Chapter I (2)

A sight of the moon on the second day of the bright half of every month is considered auspicious. After seeing the moon on this day some people also look at silver and gold coins for luck. [198] The belief in the value of this practice is so strong that, immediately after seeing the moon, people refrain from beholding any other object. Their idea is that silver, which looks as bright as the moon, will be obtained in abundance if they look at a silver piece immediately after seeing the moon. [199] Moon worship on this day is also supposed to guarantee the safety of persons at sea. [200] In the south, milk and sugar is offered to the moon after the usual worship, and learned Brahmans are invited to partake of it. What remains after satisfying the Brahmans is divided among the community. On this day, those who keep cattle do not churn whey nor curd milk nor sell it, but consume the whole supply in feasts to friends and neighbours. [201] The Ahirs and Rabaris especially are very particular about the use of milk in feasts only: for they believe that their cattle are thereby preserved in good condition. [202]

The fourth day of the dark half of every month is the day for the observance of the chaturthi-vrat (or choth-vrat). This vrat is observed in honour of the god Ganpati and by men only. The devotees fast on this day, bathe at night after seeing the moon, light a ghi lamp, and offer prayers to the moon. They also recite a path containing verses in honour of Ganpati, and, after worshipping that god, take their food consisting of some specially prepared dish. This vrat is said to fulfil the dreams of the devotees. [203]

The day for the chaturthi-vrat in the month of Bhadrapad (the 11th month of the Gujarati Hindus) is the fourth day of the bright half instead of the fourth day of the dark half, [204] and on this day (Ganesh Chaturthi [205]) the moon is not worshipped. The very sight of her is regarded as ominous, and is purposely avoided. [206] The story is that once upon a time the gods went out for a ride in their respective conveyances. It so happened that the god Ganpati fell off his usual charger, the rat, and this awkward mishap drew a smile from Chandra (the moon). Ganpati, not relishing the joke, became angry and cursed Chandra saying that no mortal would care to see his face on that day (which happened to be the fourth day of the bright half of Bhadrapad). If any one happens to see the moon even unwittingly on this day, he may expect trouble very soon. [207] There is one way, however, out of the difficulty, and that is to throw stones on the houses of neighbours. When the neighbours utter abuse in return, the abuse atones for the sin of having looked at the moon on the forbidden night. The day is therefore called (in Gujarat) Dagad-choth, i.e., the Choth of stones. [208]

On the fourth day of the dark half of Phalgun (the 5th month of Gujarati Hindus) some villagers fast for the whole of the day and remain standing from sunset till the moon rises. They break their fast after seeing the moon. The day is, therefore, called ubhi (i.e., standing) choth. [209]

Virgins sometimes observe a vow on Poshi-Punema or the full-moon day of Pausha (the 3rd month of the Gujarati Hindus). On this day a virgin prepares her evening meal with her own hands on the upper terrace of her house. She then bores a hole through the centre of a loaf, and observes the moon through it, repeating while doing so a verse [210] which means: O Poshi-Punemadi, khichadi (rice and pulse mixed together) is cooked on the terrace, and the sister of the brother takes her meal. [211] The meal usually consists either of rice and milk or of rice cooked in milk and sweetened with sugar, or of kansar. She has to ask the permission of her brother or brothers before she may take her food; and if the brother refuses his permission, she has to fast for the whole of the day. [212] The whole ceremony is believed to prolong the lives of her brothers and her future husband. The moon is also worshipped at the time of griha-shanti, i.e., the ceremonies performed before inhabiting a newly-built house. [213]

If the moon is unfavourable to a man born under a particular constellation, on account of his occupying either the 6th, the 8th or the 12th square in a kundali [214] (see below) prayers are offered to the moon; and if the occasion is a marriage, a bell-metal dish, full of rice, is presented to Brahmans. [215]

The appearance of the moon and the position of the horns of her crescent at particular times are carefully watched as omens of future events. Cultivators believe that if the moon is visible on the second day of the bright half of Ashadh (the 9th month of Gujarati Hindus), the sesamum crops of that season will be abundant; but if the moon be hidden from sight on that day, the weather will be cloudy during the whole of Ashadh, and will prove unfavourable to vegetable growth. [216] If the moon appears reddish on a Bij day (or the second day of the bright half of a month), and if the northern horn of the crescent be high up, prices in the market are believed to rise; if, on the other hand, it is low, it prognosticates a fall in prices. If the two horns are on a level, current prices will continue.

Similarly, the northern horn of the crescent, if it is high up on the Bij day of Ashadh, augurs abundant rainfall; if it is low, it foreshadows a season of drought. [217]

If the moon presents a greenish aspect on the full-moon day of Ashadh, excessive rains may be expected in a few days; if on that day she rises quite clear and reddish, there is very little hope of good rains; if she is partly covered by clouds when she rises and then gets clear of the clouds, and then again disappears in the clouds in three ghadis, [218] three pohors, or three days, rain is sure to fall. [219]

If on the 5th day of the bright half of Chaitra, the moon appears to the west of the Rohini constellation, the prices of cotton are believed to rise; if to the east, they are said to fall; and if in the same line, the current rates are believed to be likely to continue. [220]

The Bij (2nd day) and the ninth day of Ashadh (the 9th month of the Gujaratis and the 4th month of the Hindus of the Deccan) falling on a Sunday is a combination that foretells excessive heat. If they fall on Wednesday, intense cold is said to be the result. Their occurring on a Tuesday, threatens absence of rains, and on a Monday, a Thursday or a Friday, foreshadows excessive rainfall. [221]

