and the contents are swallowed by the exorcist to show that he has swallowed in the water all the ills the flesh of the patient is heir to.

In the cure of certain diseases by exorcising the process known as utar is sometimes gone through. An utar is a sacrificial offering of the nature of a scapegoat, and consists of a black earthen vessel, open and broad at the top, and containing lapsi, vadan, bakla, a yard of atlas (dark-red silk fabric), one rupee and four annas in cash, pieces of charcoal, red-lead, sorro (or surmo-lead ore used as eye-powder), an iron-nail and three cocoanuts. Very often a trident is drawn in red-lead and oil on the outer sides of the black earthen vessel. [27] The bhuva carries the utar in his hands with a drawn sword in a procession, to the noise of the jingling of the anklets of his companions, the beating of drums and the rattling of cymbals. After placing the utar in the cemetery the procession returns with tumultuous shouts of joy and much jingling of anklets. [28]

Sometimes bhuvas are summoned for two or three nights preceding the day of the utar ceremony, and a ceremony known as Danklan-beswan or the installation of the dankla [29] is performed. (A dankla [30] is a special spirit instrument in the shape of a small kettle-drum producing, when beaten by a stick, a most discordant, and, by long association, a melancholy, gruesome and ghastly sound--K. B. Fazlullah).

Many sects have special deities of their own, attended upon by a bhuva of the same order. [31] The bhuva holds a high position in the society of his caste-fellows. He believes himself to be possessed by the devi or mata whose attendant he is, and declares, while possessed by her, the will of the mata, replying for her to such questions as may be put to him. [32] The devis are supposed to appear in specially favoured bhuvas and to endow them with prophetic powers. [33]

The following is a list of some of the inferior local deities of Gujarat and Kathiawar:--

(1) Suro-puro.--This is generally the spirit of some brave ancestor who died a heroic death, and is worshipped by his descendants as a family-god at his birthplace as well as at the scene of his death, where a pillar (palio) is erected to his memory. [34]

(2) Vachhro, otherwise known by the name of Dada (sire).--This is said to have been a Rajput, killed in rescuing the cowherds of some Charans, who invoked his aid, from a party of free-booters. [35] He is considered to be the family-god of the Ahirs of Solanki descent, and is the sole village-deity in Okha and Baradi Districts. [36] Other places dedicated to this god are Padana, Aniala, Taluka Mengani, [37] Khajurdi, Khirasara and Anida. [38] He is represented by a stone horse, and Charans perform priestly duties in front of him. [39] Submission to, and vows in honour of, this god, are believed to cure rabid-dog-bites. [40]

(3) Sarmalio commands worship in Gondal, Khokhari and many other places. Newly-married couples of many castes loosen the knots tied in their marriage-scarves as a mark of respect for him. [41] Persons bitten by a snake wear round their necks a piece of thread dedicated to this god.

(4) Shitala is a goddess known for the cure of small-pox.--Persons attacked by this disease observe vows in her honour. Kalavad and Syadla are places dedicated to her.

(5) Ganagor.--Virgins who are anxious to secure suitable husbands and comfortable establishments worship this goddess and observe vows in her honour.

(6) Todalia.--She has neither an idol nor a temple set up in her honour, but is represented by a heap of stones lying on the village boundary--Padal or Jampa. All marriage processions, before entering the village (Sanka) or passing by the heap, pay homage to this deity and offer a cocoanut, failure to do which is believed to arouse her wrath. She does not command daily adoration, but on occasions the attendant, who is a Chumvalia Koli, and who appropriates all the presents to this deity, burns frankincense of gugal (balsamodendron) and lights a lamp before her. [42]

(7) Buttaya also is represented by a heap of stones on a hillock in the vicinity of Sanka. Her worshipper is a Talabdia Koli. A long season of drought leads to her propitiation by feasting Brahmans, for which purpose four pounds of corn are taken in her name from each threshing floor in the village.

(8) Surdhan.--This seems to have been some brave Kshatriya warrior who died on a battlefield. A temple is erected to his memory, containing an image of Shiva. The attending priest is an Atit.

(9) Ghogho.--This is a cobra-god worshipped in the village of Bikhijada having a Bajana (tumbler) for his attending priest.

(10) Pir.--This is a Musalman saint, in whose honour no tomb is erected, the special site alone being worshipped by a devotee.

(11) Raneki is represented by a heap of stones, and is attended upon by chamars (tanners). Her favourite resort is near the Dhedvada (i.e., a quarter inhabited by sweepers). A childless Girasia is said to have observed a vow in her honour for a son, and a son being born to him, he dedicated certain lands to her; but they are no longer in the possession of the attendants. [43]

(12) Hanuman.--On a mound of earth there is an old worn-out image of this god. People sometimes light a lamp there, offer cocoanuts and plaster the image with red-lead and oil. A sadhu of the Maragi sect, a Koli by birth, acts as pujari.

