Chapter I (3)

Lightning is commonly seen on the second and the fifth day of the bright half of Ashadh, and is considered a sign of good rainfall, while its absence indicates a probable scarcity of rain. [404] Its appearance on the fifth day of Ashadh is believed by some to foretell an early fall of rain. Since the rainfall, and therefore the state of the crops during the ensuing year, are suggested by lightning on this day, corn-dealers settle a rise or fall in the price of corn according as lightning is or is not seen on that occasion. [405]

Thunder in the east predicts a speedy fall of rain. If flashes of lightning are seen in the north-east or the north, rain will fall within three days. Lightning in the south-east or the south foretells extreme heat. [406]

Long-continued thunder shows that the rainfall is distant. Similarly, continued flashes of lightning intimate danger to the lives and property of people. Sudden thunder portends an immediate cessation of rain. Thunder or lightning out of season threatens calamity to the country. [407]

Vijli or lightning is said to be fettered on the fifth day of the bright half of Ashadh--(or, as some say, on the second day of Shravan)--after which date no apprehensions of its destructive powers need be entertained. [408] Till then, however, it is free and is likely to injure those persons [409] who have not cut or shaved their hair from their birth. [410]

The occurrence of lightning is believed to cause the delivery and sometimes even the death of pregnant women. [411]

Any period marked by the occurrence of lightning is considered inauspicious. [412]

The Puranas speak of fourteen worlds--the seven swargas (celestial regions) and the seven patals (nether regions) [413]. Underneath the seventh patal [414] lies Shesha (the divine cobra) who supports all the fourteen worlds on one of his one thousand hoods. On account of the heavy burden, the serpent-god sometimes gets tired, and tries to change his position. The result of the movement is an earth-quake. According to another version, an earthquake occurs when Shesha changes his posture in sleep, [415] or is the result of a hair falling from the body of Shesha. [416] Some people say that ordinarily Shesha does not feel the weight of the fourteen worlds on his head; he bears the load as if it were only a single sesamum seed. But when too much sin accumulates in any of the regions, the burden becomes unbearable for him: he begins to shake under it, and an earthquake occurs. [417]

Some believe that there is a tortoise under the divine cobra who supports the world; [418] others go further, and add a frog below the tortoise: [419] and it is said that the slightest motion on the part of either the tortoise or the cobra is the cause of an earthquake.

Another belief is that earthquakes occur whenever there is tyranny or injustice on the part of a king, or whenever immorality spreads in society, because the earth is unable to bear the sin, and trembles at the sight of it. [420]

According to a different opinion, the earth is supported by the Pothia or the favourite bull of Shiva on one of his horns. An earthquake is caused whenever he transfers the earth from one horn to another in order to relieve the former from the constant pressure of the burden. [421]

There is also a belief that deities of some strange species reside in the nether regions, and the earth is shaken whenever these beings fight among themselves.

According to the Varaha-sanhita, an earthquake is always the precursor of some unprecedented calamity. [422] The prevalent belief in the popular mind seems to be that an earthquake is the result of immorality and sin, and further that it forebodes some dire calamity, such as famine, pestilence, an outbreak of fire, a revolution, or a great war. [423] The phenomenon is, therefore, regarded with great fear; and when it occurs, people endeavour to avoid the contingent evils by such meritorious acts as the giving of alms, and generally by leading a virtuous life. [424]

The most popular of the holy rivers are the Ganges, the Jumna (or Jamuna), the Narbada, the Saraswati (near Sidhpur), the Kaveri, the Godavari, the Gandaki, the Sarayu, the Damodari, the Sindhu (or Indus), the Mahanad, the Gomati (near Dwarka), the Brahmaputra, the Sabarmati, the Ghels (near Gaddheda), the Tungabhadra, the Suvarnabhadra, the Bhadrashita, the Jambuvati, the Phalaku (or Phalgu), the Kaushiki, the Tamraparni, the Sita and the Alakananda. Any point where three rivers meet is also a sacred place. Most of the holy rivers are the subject of many traditions, and books have been written to celebrate their merits.