Thunder on Jeth-Sud-Bij, or the second day of the bright half of Jyeshtha, is a bad omen and threatens famine. [222]

The spots on the moon have given rise to numerous beliefs, mythological as well as fanciful. One of them is that they are the result of a curse, pronounced by the sage Gautama on Chandra. Indra, the god of rain, was infatuated with the charms of Ahalya, the wife of Gautama, and with the help of Chandra laid a cunning plot to gain his ignoble object. Accordingly, one night, Chandra set earlier than usual, when Indra assumed the form of a cock and crowed at midnight in order to deceive Gautama into the belief that it was dawn, and therefore his time for going to the Ganges to perform his religious services. The trick was successful, and the holy sage being thus got rid of, Indra assumed the form of Gautama himself and approached Ahalya, who was surprised to see her husband (as she thought) so quickly returned. The wily god allayed her suspicions by explaining that it was not yet time for the morning ceremonies, and thus enjoyed the favours due to her husband. Gautama, in the meanwhile, finding the water of the Ganges cool and placid, and discovering that it was not yet dawn, returned to his hermitage. On reaching home he detected the treachery of Indra, who tried to escape in the disguise of a tom-cat. The exasperated sage then cursed Indra, Chandra and his wife: Indra to have a thousand sores on his person, Ahalya to turn into a stone, and Chandra to have a stain on his fair face. [223]

Another mythological story is that Daksha Prajapati, the son of Brahma, gave all his twenty-seven daughters in marriage to Chandra, who was inspired with love for one of them only, named Rohini, the most beautiful of them all. The slighted twenty-six sisters complained to their father, Daksha, of Chandra's preference for Rohini. Daksha in anger cursed Chandra to be attacked by consumption (which is supposed to be the reason of the waning of the moon) and his face to be marred by a stain. [224]

The curse of Gautama and the curse of Daksha are also supposed to be reasons of the waxing and the waning of the moon.

Another belief regarding the moon-spots is that when the head of Ganpati was severed by Shiva's trident, it flew off and fell into the chariot of the moon. The spots are either the head itself [225] or are due to drops of blood fallen from the flying severed head. [226]

The spots are also said to be explained by the fact of the image of god Krishna or Vishnu [227] residing in the heart of the moon who, as a devotee of Vishnu, holds his image dear to his heart. [228]

The moon is often called mriganka (lit. deer-marked) and mriga-lanchhana (lit. deer-stained); and a further explanation of the spots in this connection is that the moon-god took into his lap a strayed deer, out of compassion, and thus his lap became stained. [229] Jains believe that in the nether parts of the moon's viman or vehicle, there is an image of a deer whose shadow is seen in the spots. [230]

Some persons declare the spots to be a shami tree (prosopis spicigera). [231] The belief of the masses in Gujarat is said to be that the spot on the moon's disc is the seat of an old woman, who sits spinning her wheel with a goat tethered near her. [232] If the droppings of the goat were to fall on earth, departed souls would return to the earth. [233]

It is said that a child and a tree are never seen to grow except during the night. Such growth is therefore held to be due to lunar rays. [234] As all trees, plants, etc., thrive owing to the influence of the moon, the moon-god is called the lord of herbs. The moon is also a reservoir of nectar and is called Sudhakar, i.e., one having nectarine rays. [235] As the lord of herbs, the moon-god is supposed to have the power of removing all diseases that are curable by drugs, and of restoring men to health. [236]

Persons suffering from white leprosy, black leprosy, consumption and diseases of the eyes are believed to be cured by the observance of the Bij and Punema vows. [237] Consumption in its incipient and latter stages is also said to be cured by exposure to the rays of the moon. [238] Constant glimpses of the moon add to the lustre of the eyes. [239] On the Sharad-Punema, or the 15th day of the bright half of Ashvin (the last month of the Gujaratis and the 7th month of the Deccani Hindus), tailors pass a thread through their needles in the belief that they will thereby gain keener eyesight. [240]

A cotton-wick is exposed to the moon on Sharad-Punema, and is afterwards lighted in oil poured over the image of Hanuman. The soot, which is thus produced, if used on the Kali-chaudas day--the fourteenth day of the dark half of Ashvin--is said to possess much efficacy in strengthening the eyesight and also in preserving the eyes from any disease during the ensuing year. [241]

Sweetened milk or water is exposed to moonlight during the whole of the night of Sharad-punema (the full-moon day of Ashvin) in order to absorb the nectarine rays of the moon, and is drunk next morning. Drinking in the rays of the moon in this manner is believed to cure diseases caused by heat as well as eye-diseases, and it similarly strengthens the eyesight and improves the complexion. [242] Sugar-candy thus exposed and preserved in an air-tight jar is partaken of in small quantities every morning to gain strength and to improve the complexion. [243] The absorption of the lunar rays through the open mouth or eyes is also believed to be of great effect in achieving these objects. [244]