(13) Shakta (or shakti).--This is a Girasia goddess attended upon by a Chumvalia Koli. On the Navaratra days, as well as on the following day, Girasias worship this goddess, and if necessary observe vows in her name.

(14) Harsidh.--Gandhavi in Barda and Ujjain are the places dedicated to this goddess. There is a tradition connected with her that her image stood in a place of worship facing the sea on Mount Koyalo in Gandhavi. She was believed to sink or swallow all the vessels that sailed by. A Bania named Jagadusa, knowing this, propitiated her by the performance of religious austerities. On being asked what boon he wanted from her, he requested her to descend from her mountain-seat. She agreed on the Bania promising to offer a living victim for every footstep she took in descending. Thus he sacrificed one victim after another until the number of victims he had brought was exhausted. He then first offered his four or five children, then his wife and lastly himself. In reward for his self-devotion the goddess faced towards Miani and no mishaps are believed to take place in the village. [44]

(15) Hinglaj.--This goddess has a place of worship a hundred and fifty miles from Karachi in Sind, to which her devotees and believers make pilgrimage.

In the village of Jasdan, in Kathiawar, there is an ancient shrine of Kalu-Pir in whose memory there are two sepulchres covered with costly fabrics, and a large flag floats over the building. Both Hindus and Musalmans believe [45] in this saint, and offer cocoanuts, sweetmeats and money to his soul. A part of the offering being passed through the smoke of frankincense, burning in a brazier near the saint's grave in the shrine, the rest is returned to the offerer. Every morning and evening a big kettle-drum is beaten in the Pir's honour. [46]

Other minor deities are Shikotar, believed by sailors to be able to protect them from the dangers of the deep; [47] Charmathvati, the goddess of the Rabaris; [48] Macho, the god of the shepherds; Meldi, in whom Vaghries (bird-catchers) believe; [49] Pithad, the favourite god of Dheds; [50] Dhavdi, who is worshipped by a hajam (barber); [51] Khodiar; [52] Géla, Dadamo, Kshetrapal, Chavad, [53] Mongal, Avad, Palan, Vir Vaital, [54] Jalio, Gadio, Paino, Parolio, Sevalio, Andhario, Fulio, Bhoravo, Ragantio, Chod, [55] Gatrad, Mammai and Verai. [56] There are frequent additions to the number, as any new disease or unusual and untoward incident may bring a new spirit into existence. The installation of such deities is not a costly concern, [57] and thus there is no serious check on their recognition.

The sun, the beneficent night-dispelling, light-bestowing great luminary, is believed to be the visible manifestation of the Almighty God, [58] and inspires the human mind with a feeling of grateful reverence which finds expression in titles like Savita, Life-Producer, the nourisher and generator of all life and activity [59].

He is the chief rain-sender [60]; there is a couplet used in Gujarat illustrative of this belief. It runs:--"Oblations are cast into the Fire: the smoke carries the prayers to the sun; the Divine Luminary, propitiated, responds in sending down gentle showers." "The sacred smoke, rising from the sacrificial offerings, ascends through the ethereal regions to the Sun. He transforms it into the rain-giving clouds, the rains produce food, and food produces the powers of generation and multiplication and plenty. Thus, the sun, as the propagator of animal life, is believed to be the highest deity."

It is pretty generally believed that vows in honour of the sun are highly efficacious in curing eye-diseases and strengthening the eyesight. Mr. Damodar Karsonji Pandya quotes from the Bhagvadgita the saying of Krishna:

Prabhasmi sasisuryayoh

"I am the very light of the sun and the moon. [61]" Being the embodiment or the fountain of light, the sun imparts his lustre either to the bodies or to the eyes of his devotees. It is said that a Rajput woman of Gomata in Gondal and a Brahman of Rajkot were cured of white leprosy by vows in honour of the sun. [62] Similar vows are made to this day for the cure of the same disease. Persons in Kathiawar suffering from ophthalmic disorders, venereal affections, leucoderma and white leprosy are known to observe vows in honour of the sun. [63]

The Parmar Rajputs believe in the efficacy of vows in honour of the sun deity of Mandavraj, in curing hydrophobia. [64]

Women believe that a vow or a vrat made to the sun is the sure means of attaining their desires. Chiefly their vows are made with the object of securing a son. On the fulfilment of this desire, in gratitude to the Great Luminary, the child is often called after him, and given such a name as Suraj-Ram, Bhanu-Shankar, Ravi-Shankar, Adit-Ram. [65]