The Ganges, the Jumna, and the Godavari are said to be the holiest of all rivers. There are a number of beliefs about the origin of the Ganges. One of them is that the Ganges is the stream caused by King Bali washing the feet of Vaman (the Dwarf incarnation of Vishnu). [425] Another story relates that the god Brahma was exhausted by overwork at the time of the marriage of Shiva and Parvati. The gods, therefore, created water from their own lustres, and gave it to Brahma in a gourd, to be used in a similar contingency. When Vishnu in his Vaman avatar (or Dwarf incarnation) bestrode the heavens with a single step, Brahma washed his toe in the water from this gourd. A stream was thus created called Swarga-ganga and brought down to the earth by Bhagirath, the grandson of Sagar. When the Ganges fell from the heavens, it was supported and held fast by God Shiva in his jata or matted hair. It was released by his loosening the hair, and in its course, inundated the sacrificial ground of King Jahnu. The latter, being angry, drank up its waters. On the entreaties of Bhagirath, he released the stream by tearing off his thigh. [426] The river then flowed to the spot where the sixty thousand sons of Sagar were burnt to ashes; and it is said by some that one of the sixty thousand was saved at the end of each year up to the year 1955 of the Samvat era (corresponding to A. D. 1899), by the end of which period all the sixty thousand had attained salvation. From the earth the Ganges went to the nether regions. Thus flowing in the heavens, on the earth and in the Patal, the Ganges is called Tripathaga (i.e., flowing in three courses). In its divine form, the Ganges is the wife of Shiva. Owing to the curse of Brahma, she was born in human form in this world and was married to Shantanu, by whom she became the mother of Bhishma, the heroic uncle of the Kauravas and the Pandavas. [427]

It is customary among Hindu pilgrims, when they visit Kashi (Benares) to take with them copper-vessels filled with Gangajal (water of the Ganges), and to worship the Ganga when they reach their homes after the pilgrimage. A figure is drawn in seven different kinds of corn; the bowl is placed on it; abil gulal (red powder), frankincense, and naivedya (an oblation of food) are offered: a ghi lamp is lighted: a Brahman woman is dressed as Uma, the wife of Shiva, and Brahmans are entertained at a feast, dakshina being given to them. [428]

The water of the Ganges, as well as that of the Jumna, is believed to be so pure that it cannot be affected by microbes, even if kept for years in the house. This quality is believed to be a manifestation of its divine nature. It is further called patit-pavan (lit. purifier of the fallen), and exculpates the sinful from their sins, either by a single draught or by bathing in it. [429] Gangajal is kept in most Hindu families, a draught of it taken by a dying person being believed to secure moksha or eternal salvation for the soul. [430]

A vow is observed by women, in honour of the Ganges, for the first ten days of the month of Jyeshtha. On these days they rise early in the morning and bathe in the holy waters of the Ganges. [431]

Sometimes ghi lamps are placed upon the waters of the Ganges or the Jumna, and vessels of metal, pice, and cocoanuts are cast into the stream. At such a time, when many people are standing on the banks offering prayers with folded hands, or engaged in the arati, [432] the river presents a very picturesque scene, the numerous lights being reflected in the water. [433]

The Jamuna or Yamuna is the daughter of the Sun, and the sister of Yama, the god of Death. The banks of the Jumna are well known as the scene of the amorous sports of God Krishna. [434] The story of the defeat of the demon Kaliya Nag who was ejected from the Jumna by Krishna is well-known.