Once upon a time the gods and demons, by their united efforts, churned the ocean and obtained therefrom fourteen ratnas or precious things. [245] These were distributed among them. Lakshmi, the kaustubha jewel, the Sharnga bow and the conch-shell fell to the share of Vishnu, and the poison, Halahal visha, was disposed of to Shiva. Only two things remained, sudha, or nectar, and sura or liquor. To both gods and demons the nectar was the most important of all the prizes. A hard contest ensuing between them for the possession of it, the demons, by force, snatched the bowl of nectar from the gods. In this disaster to the gods, Vishnu came to their help in the form of Mohini--a most fascinating woman--and proposed to the demons that the distribution of the immortalising fluid should be entrusted to her. On their consent, Vishnu or Mohini, made the gods and the demons sit in opposite rows and began first to serve the nectar to the gods. The demon Rahu, the son of Sinhika, fearing lest the whole of the nectar might be exhausted before the turn of the demons came, took the shape of a god and placed himself amongst them between Chandra (the moon) and Surya (the sun). The nectar was served to him in turn, but on Chandra and Surya detecting the trick, the demon's head was cut off by Vishnu's discus, the sudarshana-chakra. Rahu however did not die: for he had tasted the nectar, which had reached his throat. The head and trunk lived and became immortal, the former being named Rahu, and the latter Ketu. Both swore revenge on Chandra and Surya. At times, therefore, they pounce upon Chandra and Surya with the intention of devouring them. In the fight that ensues, Chandra and Surya are successful only after a long contest, with the assistance of the gods, and by the merit of the prayers that men offer. [246]

The reason of the eclipse is either that Chandra and Surya bleed in the fight with Rahu and their forms get blackened [247]; or that the demon Rahu comes between the two luminaries and this earth, and thus causes an eclipse [248]; or because Rahu obstructs the sun and the moon in their daily course, and this intervention causes an eclipse [249]; or because Rahu swallows the sun and the moon, but his throat being open, they escape, their short disappearance causing an eclipse. [250]

Besides the mythological story, there is a belief in Gujarat that a bhangi (scavenger or sweeper), creditor of the sun and the moon, goes to recover his debts due from them, and that his shadow falling against either of them causes an eclipse. [251]

A third explanation of the eclipse is that the sun and the moon revolve round the Meru mountain, and the shadow of the mountain falling upon either of them causes an eclipse. [252]

It is believed amongst Hindus that eclipses occur when too much sin accumulates in this world. [253] Most Hindus regard an eclipse as ominous, and consider the eclipse period to be unholy and inauspicious. The contact of the demon Rahu with the rays of the sun and the moon pollutes everything on earth. Great precautions therefore become necessary to avoid pollution. [254] A period of three pohors [255] (prahars) in the case of the moon, and of four in the case of the sun, before the actual commencement of an eclipse, is known as vedha, i.e., the time when the luminaries are already under the influence of the demon. During this period and during the time of an eclipse people observe a strict fast. Anyone taking food within the prohibited period is considered sutaki or ceremonially impure, as if a death had happened in his family. [256] An exception is, however, made in the case of children, pregnant women and suckling mothers who cannot bear the privation of a strict fast. From the beginning of an eclipse to its end, everything in the house is believed to be polluted, if touched.

As the sun and the moon are believed to be in trouble during an eclipse, people offer prayers to God from the beginning of the vedha for their release. It is the custom to visit some holy place on an eclipse-day, to take a bath there, and to read holy passages from the Shastras. Some people, especially Brahmans, sit devoutly on river-banks and offer prayers to the sun. Much secret as well as open charity is given at the time of an eclipse. But the receivers of charity during the actual period of an eclipse are the lowest classes only, such as bhangis, mahars and mangs. When an eclipse is at its full, these people go about the streets giving vent to such cries as apó dan chhuté chand (give alms for the relief of the moon!). [257]

Among the gifts such people receive are cotton clothes, cash, grain such as sesamum seeds, udad, pulses, and salt. [258] The gift of a pair of shoes is much recommended. [259] Sometimes a figure of the eclipsed sun or moon is drawn in juari seeds and given away to a bhangi. [260]

Although the period of an eclipse is considered inauspicious, it is valued by those who profess the black art. All mantras, incantations, and prayogas, applications or experiments, which ordinarily require a long time to take effect, produce the wished for result without delay if performed during the process of an eclipse. [261]

If a man's wife is pregnant, he may not smoke during the period of an eclipse lest his child become deformed. [262] Ploughing a farm on a lunar-eclipse day is supposed to cause the birth of Chandra-children, i.e., children afflicted by the moon.

After an eclipse Hindus bathe, perform ablution ceremonies, and dress themselves in clean garments. The houses are cleansed by cowdunging the floors, vessels are rubbed and cleansed, and clothes are washed, in order to get rid of the pollution caused by the eclipse. [263] Unwashed clothes of cotton, wool, silk or hemp, according to popular belief, do not become polluted. The placing of darbha grass on things which are otherwise liable to pollution is also sufficient to keep them unpolluted. [264]

Brahmans cannot accept anything during the impious time of an eclipse, but after it is over, alms are freely given to them in the shape of such costly articles as fine clothes, gold, cattle and the like. [265]

After an eclipse Hindus may not break their fast till they have again seen the full disc of the released sun or the moon. It sometimes happens that the sun or the moon sets gherayala (while still eclipsed), and people have then to fast for the whole of the night or the day after, until the sun or the moon is again fully visible. [266]

There is a shloka in the Jyotish-Shastra to the effect that Rahu would surely devour Chandra if the nakshatra, or constellation of the second day of the dark half of a preceding month, were to recur on the Purnima (full-moon day) of the succeeding month. Similarly, in solar eclipses, a similar catastrophe would occur if the constellation of the second day of the bright half of a month were to recur on the Amavasya (the last day) of that month. [267] The year in which many eclipses occur is believed to prove a bad year for epidemic diseases. [268]