Many cradles are received as presents at the temple of Mandavraj, indicating that the barren women who had made vows to the deity have been satisfied in their desire for a son, the vows being fulfilled by the present of such toy-cradles to the sun. In the case of rich donors, these cradles are made of precious metal. [66]

At Mandvara, in the Muli District of Kathiawar, the Parmar Rajputs, as well as the Kathis, bow to the image of the sun, on their marriage-day, in company with their newly-married brides. After the birth of a son to a Rajputani, the hair on the boy's head is shaved for the first time in the presence of the Mandavraj deity, [67] and a suit of rich clothes is presented to the image by the maternal uncle of the child. [68]

The sun is sarvasaksi the observer of all things and nothing can escape his notice. [69] His eye is believed to possess the lustre of the three Vedic lores, viz., Rigveda, Yajurveda and Samaveda, and is therefore known by the name of vedatrayi. The attestation of a document in his name as Surya-Narayana-Sakshi is believed to be ample security for the sincerity and good faith of the parties. [70] Oaths in the name of the sun are considered so binding that persons swearing in his name are held to be pledged to the strictest truth. [71]

Virgin girls observe a vrat, or vow, called the 'tili-vrat' in the sun's honour, for attaining akhamda saubhagya--eternal exemption from widowhood. In making this vrat, or vow, the votary, having bathed and worshipped the sun, sprinkles wet red-lac drops before him. [72]

According to Forbes's Rasmala, the sun revealed to the Kathis the plan of regaining their lost kingdom, and thus commanded their devout worship and reverence. The temple named Suraj-deval, near Than, was set up by the Kathis in recognition of this favour. In it both the visible resplendent disc of the sun and his image are adored. [73]

People whose horoscopes declare them to have been born under the Surya-dasha, or solar influence, have from time to time to observe vows prescribed by Hindu astrology. [74]

Cultivators are said to observe vows in honour of the sun for the safety of their cattle. [75]

The following are some of the standard books on sun-worship:--

(1) Aditya-hridaya--literally, the Heart of the Sun. It treats of the glory of the sun and the mode of worshipping him.

(2) Brihadaranyakopanishad and Mandula-Brahmans--portions of Yajurveda recited by Vedic Brahmans with a view to tender symbolic as well as mental prayers to the sun.

(3) Bibhrad--the fourth chapter of the Rudri.

(4) A passage in Brahman--a portion of the Vedas, beginning with the words svayambhurasi Thou art self-existent--is entirely devoted to Sun-worship. [76]

(5) Surya-Purana--A treatise relating a number of stories in glorification of the sun.

(6) Surya-kavacha. [77]

(7) Surya-gita.

(8) Surya-Sahasranama--a list of one thousand names of Surya. [78]

It is customary among Hindus to cleanse their teeth every morning with a wooden stick, known as datan [79] and then to offer salutations to the sun in the form of a verse which means: "Oh God, the datans are torn asunder and the sins disappear. Oh the penetrator of the innermost parts, forgive us our sins. Do good unto the benevolent and unto our neighbours." This prayer is common in the mouths of the vulgar laity. [80]

Better educated people recite a shloka, which runs: "Bow unto Savitri, the sun, the observer of this world and its quarters, the eye of the universe, the inspirer of all energy, the holder of a three-fold personality (being an embodiment of the forms of the three gods of the Hindu Trinity, Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvar)--the embodiment of the three Vedas, the giver of happiness and the abode of God. [81]

After his toilet a high-caste Hindu should take a bath and offer morning prayers and arghyas to the sun. [82] The Trikala-Sandhya is enjoined by the Shastras on every Brahman, i.e., every Brahman should perform the Sandhya thrice during the day: in the morning, at mid-day and in the evening. The Sandhya is the prayer a Brahman offers, sitting in divine meditation, when he offers three arghyas to the sun and recites the Gayatri mantra 108 times. [83]

The arghya is an offering of water in a spoon half filled with barley seeds, sesamum seeds, sandal ointment, rice, and white flowers. In offering the arghya the right foot is folded below the left, the spoon is lifted to the forehead and is emptied towards the sun after reciting the Gayatri mantra. [84] If water is not available for offering the arghyas, sand may serve the purpose. But the sun must not be deprived of his arghyas. [85]

The Gayatri is the most sacred mantra in honour of the sun, containing, as it does, the highest laudations of him. A Brahman ought to recite this mantra 324 times every day. Otherwise he incurs a sin as great as the slaughter of a cow. [86] Accordingly a Rudrakshmala, or a rosary of 108 Rudraksh beads, is used in connecting the number of Gayatris recited. [87] It is exclusively the right of the twice-born to recite the Gayatri. None else is authorised to recite or even to hear a word of it. Neither females nor Shudras ought to catch an echo of even a single syllable of the Gayatri mantra [88].