It is said that those who have bathed in the Jumna or have once tasted its water, need not be afraid of Yama, the god of Death. [435] It is considered meritorious among the Hindus to bathe the image of god Shiva in water from the holy Jumna or the Ganges or the Godavari. [436] There is a popular shloka in honour of the Jumna which runs:--"Victory to thee! Oh Yamuna, flowing through the Madhu-vana (the Madhu woods), the bearer of shining waters, the companion of Jahnavi, the daughter of Sindhu, the ornament of the enemy of Madhu (viz., Krishna), the appeaser of Madhava, the dispeller of the danger of Gokal, the destroyer of the sins of the world, the giver of intellect, the scene of the amorous sports of Keshava. Victory to thee! O remover of difficulties, purify me." [437]

The banks of the Godavari are known as the site of the hermitage of Gautama. When the planet Brihaspati (Jupiter) enters the Sinha-rashi (the constellation Leo) [438] the holy Ganges goes to the Godavari, and remains there for one year. During that year, all the gods are believed to bathe in this river. Thousands of pilgrims visit Nasik to offer prayers to the Godavari, and after bathing in the river, give alms to Brahmans. Similarly, on the Kapilashashti day, on which six jogs or conjunctive incidents occur simultaneously, the virtue of all tirthas or holy places is believed to be concentrated in the Godavari at Nasik.

The mere sight of the Narbada has the same effect as a bath in the Ganges or the Jumna. [439] It is said that the Narbada is the image of Shiva, and that fragments of the stony bow of Shiva are to be found in its bed. [440] The stones in the bed of this river have the same sanctity as the images of god Shiva. [441] Shaligram stones, which are worshipped as the images of Vishnu, are found in this river. It is an act of high merit among Hindus to take a pradakshina round the Narbada, i.e., to travel along the banks of the river, inhabited as the region is by many Sadhus and other holy persons. [442] Ashvatthama, the immortal son of Drona, is believed to reside on the banks of this river and to pay occasional visits to the Bhils in the neighbourhood. The Shukla-tirtha, situated on the Narbada, is visited by numerous pilgrims, and a fair is held there on every sixtieth year.

The sage Kapila instructed his mother Devahuti with divine knowledge on the banks of the Saraswati. Since then, the river is held sacred and funeral ceremonies--Shraddhas--are performed on its banks in honour of departed female ancestors. Similarly Shraddhas in honour of male ancestors are performed at the confluence of the Ganges, the Jumna, and the Saraswati at Allahabad. [443] [444]

Of the Gandaki it is said that it contains as many shankars (images of Shiva) as there are sankars (stones). The shaligram stone is found in this river also. The Saryu is sacred as the scene of the childish sports of Ramachandra, the hero of the Ramayana. On the banks of the Phalaku or Phalgu, Ramachandra performed Shraddha ceremonies in honour of his father Dasharath.

A bath in the waters of a holy river washes away the sins of the bather. [445] It is also meritorious to repeat the names of the several holy rivers. [446] The performance of Shraddha ceremonies on the banks of a holy river secures the felicity of deceased ancestors in heaven. At the time of performing Shraddhas at a holy place, Hindus shave their moustaches, bathe in the sacred waters, and then go through the necessary ceremonies, in the course of which pindas are offered to the Pitars (spirits of dead ancestors). Brahmans are feasted after the ceremonies, and dakshina is given to them. [447] Tarpan or an offering of water with flowers, ointment, red lac, cocoanuts, and betel, is frequently made to the river on the banks of which the ceremonies are performed. [448] The bones of a deceased person, left unburnt after cremation of the body, are gathered together and thrown into holy rivers such as the Ganges, the Jumna, and the Godavari, for the purification of his soul. [449]

When heavy floods threaten a village or a city with serious injury, the king or the headman should go in procession to propitiate the river with flowers, cocoanuts, and other offerings in order that the floods may subside. [450] A story is related of the occurrence of heavy floods in a village in the Jatalpur taluka, when a certain lady placed an earthen vessel (ordinarily used for curdling milk), containing a ghi lamp, afloat on the floods, whereupon the waters were at once seen to recede. [451]