The Jains do not believe in the Hindu theory of grahana (or the eclipse). [269] Musalmans do not perform the special ceremonies beyond the recital of special prayers; and even these are held to be supererogatory. [270]

With the exception that some people believe that the stars are the abodes of the gods, [271] the popular belief about the heavenly bodies seems to be that they are the souls of virtuous and saintly persons, translated to the heavens for their good deeds and endowed with a lustre proportionate to their merits. [272] And this idea is illustrated in the traditions that are current about some of the stars. The seven bright stars of the constellation Saptarshi (or the Great Bear) are said to be the seven sages, Kashyapa, Atri, Bharadwaj, Vishwamitra, Gautama, Jamadagni and Vasishtha, who had mastered several parts of the Vedas, and were considered specialists in the branches studied by each, and were invested with divine honours in reward for their proficiency. [273] Another story relates how a certain hunter and his family, who had unconsciously achieved great religious merit, were installed as the constellation Saptarshi [274] (or the Great Bear). A hunter, it is narrated in the Shivaratri-mahatmya, was arrested for debt on a Shivratri [275] day, and while in jail heard by chance the words 'Shiva, Shiva' repeated by some devotees. Without understanding their meaning, he also began to repeat the same words, even after he was released in the evening. He had received no food during the day, and had thus observed a compulsory fast. In order to obtain food for himself and his family, he stationed himself behind a Bel [276] tree, hoping to shoot a deer or some other animal that might come to quench its thirst at a neighbouring tank. While adjusting an arrow to his bowstring, he plucked some leaves out of the thick foliage of the tree and threw them down. The leaves, however, chanced to fall on a Shiva-linga which happened to stand below, and secured for him the merit of having worshipped god Shiva with Bel-leaves on a Shivratri day. He was also all the while repeating the god's name and had undergone a fast. The result was that not only were his past sins forgiven, but he was placed with his family in heaven. [277]

Similarly, Dhruva, the son of king Uttanapad, attained divine favour by unflagging devotion, and was given a constant place in the heavens as the immovable pole-star. [278]

According to Hindu astrology, there are nine grahas [279] or planets, twelve rashis [280] or signs of the zodiac, and twenty-seven nakshatras [281] or constellations. Books on astrology explain the distinct forms of the nakshatras. For instance, the Ashvini constellation consists of two stars and presents the appearance of a horse. It ascends the zenith at midnight on the purnima (the 15th day of the bright half) of Ashvin (the first month of the Gujarati Hindus). The constellation of Mrig consists of seven stars, four like the legs of a sofa and three others under them in a line. All these twenty-seven groups of stars reach the zenith at midnight on particular days in particular months; and the months of the Hindu calendar are named after them. [282]

All planets influence the life of a person, one way or the other, according to their position in the heavens at the time of his birth. A kundali, i.e., a figure like the one shown here, is drawn by astrologers to illustrate the respective positions of the planets. The twelve squares of the diagram represent the twelve signs of the zodiac, and the positions of the planets in different squares influence persons in different ways. Ravi (the Sun), Budha (Mercury) and Shukra (Venus) occupy one rashi for one month; Chandra (the Moon) occupies a rashi for 135 ghadis, [283] i.e., two days and a quarter; Mangal (Mars) for one month and a half; Guru (Jupiter) for thirteen months; Shani (Saturn) for two years and a half, and Rahu for a year and a half. This is their normal and ordinary motion. But if they take an abnormal course and move either too fast or too slow, they finish their revolution through a rashi within a shorter or a longer period. [284]

If the planet Guru (Jupiter) occupies either the 1st, 3rd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th, or 12th, square of a kundali, it is said to bring about a rupture with friends, pecuniary wants, and an increase in the number of enemies. [285]

If Shani (Saturn) occupies the 1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th, 7th, 8th, 9th, or the 12th square in a man's kundali, it causes despondency of mind, family quarrels, imminent injuries from foes, and pecuniary wants. [286]

The presence of Mangal (Mars) in the 3rd, the 6th, or the 11th square is auspicious.

Of the nine planets, Budha, Guru, and Chandra are benevolent, Mangal and Ravi are neither benevolent nor baneful; and Shani, Rahu, and Ketu are downright malevolent. [287] Each planet has a story connected with it concerning its benevolence or malevolence, and showing also the way to secure its propitiation. For instance, the malevolence of Shani drove King Vikrama to unknown countries, and subjected him to grave calamities. On the advice of a wise man, however, he observed the Saturday-vows and thus overcame his difficulties. [288]

When a planet is unfavourable to a person, it has to be propitiated by vows, and the person who is under its evil influence often lays upon himself the obligation of abstaining from particular articles of food or from wearing certain articles of clothing for a certain number of days. [289] Particular days of the week are set apart as appropriate for the worship of particular planets, and, on such days, the person keeping the vow observes a fast and worships the planet through the medium of a Brahman. [290] For instance, vrats or vows are observed on Tuesdays in honour of Mangal (Mars), when an image of the planet, engraved on a golden dish, is worshipped, and the person observing the vow takes food consisting of wheat only, and that too, only once during the day. This mode of fasting is followed for a number of consecutive Tuesdays prescribed by an astrologer; and on the last Tuesday, when purnahuti [291] is offered, Brahmans are feasted and dakshina is given to them. A piece of red cloth and some corn are used in the installation of the planet; these and the golden engraving are carried away by the priest.