A ceremony, called Suryopasthan, in which a man has to stand facing the sun with his hands stretched upwards at an angle towards the sun, is performed as a part of the sandhya. [89]

Of the days of the week, Ravivar, or Sunday is the most suitable for Sun worship [90]. Persons wishing to secure wealth, good-health and a happy progeny, especially people suffering from disorders caused by heat and from diseases of the eyes, barren women, and men anxious for victory on the battlefield, weekly observe vows in honour of the sun, and the day on which the vow is to be kept is Sunday. [91] It is left to the devotee to fix the number of Sundays on which he will observe the vrat, and he may choose to observe all the Sundays of the year. [92] On such days the devotees undergo ceremonial purifications by means of baths and the putting on of clean garments, occupy a reserved clean seat, light a ghi-lamp and recite the Aditya-hridaya-patha, which is the prescribed mantra for Sun worship. [93] Then follows the Nyasa, (nyasa) in the recitation of which the devotee has to make certain gestures (or to perform physical ceremonials). First the tips of all the four fingers are made to touch the thumb as is done in counting. Then the tips of the fingers are made to touch the palm of the other hand. Then one hand is laid over the other. Then the fingers are made to touch the heart, the head, the eyes, and the hair in regular order. The right hand is then put round the head and made to smite the left. An ashtadala or eight-cornered figure is drawn in gulal, (red powder) and frankincense, red ointment and red flowers are offered to the sun. [94] Durva grass is also commonly used in the process of Sun-worship. [95]

Sometimes a hexangular figure is drawn instead of the ashtadal, a copper disc is placed over it and the sun is worshipped by Panchopachar or the five-fold ceremonials. [96] Of all ceremonials a namaskar is especially dear to the sun. [97] It is said:--

Namaskarapriyo bhanurjaladharapriyah sivah |
Paropakarapriyo visnurbrahmano bhojanapriyah ||

A namaskar or bow is dear to the sun; a stream of water (pouring water in a small stream over Shiva's idol) is dear to Shiva: benevolence to Vishnu and a good dinner to a Brahman.

In observing vows in the sun's honour on Sundays, the following special foods are prescribed in particular months: [98]--

(1) In Kartika, the first month, the devotee is to take only three leaves of the Tulsi or the holy basil plant.

(2) In Margashirsha, the devotee may only lick a few pieces of candied sugar.

(3) In Pausha, the devotee may chew three stalks of green darbha grass.

(4) In Magha, a few seeds of sesamum and sugar mixed together may be swallowed.

(5) In Phalguna, a consecrated draught of curds and sugar may be drunk.

(6) In Chaitra, people should break their fasts with a little ghi and molasses.

(7) In Vaishakha, the only satisfaction allowed to those observing the vrat is to lick their own palms three times.

(8) In Jyeshtha, the fast is observed simply on three anjalis or palmfuls of pure water.

(9) In Ashadha, three chillies may be eaten.

(10) In Shravana, only cow-urine and molasses are tasted.

(11) In Bhadrapada, cow-dung and sugar are partaken of.

(12) In Ashvina, the application of chandan (sandal wood) either in the form of an ointment or of powder.

Only a few very pious and enthusiastic devotees observe all Sundays in the above manner. In average cases, the devotee allows himself rice, ghi, sugar, milk, i.e., white food, the restriction being only as to colour.

People observing vows in honour of the sun take food only once during the day, and that too in bajas or dishes made of khakhara (or palash) leaves. This is considered one of the conditions of worship, there being some mysterious relation between Surya and the khakhara. [99]

If the Pushya Nakshatra happens to fall on a Sunday, the worship of the sun on that day is believed to be most efficacious in fulfilling the desires of the devotees. [100]

Of the days of the month, the seventh day of both the bright and the dark halves of each month [101] and the Amavasya day, i.e., the last day of a Hindu calendar month, [102] are set apart for Sun-worship. The ceremonies of the worship are the same as those on Sundays. In fact, in almost all the observances in connection with the sun the same ceremonials are to be gone through. Very often a Brahman recites the patha directing his hosts or hostesses to perform certain ceremonial gestures. On the last of the number of days which the devotee has decided to observe, the vrat is celebrated and Brahmans are feasted. This celebration of the vrat is known as vratujavavun. [103]

The special occasions for Sun-worship are the Sankranti days and the solar eclipses.