Besides the holy rivers, there are numerous kunds or sacred pools which are regarded with equal reverence, and in which a bath has the same efficacy for destroying sin. Similarly, they are equally suitable places for the performance of Shraddha ceremonies. These kunds are the subject of numerous beliefs, and each of them has a certain mahatmya or peculiar merit of its own. Six miles to the east of Dwarka, near the sea-coast, there is a kund called Pind-tarak, where many persons go to perform the Shraddha and the Narayan-bali ceremonies. They first bathe in the kund: then, with its water, they prepare pindas, and place them in a metal dish: red lac is applied to the pindas, and a piece of cotton thread wound round them; the metal dish being then dipped in the kund, when the pindas, instead of sinking, are said to remain floating on the water. The process is believed to earn a good status for the spirits of departed ancestors in heaven. It is further said that physical ailments brought on by the avagati--degradation or fallen condition--of ancestors in the other world, are remedied by the performance of Shraddha on this kund. [452]

The Damodar kund is situated near Junagadh. It is said that if the bones of a deceased person which remain unburnt after his cremation are dipped in this kund, the soul of that person obtains moksha (or final emancipation).

There is a vav or reservoir on Mount Girnar, known as Rasakupika-vav. It is believed that the body of a person bathing in it becomes as hard as marble, and that if a piece of stone or iron is dipped in the vav, it is instantly transformed into gold. But the vav is only visible to saints and sages who are gifted with a supernatural vision. [453]

Kashipuri (Benares) contains a vav called Gyan-vav, in which there is an image of Vishweshwar (the Lord of the universe, i.e., Shiva). A bath in the water from this vav is believed to confer upon a person the gift of divine knowledge.

In the village of Chunval, a few miles to the north of Viramgam, there is a kund known as Loteshwar, near which stands a pipal tree. Persons possessed by ghosts or devils, are freed from possession by pouring water at the foot of the tree and taking turns round it, remaining silent the while. [454]

A bath in the Man-sarovar near Bahucharaji is said to cause the wishes of the bather to be fulfilled. There is a local tradition [455] that a Rajput woman was turned into a male Rajput of the Solanki class by a bath in its waters.

There is a kund called Zilaka near Zinzuwada with a temple of Naleshwar Mahadev near it. The kund is said to have been built at the time of King Nala. It is believed locally that every year, on the 15th day of the bright half of Bhadrapad, the holy Ganges visits the kund by an underground route. A great fair is held there on that day, when people bathe in the kund and give alms to the poor. [456] There is also another kund close by, known as Bholava, where the river Saraswati is believed to have halted and manifested herself on her way to the sea. [457]

There is a kund in Baladana near Wadhwan, dedicated to Hol, the favourite mata of the Charans. In this kund, black or red gagar bedinus--pieces of cotton thread--are sometimes seen floating in the water. They appear only for a moment, and sink if any one endeavours to seize them. The appearance of black pieces forebodes famine: but the red ones foretell prosperity. [458]

In Bhadakon near Chuda there is a kund called Garigavo. The place is celebrated as the spot of the hermitage of the sage Bhrigu and a fair is held there annually on the last day of Bhadrapad.

Persons anxious to attain heaven, bathe in the Mrigi kund on Mount Girnar; and a bath in the Revati kund, which is in the same place, confers male issue on the bather. [459] There is also a kund of the shape of an elephant's footprint Pagahein on Mount Girnar. It never empties and is held most sacred by pilgrims. [460] People bathe in the Gomati kund near Dwarka and take a little of the earth from its bed, for the purification of their souls. [461] In the village of Babara, Babhruvahan, the son of Arjun, is said to have constructed several kunds, all of which are believed to be holy.