Similarly, in propitiating Rahu and Ketu the same ceremonies are gone through: only, instead of wheat, mug (Phaseolus mungo) is eaten by the devotee. In the same way Shani (Saturn) is said to favour the diet of adad (or lentils): Guru (Jupiter) inclines to chana (or gram), while Shukra (Venus) favours chola (dolichos sinensis).

Certain forms or figures, called mandals, are favoured by particular grahas, and are drawn in their honour in worshipping them. Different things, too, are given in charity in honour of different planets. [292]

All the nine grahas and the twenty-seven nakshatras are worshipped on the occasion of the Griha-Shanti ceremony, which is performed before occupying a newly erected building.

It is considered inauspicious to hold a marriage ceremony while Shukra (Venus) is invisible. In such a case, however, the ceremony may be performed after setting up and worshipping a small golden image of the planet.

Of the stars, the constellation of saptarshi is perhaps the one most often worshipped. Its worship forms a part of the ceremonies performed on the occasion of investing boys with the sacred thread [293] and also of the ceremonies of marriage. The worship of the saptarshi on marriage occasions is believed to be an attestation of the marriage, and to secure the benign care of the saptarshi for the couple. The form of worship is sometimes as follows: a red and white piece of cloth is stretched on the ground, bearing an image of the saptarshi over it; wheat and rice are scattered over the cloth, a ghi-lamp is lighted, and red lac and flowers are offered to the image. [294] Another form of worship is to mark seven red-lac-dots on a patla or a wooden stool, and to place seven pice and seven betel-nuts thereon. After worshipping the seven pice, the bridal pair are made to take four turns round the stool, touching the stool with their great toes at every turn. A proverb runs to the effect that, whatever may happen to the couple, still the seven pice of satpati (i.e., the ceremony described) are secure. [295] A third process is to form seven small piles of kamod, [296] on each of which, successively, the bride places her right foot while the bridegroom removes each pile one by one. [297]

The fifth day of the bright half of Bhadrapad (the eleventh month of the Gujarati Hindus) is observed as a day of worship in honour of the saptarshi group. People observe a fast on that day. Brahmans set up seven chats [298] in honour of the seven sages, adding an eighth in honour of Arundhati, the wife of Vasishtha, and worship them by shodashopachar (i.e. sixteen-fold ceremonial). The worship is said to secure felicity for departed souls. [299]

The saptarshi are also annually worshipped by Brahmans on cocoanut-day (the 15th day of the bright half of Shravan) on the occasion of changing their sacred threads. Hindu seamen also worship the constellation on the same day. [300]

In the performance of the Nil-parvan ceremony, which is held to propitiate the spirits of departed ancestors, and which requires a calf and a heifer to be married, an entertainment being simultaneously given to one hundred and eight Brahmans, and on the occasion of Vastu or the ceremonies performed before or at the time of occupying a newly-built house, burnt offerings and worship are offered to the saptarshi. [301]

Every Brahman must offer arghyas [302] to, and worship, the agastya constellation, in a hut of darbha [303] and kasada, within seven days from the date of its appearance. Failure to make this offering brings pollution on him for seven months, and disqualifies him from performing any of the rites or ceremonies prescribed by the Shastras.

Married couples are made to look at the Pole star immediately after the Hymenal knot is tied by the priest, in the hope that they may be as long-lived or as inflexible or unmoved by the ups and downs of life.

The twelfth day after the death of a person, known as Tara-baras (or the star-twelfth) is kept as the day of star-worship by the relatives of the deceased, when one member of the family observes a fast on that day in honour of the deceased, and takes food only after worshipping the stars at night. It is customary on this day to give up the use of bronze vessels and to give them away in charity. [304]

Just as persons carrying or accompanying a corpse to the cemetery are considered sutaki (under ceremonial impurity), so those who witness this rite are also considered unclean: but they are purified by a sight of the stars. [305]

Young girls watching the starry sky at night recite a verse which means, "I worshipped the star-spangled firmament first and then my lover Abhla dabhla Kankuna dabhla [306]--"Ye stars! blind the prowling thief and seize him if he tries to steal away, and your blessings on my lord confer!" [307]

The Rohini and Krittika constellations, popularly known as Gadli, are supposed to indicate the rise and fall in the cotton-market. [308]

The dimmest star of the saptarshi group foretells the death of a person within six months from the date on which it becomes invisible to him. [309] Again, if a man cannot perceive the saptarshi or the galaxy in the sky, it is considered such a bad omen that his end is believed to be near at hand. [310]

The rainbow is believed to be the bow of Indra, [311] the god of rains, and is therefore called 'Indra-dhanushya.' We see it when Indra draws his bow to release the rains from the rakshasas (demons); [312] or, when successful in bringing down rain, Indra manifests his glory by drawing a bow; [313] or when in the struggle for supremacy between Summer and the rainy season, Indra draws his bow to defeat Summer. [314]

It is also believed that when Ramachandra, the hero of the Ramayana, adjusted an arrow to the bow of Shiva, to compete for the hand of Sita in the swayamvara (or maiden's-choice marriage) celebrated by her, the bow was split into three pieces, which ever since present themselves as rainbows in the sky. [315]

The rainbow is popularly regarded as an indication of good or bad rainfall according as it appears at particular hours and in particular directions. If a rainbow appears in the east a speedy rainfall is expected; if on the other hand it is seen in the west, rainfall is apprehended to be distant. [316] Some people, however, believe the contrary, i.e., they regard the appearance of a rainbow in the west as an indication of good rains, and in the east as a sign of scarce rainfall. [317] Perhaps both ideas are reconciled by a third belief according to which the appearance of a rainbow in a direction facing the sun, indicates the proximity of rain. [318]

If a rainbow is seen at sunset or sunrise just before the commencement of rain the fall of rain will be excessive; but if it appears after rainfall, the rain will probably cease. [319] According to some persons the appearance of a rainbow in the morning portends a drought. [320] There is, however, a popular saying to the effect that were the kachbi, i.e., the rainbow, to be seen at sunrise in the west, it foretells great floods before nightfall.