In each year there are twelve Sankranti days on which the sun moves from one sign of the zodiac to another. Sun-worship is performed on all these Sankrantis, but Makara-Sankranti, which falls on the 12th or 13th of January, is considered the most important. [104] The Uttarayana-parvan falls on this day, i.e., the sun now crosses to his northern course from his southern, and the time of that Parvan is considered so holy that a person dying then directly attains salvation. [105] On this day, many Hindus go on a pilgrimage to holy places, offer prayers and sacrifices to the sun, and give alms to Brahmans in the shape of sesamum seeds, gold, garments and cows. [106] Much secret, as well as open, charity is dispensed, [107] grass and cotton-seeds are given to cows, and lapsi [108] and loaves to dogs. Sweet balls of sesamum seeds and molasses are eaten as a prasad and given to Brahmans, and dainties such as lapsi are partaken of by Hindu households, in company with a Brahman or two, who are given dakshina after the meals. [109]

On solar eclipse days, most of the Hindu sects bathe and offer prayers to God. During the eclipse the sun is believed to be combating with the demon Rahu, prayers being offered for the sun's success. When the sun has freed himself from the grasp of the demon and sheds his full lustre on the earth, the people take ceremonial baths, offer prayers to God with a concentrated mind, and well-to-do people give in alms as much as they can afford of all kinds of grain. [110]

The Chaturmas-vrat, very common in Kathiawar, is a favourite one with Hindus. The devotee, in performing this vrat, abstains from food on those days during the monsoons on which, owing to cloudy weather, the sun is not visible. Even if the sun is concealed by the clouds for days together, the devout votary keeps fasting till he sees the deity again. [111]

Barren women, women whose children die, and especially those who lose their male children, women whose husbands suffer from diseases caused by heat, lepers, and persons suffering from ophthalmic ailments observe the vow of the sun in the following manner. [112] The vows are kept on Sundays and Amavasya days, and the number of such days is determined by the devotee in accordance with the behests of a learned Brahman. The woman observes a fast on such days, bathes herself at noon when the sun reaches the zenith, and dresses herself in clean garments. Facing the sun, she dips twelve red karan flowers in red or white sandal ointment and recites the twelve names of Surya as she presents one flower after another to the sun with a bow. [113] On each day of the vrat, she takes food only once, in the shape of lapsi, in bajas of khakhara or palash leaves; white food in the form of rice, or rice cooked in milk is sometimes allowed. She keeps a ghi-lamp burning day and night, offers frankincense, and sleeps at night on a bed made on the floor. [114]

People who are declared by the Brahmans to be under the evil influence (dasha) of Surya, observe vows in the sun's honour and go through the prescribed rites on Sundays. Such persons take special kinds of food and engage the services of priests to recite holy texts in honour of the sun. If all goes well on Sunday, Brahmans, Sadhus and other pious persons are entertained at a feast. This feast is known as vrat-ujavavun. Some persons have the sun's image (an ashtadal) engraved on a copper or a golden plate for daily or weekly worship. [115]

On the twelfth day after the delivery of a child, the sun is worshipped and the homa sacrifice is performed. [116]

If at a wedding the sun happens to be in an unfavourable position according to the bridegroom's horoscope, an image of the sun is drawn on gold-leaf and given away in charity. Charity in any other form is also common on such an occasion.

A Nagar bride performs sun-worship for the seven days preceding her wedding. [117]

In Hindu funeral ceremonies three arghyas are offered to the sun, and the following mantra is chanted [118]:--

Adityo Bhaskaro Bhanu Ravih Suryo Divakarah |
Sannama smarennityam mahapatakanasanam ||

It means--one should ever recite the six names of the Sun, Aditya, Bhaskar, Bhanu, Ravi, Surya, Divakar, which destroy sin.

The sun is also worshipped on the thirteenth day after the death of a person, when arghyas are offered, and two earthen pots, containing a handful of raw khichedi--rice and pulse--and covered with yellow pieces of cotton are placed outside the house. This ceremony is called gadaso bharvo.

Rajahs of the solar race always worship the rising sun. They also keep a golden image of the sun in their palaces, and engage learned Brahmans to recite verses in his honour. On Sundays they take only one meal and that of simple rice (for white food is most acceptable to the sun). [119]

Circumambulations round images and other holy objects are considered meritorious and to cause the destruction of sin. [120] The subject has been dwelt on at length in the Dharma-sindhu-grantha, Vrataraja, and Shodashopachara among the Dharma-Shastras of the Hindus. [121]

The object round which turns are taken is either the image of a god, such as of Ganpati, Mahadev or Vishnu [122] or the portrait of a guru, or his footmarks engraved or impressed upon some substance, or the agni-kunda (the fire-pit), [123] or the holy cow [124], or some sacred tree or plant, such as the Vad (banyan tree), the Pipal (ficus religiosa), [125] the Shami (prosopis spicegera), the Amba (mango tree), the Asopalava tree (Polyalthea longifolia), [126] or the Tulsi (sweet basil) plant.