The sight of a rainbow is sometimes regarded as a bad omen. Some believe that it shortens a man's life and brings misfortunes to him. Others believe that it is calamitous to a man's relations by marriage, especially to the mother-in-law, who is sure to lose her power of hearing. [321] People sometimes clash earthen vessels against one another to avert the evils which are to be feared from a rainbow. [322] It is also said that the sight of the whole of the rainbow is a good omen: but the sight of a part, however large, is inauspicious. [323]

According to the Puranas, the milky way or akash-ganga is the celestial River Ganga which was brought down by Bhagirath to the earth. [324] King Sagar once performed an ashwa-medha [325] sacrifice, when, according to custom, he let loose a horse, and sent his sixty thousand sons with it. Indra, jealous of the growing power of Sagar, stole the horse and concealed it in the hermitage of Kapila, when the sage was deeply absorbed in religious meditation. The sixty thousand sons of Sagar followed it to this asylum, where they taunted and insulted the sage, believing him to be the thief. Kapila, who was ignorant of the theft, opened his long-closed eyes in anger, emitting sparks of flame from them, and destroyed the sons of Sagar together with the whole of their army. Bhagirath, the grandson of Sagar, propitiated the sage, and on his advice practised religious austerities in honour of Shiva for the purpose of bringing down the River Ganga from heaven. Through the kindness of God Shiva, Bhagirath was at last successful in bringing the celestial river down to this world; and with the water of the river he revived the sons of Sagar. The River Ganga (i.e., the Ganges) in this world is therefore also known by the name of Bhagirathi. It is this heavenly river which we see as the milky way. [326] Like the sacred Ganges on the earth, the River Ganga in the celestial regions is held in great respect by the gods [327] and purifies the heavenly bodies, just as the earthly Ganges washes away the worst sins of mortals.

Some people, however, believe the milky way to be the track by which the holy Ganges descended from heaven to earth. [328]

Another belief is that the God Vishnu, at the time of his Vaman (or Dwarf) incarnation, touched the ina (i.e., the Egg) in his third footstep and thus caused a flow of waters, which is known as akash-ganga. [329] Some suppose the milky way to be a ladder leading to the heavens. [330] Astrologers call it Vatsa, a fictitious creature with numerous horns, mouths, and tails. [331] According to another belief, the milky way consists of two rekhas--lines--one of sin and the other of good and meritorious actions. The length of one line compared to the other betokens the predominance of good or evil as the case may be. [332] The milky way is also supposed to be the track left by the rath or car of Ramachandra. [333]

Akash-ganga or the milky way is said to consist of one crore and eighty lacs of stars. [334] If a man cannot perceive the milky way in the sky, his end is believed to be near at hand. [335]

The Musalmans declare the milky way to be the track formed by the footstep of the horse of the Prophet Muhammad, on the occasion of his night-journey to Heaven.

The occasion for earth-worship most frequently arises when anything is to be built upon its surface. At the time of setting the manek-stambha, or the first pillar of a marriage-bower or a bower for a thread-ceremony, [336] before commencing the construction of wells, reservoirs, and tanks and in laying the foundation-stone of a house, a temple, or a sacrificial pit, [337] or of a street, a fortress, a city, or a village, [338] or of any constructive work raised upon or made under the ground, certain ceremonies, called khat-muhurt or khat-puja, are performed. The earth-mother is then worshipped in the manner prescribed in the Shastras, to propitiate her against interruptions in the completion of the work undertaken. The owner or the person interested in the new construction pours a little water on the earth where the foundation-pit is to be dug, sprinkles red lac and gulal (red powder), places a betel-nut and a few precious coins, and digs out the first clod of earth himself. [339] Some of the things offered to the earth at the time of khat-puja are panchamrit, [340] betel-nuts, betel-leaves, pancha-ratna (or the five kinds of precious things, namely, gold, silver, copper, coral, and pearls), a bowl and green garments. Under the influence of particular rashis (signs of the zodiac), particular corners of the building under construction are required to be dug in the khat-muhurt ceremonies. For instance, a little digging in the north-west corner is believed to be favourable to the constructor who happens to be under the influence of Sinha (Leo), Kanya (Virgo) and Tula (Libra): in the north-east corner, if under the influence of Vrishchika (Scorpio), Dhanu (Sagittarius) and Makar (Capricornus): in the south-east corner if under the sway of Kumbha (Aquarius), Min (Pisces) and Mesha (Aries): in the south-west corner in the case of Vrishabh (Taurus), Mithun (Gemini) and Kark (Cancer). After the worship of the earth-mother, sugar or molasses is distributed among neighbours, bystanders and relatives, in token of the auspiciousness of the occasion. [341] An image of Ganpati is worshipped in a copper-dish, this is buried underground, and a brick is laid on it when starting the work of construction. In setting up the manek-stambha on marriage occasions, a small earthen bowl is filled with milk, curds, turmeric, durva-sprouts [342] and mag seeds (Phaseolus mungo), and buried in the ground after being sprinkled over with red lac and rice. [343]

The ceremonies appertaining to khat-muhurt are treated of at length in a book called Dharma-sindhu. [344] They are believed to secure durability of construction.

On the Dasara [345] day or the 10th day of the bright half of Ashvin (the last month), Rajas go out in state with their ministers and subjects to worship the earth-mother and the holy shami tree (prosopis spicegera). A wetted plot of ground is first dug over with pikes, javala (tender wheat plants) and shami leaves are then mixed with the muddy earth, and small balls of the mixture are made. A pice and betel-nut are placed in each ball, and they are presented to the worshipper as a mark of good luck. Travellers carry such balls with them on their journeys for luck. Kings carry the same to obtain success on the battle-field. The Pandavas had such balls with them on the field of Kurukshetra when they obtained a victory over the Kauravas. [346] The balls are also used as pastana. [347] The javala in the balls are taken out and allowed to grow in an earthen vessel filled with clay and manure till they reach a span in height, when they are taken up and used. [348]

Earth-worship is performed before burying treasure underground, and also when a marriage-procession, at the time of returning, reaches the limits of the bridegroom's village. [349]

In some places, virgins worship the plot of ground on which the Holi is lighted, for about ten or twelve days after the Holi holiday. [350]

Another occasion for earth-worship is the third day of the bright half of Chaitra (the sixth month), on which day Vishnu saved the earth in his Varaha (or Boar) incarnation, when it was being carried to the nether regions by the demon Shankhasur. [351]

On the eighth day of the bright half of Magh and also of Ashvin (the fourth and the last month respectively), naivedya (an oblation of food) is offered to the earth-mother, and is then used as her prasad (gift). No cooked food is allowed to fall on the ground on this day: even the leavings after meals are given away to cows. [352]

When any ceremony is to be performed on the earth's surface, as much of the spot as is required for the ceremony is cleansed by watering it and plastering it with cow-dung. A betel-nut and a pice are then placed on it as the Chada or rent of the spot. [353]

On those occasions when dakshina is given to Brahmans outside the village limits, worship of the earth-mother is performed by pouring milk on the ground, and by placing seven betel-nuts and seven single copper-pieces thereon. [354]

Some ambitious Brahmans dig earth from near the roots of a banyan tree after offering prayer to the earth, and out of it, make an image of Parthishwar--Lord of the Earth--hoping thereby to obtain wealth. The same ceremony, if observed near the roots of a pipal tree (ficus religiosa), is believed to confer wealth and male issue.

When Vishnu killed the demons Madhur and Kaitabha, the earth was strewn with their flesh and marrow (meda). Therefore the earth is called medini, and for the same reason is unclean, and no holy objects are allowed to touch it. [355] Another explanation is that the earth was rendered unclean because blood was shed on its surface in the combat of the demon Vritrasur with the god Indra. [356]

The things polluted by a contact with the earth are either objects which are to be dedicated to gods, such as sandal-wood ointment, panchamrit, [357] the leaves of the bel tree (Aegle marmelos), tulsi leaves (leaves of the holy or sweet basil plant), betel-leaves and flowers; [358] or objects which are sacred because of their having been dedicated to the gods, including tirtha [359] or water used in bathing the images of gods [360]; or things which are by nature so holy that it is improper to place them on the bare earth; for instance, images of deities, water of the sacred Ganges or the Jumna, [361] any holy writ, [362] a conch-shell and even gold. [363] Cooked food also deserves respect, as it supports the lives of men, and it is sinful in a Hindu to let it lie on the bare ground. Any irregular conduct in this respect arouses the wrath of the Annadeva (or the food deity). [364]

It is, however, maintained by some that the reason why certain things, such as materials of worship, are not allowed to touch the earth, is that the earth itself being a deity, such things would be dedicated to this deity by a contact with the earth and would thus become incapable of any further use, as things that are dedicated to one deity cannot again be offered to another. [365]

During the course of the recitation of mantras (holy hymns) in honour of Vishnu and Mahadeva; on the occasion of offering prayers to the grahas (planets) for their propitiation; and on occasions like Vishnuyaga, [366] Maharudra, Shatachandi, Gayatri-purashcharan [367] and Brahmana-varana [368] the devotee or the sacrificer and the priest sleep on darbha grass or on clean woollen blankets, spread on the bare ground.

Other occasions for sleeping on the floor are the days of the observance of certain vrats or vows; such as, the Divasa or the 15th day of the dark half of Ashadh (the ninth month), the Janmashtami or the 8th day of the dark half of Shravana (the tenth month), the days of Goatrad, a vrat lasting from the 11th day to the 15th day of the bright half of Bhadrapad, Mahashivaratri or the 14th day of the dark half of Magh, the Ekadashi day or the 11th day of both the bright and dark halves of a month, the Navratra days or the first nine days of Ashvin, eclipse days, and the day of Jagran or the 15th day of the bright half of Ashadh, besides, sometimes, the whole of the months of Shravana and the Purushottam or intercalary month; and the chaturmas, i.e., the four months of the rainy season. [369]

A Brahman in his brahmacharya (or the period of his life which, according to the Shastras, should be devoted to the acquirement of learning, and which commences from the date of his being invested with the sacred thread and terminates at the age of twenty-three) and a widow are not allowed by the Shastras to sleep elsewhere than on beds made on the ground.

Women, while in menstruation, sleep on the floor for four days. Some women, when they are separated from their husbands, also sleep in this fashion.