It is said to have been a custom of the Brahmans in ancient times to complete their daily rites before sunrise every morning, and then to take turns round temples and holy objects. The practice is much less common now than formerly. [127] Still, visitors to a temple or an idol, usually are careful to go round it a few times at least (generally five or seven). The usual procedure at such a time is to strike gongs or ring bells after the turns, to cast a glance at the shikhar or the pinnacle of the temple, and then to return. [128]

Women observing the chaturmas-vrat, or the monsoon vow, lasting from the eleventh day of the bright half of Ashadh (the ninth month) to the eleventh day of the bright half of Kartik (the first month) first worship the object, round which they wish to take turns, with panchamrit (a mixture of milk, curds, sugar, ghi and honey). The number of turns may be either 5, 7, 21 or 108. At each turn they keep entwining a fine cotton thread and place a penda [129] or a bantasa [130] or a betel-leaf or an almond, a cocoanut, a fig or some other fruit before the image or the object walked round. These offerings are claimed by the priest who superintends the ceremony. [131] When a sacred tree is circumambulated, water is poured out at the foot of the tree at each turn. [132]

During the month of Shravan (the tenth month) and during the Purushottama (or the intercalatory) month, men and women observe a number of vows, in respect of which, every morning and evening, they take turns round holy images and objects. [133]

People observing the chaturmas-vrat (or monsoon vow), called Tulsi-vivaha (marriage of Tulsi), worship that plant and take turns round it on every eleventh day of both the bright and the dark halves of each of the monsoon months. The gautrat-vrat (gau = cow) necessitates perambulations round a cow, and the Vat-Savitri-vrat round the Vad or banyan tree. The banyan tree is also circumambulated on the Kapilashashthi day (the sixth day of the bright half of Margashirsha, the second month) and on the Amavasya or the last day of Bhadrapada (the eleventh month). [134]

Women who are anxious to prolong the lives of their husbands take turns round the Tulsi plant or the banyan tree. At each turn they wind a fine cotton thread. At the end of the last turn, they throw red lac and rice over the tree and place a betelnut and a pice or a half-anna piece before it. [135]

The Shastras authorise four pradakshinas (or perambulations) for Vishnu, three for the goddesses, and a half (or one and a half) [136] for Shiva. [137] But the usual number of pradakshinas is either 5, 7, 21 or 108. In taking turns round the image of Vishnu, one must take care to keep one's right side towards the image, while in the case of Shiva, one must not cross the jaladhari [138] or the small passage for conducting water poured over the Shiva-linga.

Sometimes in pradakshinas the votary repeats the name of the deity round which the turns are taken while the priest recites the names of the gods in Shlokas. [139] Sometimes the following verse is repeated. [140]

Papoham papakarmaham papatma papasambhavah |
Trahi mam pundarikaksa sarvapapaharo bhava ||
Yani kani ca papani janmamtarakrtani ca |
Tani tani vinasyantu pradaksinapadepade ||

'I am sinful, the doer of sin, a sinful soul and am born of sin. O lotus-eyed One! protect me and take away all sins from me. Whatever sins I may have committed now as well as in my former births, may every one of them perish at each footstep of my pradakshina.'

The recitation and the turns are supposed to free the soul from the phera of lakh-choryasi [141]. Alms are given many times to the poor after pradakshinas. [142]

The reason why pradakshinas are taken during the day is that they have to be taken in the presence of the sun, the great everlasting witness of all human actions. [143]

As all seeds and vegetation receive their nourishment from solar and lunar rays, the latter are believed in the same way to help embryonic development. [144]

The heat of the sun causes the trees and plants to give forth new sprouts, and therefore he is called 'Savita' or Producer. [145] Solar and lunar rays are also believed to facilitate and expedite delivery. [146] The medical science of the Hindus declares the Amavasya (new-moon day) and Purnima (full-moon day) days--on both of which days the influence of the sun and the moon is most powerful--to be so critical for child-bearing women as to cause, at times, premature delivery. [147] Hence, before delivery, women are made to take turns in the sunlight and also in moonlight, in order to invigorate the foetus, thus securing that their delivery may be easy. [The assistance rendered by solar rays in facilitating the delivery is said to impart a hot temperament to the child so born, and that by the lunar rays a cool one.] [148] After delivery, a woman should glance at the sun with her hands clasped, and should offer rice and red flowers to him. [149] Sitting in the sun after delivery is considered beneficial to women enfeebled by the effort. [150] It is a cure for the paleness due to exhaustion, [151] and infuses new vigour. [152]

The Bhils believe that the exposure of a new-born child to the sun confers upon the child immunity from injury by cold and heat. [153]