A dying person, two or three minutes before his death, is placed on the ground, which is first purified with cow-dung-plaster. [370] For ten days after a death, the members of the deceased's household and his relatives sleep on beds spread on the bare ground. [371] If the demise be very affecting, the nearest relatives sleep on the floor for periods which may extend to three months, six months, or even for a year, and sometimes the penance lasts for their whole lives.

It is customary, among some sects, not to allow the sathara--i.e., the spot lately occupied by a corpse in the house--to be suna or unoccupied for a single night. Someone must sleep on the spot for twelve consecutive days from the date of demise. [372]

Pilgrims, [373] after pilgrimage, abandon sensual pleasures, take their meals only once every day, and sleep on the floor. It is customary to sleep always on the ground while in holy places. Devotees, ascetics, sadhus, and their disciples sleep on the ground.

The God Indra has twelve meghas or clouds under his control, and he directs each of them to pour out their waters wherever he likes. When in the least irritated in the execution of his orders, Indra's voice is heard in this world in thunder-claps which rise to a terrible pitch if the deity becomes downright angry. Thunder is also said to be the loud laughter of Indra when in a happy mood. [374]

Another belief is that during the rainy season, Indra plays gedi-danda [375], and the strokes given to the gedi in the course of the game, produce what we call thunder; [376] or, that the clouds are god's footballs, and thunder is produced by his foot striking them, while at play during the rainy season. Some believe thunder to be due to the loud sounds produced by various musical instruments which are played upon the occasion of the marriage-ceremony of Indra. [377] According to others, thunder is produced by the cannon of Indra; [378] or, as some again say, by the trumpetings of Airavat, the elephant of Indra [379]; or, we hear thunder when Indra draws his bow and adjusts an arrow to the bow-string, in order to bring about the fall of rain. [380]

A further belief attributes thunder to the very rapid pace of the chariot of Bhagwan. [381] Some people, however, say that it is produced when Bhima (one of the five Pandavas) wields his prodigious club or bludgeon. [382] In the opinion of others, Vidyut or Tanyatun, the offspring of Lamba, the daughter of Daksha, and the wife of Dharmaraj thunders in the rainy season. [383] It is also suggested that the god of rains shakes the heavens and thus produces thunder. The Shastras, it is said, declare that thunder is caused by the sounds of the dundubhi--or kettledrums--beaten by the gods in delight at the sight of rain. [384] There is also a popular belief in the Surat district that an old hag causes thunder either when she grinds corn or when she rolls stones in the clouds. [385]

The prevalent belief about lightning seems to be that it is the girl whom Kansa tried to dash against a stone, but who escaped and went up to the sky. Kansa, the tyrant king of Mathura, was informed by a heavenly voice, by way of prophecy, that a son would be born to his sister who would cause his destruction. Kansa thereupon confined his sister Devaki and her husband Vasudeva in prison, loaded them with fetters, and kept the strictest watch over them. He took from Devaki, and slew, every child of hers as soon as it was born. In this way he disposed of her first six children. On the seventh occasion, however, on which Devaki gave birth to a son named Krishna, a girl was born at the same hour to Nanda in Mathura; and Vasudeva secretly interchanged the two children in spite of the vigilance of Kansa. When Kansa knew of his sister having been delivered, he seized the infant girl and tried to dash her against a stone. The little one immediately flew away to the skies, where she still dwells in the form of Vijli or lightning. [386]

The Shastras describe Vijli as the distinctive weapon of Indra, just as pashupataka is peculiar to Shiva and the Gandiva bow to Arjuna. [387]

Other beliefs about lightning are that Vijli is the sister of Megharaja, the god of rains, and appears to announce his approach: [388] that Vijli is a goddess who rests upon winds, fire, and rains: [389] that Vijli is but the thunderbolt of Indra: [390] that lightnings are the flashes of the bright weapon of Indra: [391] that lightning is the lustre of the fireworks and the lamps lighted by the gods in honour of the nuptials of Indra: [392] that lightning is produced by the sparks caused by the friction of the gedi and the danda of Indra when the god plays the game. [393] Vijli is also known as Saudamini, i.e., one residing on Mount Sudama. [394]

The occurrence of thunder and the appearance of lightning on particular days and in particular directions are regarded as signs of the abundance or scarcity of rain during the season.

Thunder during the Rohini nakshatra [395] is a bad omen: it foreshadows either a famine, [396] or a Boterun, i.e., complete cessation of rains for seventy-two days after the thunder-claps are heard. According to another view, if the Rohini nakshatra lasts for a fortnight and if the sky is clear during the period and yet lightning and thunder occur, a Boterun will be the consequence; but if lightning and thunder were to accompany the clouds in the same nakshatra, heavy and plentiful rains may be confidently expected. [397] Lightning without clouds in the same nakshatra is believed to be the cause of what is popularly called Rohini-dazi, i.e., the burning heat of Rohini. [398]

Some persons expect a Boterun after kadakas or crashing thunder. Others apprehend a famine if they hear thunder on the second day of the bright half of Jyeshtha (the eighth month).

Thunder or lightning in the Hasta [399] nakshatra foretells good harvests and a prosperous year. [400] Thunder in the same nakshatra is believed to muzzle the jaws of serpents and other noxious creatures, and to achieve this object, also, a samelu (or a log of wood) is struck against a mobhara (or a hollow stone used for threshing corn). [401] If thunder is not heard during this nakshatra, mosquitoes and other insects and vermin are believed to be likely to multiply. [402]

If thunder is heard during the Ardra nakshatra, the rainfall will be delayed for a month. [403]