The practice of making recently delivered women sit in the sun does not seem to be widespread, nor does it prevail in Kathiawar. In Kathiawar, on the contrary, women are kept secluded from sunlight in a dark room at the time of child-birth, and are warmed by artificial means. [154] On the other hand, it is customary in many places to bring a woman into the sunlight after a certain period has elapsed since her delivery. The duration of this period varies from four days to a month and a quarter. Sometimes a woman is not allowed to see sunlight after child-birth until she presents the child to the sun with certain ceremonies, either on the fourth or the sixth day from the date of her delivery. [155]

A ceremony called the Shashthi-Karma is performed on the sixth day after the birth of a child, and the Namkaran ceremony--the ceremony of giving a name--on the twelfth day. The mother of the child is sometimes not allowed to see the sun before the completion of these ceremonies. [156] Occasionally, on the eleventh day after child-birth, the mother is made to take a bath in the sun. [157]

Exactly a month and a quarter from the date of delivery a woman is taken to a neighbouring stream to offer prayers to the sun and to fetch water thence in an earthen vessel. This ceremony is known as Zarmazaryan. [158] Seven small betel-nuts are used in the ceremony. They are carried by the mother, and distributed by her to barren women, who believe that, by eating the nuts from her hand, they are likely to conceive. [159]

In difficult labour cases, chakrava water is sometimes given to women. The chakrava is a figure of seven cross lines drawn on a bell-metal dish, over which the finest white dust has been spread. This figure is shown to the woman in labour: water is then poured into the dish and offered her to drink. [160] The figure is said to be a representation of Chitrangad. [161] It is also believed to be connected with a story in the Mahabhaarata. [162] Subhadra, the sister of god Krishna and the wife of Arjuna, one of the five Pandavas, conceived a demon, an enemy of Krishna. The demon would not leave the womb of Subhadra even twelve months after the date of her conception, and began to harass the mother. Krishna, the incarnation of god, knowing of the demon's presence and the cause of his delay, took pity on the afflicted condition of his sister and read chakrava, (Chakravyuha) a book consisting of seven chapters and explaining the method of conquering a labyrinthine fort with seven cross-lined forts. Krishna completed six chapters, and promised to teach the demon the seventh, provided he came out. The demon ceased troubling Subhadra and emerged from the womb. He was called Abhimanyu. Krishna never read the seventh chapter for then Abhimanyu would have been invincible and able to take his life. This ignorance of the seventh chapter cost Abhimanyu his life on the field of Kuru-kshetra in conquering the seven cross-lined labyrinthine forts. As the art of conquering a labyrinthine fort when taught to a demon in the womb facilitated the delivery of Subhadra, a belief spread that drinking in the figure of the seven cross-lined labyrinthine fort would facilitate the delivery of all women who had difficulties in child-birth.

The figure Swastika (literally auspicious), drawn as shown below, is an auspicious sign, and is believed to be a mark of good luck and a source of blessings. It is one of the sixteen line-marks on the sole of the lotus-like feet of the god Ishwar, the Creator of the Universe. [163] The fame of the good effects of the Swastika figure is said to have been first diffused throughout society by Narad-Muni, as instructed by the god Brahma. [164]

Various conjectures have been made concerning the origin of this figure. The following explanation is found in a work named Siddhantsar. The Eternal Sat or Essence, that has neither beginning nor end nor any maker, exhibits all the religious principles in a chakra or a wheel-form. This round shape has no circumference; but any point in it is a centre; which being specified, the explanation of the whole universe in a circle is easy. Thus the figure [dotted circle] indicates the creation of the universe from Sat or Essence. The centre with the circumference is the womb, the place of creation of the universe. The centre then expanding into a line, the diameter thus formed represents the male principle, linga-rup, that is the producer, through the medium of activity in the great womb or maha-yoni. When the line assumes the form of a cross, it explains the creation of the universe by an unprecedented combination of the two distinct natures, animate and inanimate. The circumference being removed, the remaining cross represents the creation of the world. The Swastika, or Sathia, as it is sometimes called, in its winged form suggests the possession of creative powers by the opposite natures, animate and inanimate. [165]

Another theory is that an image of the eight-leaved lotus, springing from the navel of Vishnu, one of the Hindu Trinity, was formerly drawn on auspicious occasions as a sign of good luck. The exact imitation of the original being difficult, the latter assumed a variety of forms, one of which is the Swastika. [166]

Some people see an image of the god Ganpati in the figure. That god being the master and protector of all auspicious ceremonies has to be invoked on all such occasions. The incapacity of the devotees to draw a faithful picture of Ganpati gave rise to a number of forms which came to be known by the name of Swastika. [167]

There are more ways than one of drawing the Swastika, as shown below, but the original form was of the shape of a cross. The first consonant of the Gujarati alphabet, ka, now drawn thus [KA], was also originally drawn in the form of a cross (+). Some persons therefore suppose that the Swastika may be nothing more than the letter ka, written in the old style and standing for the word kalyan or welfare. [168]

Though the Swastika is widely regarded as the symbol of the sun, some people ascribe the figure to different deities, viz., to Agni, [169] to Ganpati, [170] to Laxmi, [171] to Shiva, [172] besides the sun. It is also said to represent Swasti, the daughter of Brahma, who received the boon from her father of being worshipped on all auspicious occasions. [173] Most persons, however, regard the Swastika as the symbol of the sun. It is said that particular figures are prescribed as suitable for the installation of particular deities: a triangle for one, a square for another, a pentagon for a third, and the Swastika for the sun. [174] The Swastika is worshipped in the Ratnagiri district, and regarded as the symbol as well as the seat of the Sun-god. [175] The people of the Thana district believe the Swastika to be the central point of the helmet of the sun; and a vow, called the Swastika-vrat, is observed by women in its honour. The woman draws a figure of the Swastika and worships it daily during the Chaturmas (the four months of the rainy season), at the expiration of which she presents a Brahman with a golden or silver plate with the Swastika drawn upon it. [176]

A number of other ideas are prevalent about the significance of the Swastika. Some persons believe that it indicates the four directions; [177] some think that it represents the four margas--courses or objects of human desires--viz., (1) Dharma, religion; (2) Artha, wealth; (3) Kam, love; (4) Moksha, salvation. [178] Some again take it to be an image of the ladder leading to the heavens. [179] Others suppose it to be a representation of the terrestrial globe, and the four piles of corn placed in the figure, as shown below (p. 16) represent the four mountains, Udayachala, Astachal, Meru and Mandarachala. [180] The Swastika is also believed to be the foundation-stone of the universe. [181]

The Swastika is much in favour with the gods as a seat or couch, and as soon as it is drawn it is immediately occupied by some deity. [182] It is customary therefore to draw the Swastika on most auspicious and festive occasions, such as marriage and thread ceremonies, the first pregnancy ceremonies and the Divali holidays. [183] In the Konkan the Swastika is always drawn on the Antarpat, or the piece of cloth which is held between the bride and the bridegroom at the time of a Hindu wedding. [184] And at the time of the Punyaha-wachan, a ceremony which precedes a Hindu wedding, the figure is drawn in rice and is worshipped. Throughout the Chaturmas some persons paint the auspicious Swastikas, either on their thresholds or at their doors, every morning. [185]

On the sixth day from the date of a child's birth, a piece of cloth is marked with a Swastika in red lac, the cloth is stretched on a bedstead and the child is placed upon it. [186] An account of this ceremony is to be found in the treatises Jayantishastra, Jatakarma, and Janakalaya.

Before joining the village-school, little boys are made to worship Saraswati, the goddess of learning, after having installed her on a Swastika, in order that the acquisition of learning may be facilitated. [187]

A Brahman host, inviting a party of brother-Brahmans to dinner, marks the figure one (1) against the names of those who are eligible for dakshina, and a Swastika against the names of those who are not eligible. These latter are the yajamans or patrons of the inviting Brahman, who is himself their pujya, i.e., deserving to be worshipped by them. A bindu or dot, in place of the Swastika, is considered inauspicious. [188]

The Swastika is used in calculating the number of days taken in pilgrimage by one's relations, one figure being painted on the wall each day from the date of separation.

It is said that the Swastika when drawn on a wall is the representation of Jogmaya. Jogmaya is a Natural Power, bringing about the union of two separated beings. [189]

The Jains paint the Swastika in the way noted below and explain the figure in the following manner:--The four projectors indicate four kinds of souls: viz., (1) Manushya or human, (2) Tiryach or of lower animals, (3) Deva or divine, (4) Naraki or hellish. The three circular marks denote the three Ratnas or jewels, viz., (1) Jnan or knowledge, (2) Darshana or faith, (3) Charita or good conduct; and the semi-circular curve, at the top of the three circles, indicates salvation. [190]

Every Jain devotee, while visiting the images of his gods, draws a Sathia (Swastika) [191] before them and places a valuable object over it. The sign is held so sacred that a Jain woman has it embroidered on the reticule or kothali in which she carries rice to holy places. [192]

'I am the very light of the sun and the moon,' observes Lord Krishna in his dialogue with Arjuna, [193] and the moon also receives divine honours like the sun. Moon-worship secures wealth, augments progeny, and betters the condition of milch-cattle. [194] The suitable days for such worship are the second and the fourth days of the bright half of every month (Dwitiya or Bij and Chaturthi or Choth, respectively) and every full-moon day (Purnima or Punema). On either of these days the devotees of Chandra (the moon) fast for the whole of the day and take their food only after the moon has risen and after they have seen and worshipped her. [195] Some dainty dish such as kansar, [196] or plantains and puris, [197] is specially cooked for the occasion.