The Lasundra kund near Lasundra in the Kaira District [462] and the Tulsi-shyama kund on Mount Girnar [463] contain hot waters. There is also a hot kund called Devki-unai, about thirty miles to the south of Surat. There the waters remain hot throughout the whole of the year, except on the fifteenth day of the bright half of Chaitra. On this day, the waters cool, and people can bathe in the kund. Many pilgrims visit the place on this occasion, to offer money, cocoanuts, and red lac to the unai mata, whose temple stands near the kund. It is said that King Rama built this kund while performing a local sacrifice, and brought water up from the patal (nether regions) by shooting an arrow into the earth. [464]

Other holy kunds are: the Bhim kund, the Gomukhi-ganga, and the Kamandalu kund on Mount Girnar near the temple of Bhimnath Mahadeo; the Radha kund, the Lalita kund, and the Krishna-sarovar in Dwarka; the Rama-sarovar, the Sita kund and the Devki-unai kund in Ayodhya (Oudh); [465] and the Suraj kund [466] and the Hanumandhara [467] kund on Mount Girnar.

Waterfalls are not very familiar to the people of Gujarat. There is a belief, however, that barren couples obtain issue if they bathe in a waterfall, and offer a cocoanut. [468]

If a river source issues from an opening, in the shape of a go-mukh (cow's-mouth), the stream is called dhodh, and is considered as sacred as the holy Ganges. A bath in such a dhodh has the same efficacy for absolving persons from their sins. [469]

When a person dies an accidental death and before the fulfilment of his worldly desires, his soul receives avagati (i.e., passes into a degraded or fallen condition), and it is not released from this state till Shraddhas have been duly performed in its name, and the objects of its desire dedicated to it with proper ritual. The same fate befalls those souls which do not receive the funeral pindas with the proper obsequies. Such fallen souls become ghosts and goblins, [470] and are to be found where water is, i.e., near a well, a tank, or a river. [471]

Those who meet death by drowning become goblins, residing near the scene of their death, and are a source of danger to all who approach the water; for instance, in Monapuri and Sasai, there are two ghunas (mysterious watery pits) haunted by bhuts (ghosts) which take the lives of one or two buffaloes every year. [472] Matas [473] and Shankhinis also haunt wells, springs, and tanks and either drown, or enter the persons of those who go near their resorts.

Persons who are possessed in this manner, can be freed by bhuvas, who give them a magic thread to wear. [474]

There is a vav called Nilkanth vav near Movaiya, in which a Pinjari (a female cotton-carder) is said to have been drowned, and to have been turned into a ghost, in which form she occasionally presents herself to the people. [475]

Another ghost haunts an old vav, called Madha, in Vadhwan and drowns one human being every third year as a victim. But a male spirit named Kshetrapal resides in the kotha (or entrance) of the vav, and saves those who fall near the entrance. A person is, however, sure to be drowned if he falls in any other part of the vav. [476] A ghost also resides in the vav at Hampar near Dhrangadhra and terrifies the people at times.

The goddess Rainadevi resides in water, and is worshipped by virgins on the fifteenth day of the bright half of Ashadh, when they grow javaras (tender wheat-plants) in an earthen vessel and present them to her, remaining awake for the whole of the night to sing songs in her honour.

Darya-Pir, the patron of Luvanas (merchants) and Kharvas (sailors), resides in the sea; and vows are observed in his honour by these people on the second day of the bright half of every month, when they pass a little water through his sieve. [477]

It is well known that a drowning person clings fast to anyone who tries to save him, and endangers the lives of both himself and his saviour. [478] It is also believed by some people that the messengers of Varuna (the lord of all waters) seize those persons who bathe in a river earlier than the usual hour in the morning; and the act of saving a drowning person thus deprives Varuna of his victim, and brings down the wrath of that deity. [479]

Sometimes, for the sake of moksha, a person takes samadhi (i.e., drowns himself with a religious motive) in a holy river, such as the Ganges or the Jumna. In such a case the relatives and other persons refrain from interference, and do not try to rescue the person.

When a well is to be dug, an expert is first called to select a likely spot on which to dig. A Brahman is then consulted as to the auspicious hour on which the work of digging should be commenced. [480] For this purpose, Tuesdays and those days on which the earth sleeps are to be avoided. The earth is supposed to be asleep on the following six days in every month, namely: the 1st, the 7th, the 9th, the 10th, the 14th and the 24th days following a sankranti (i.e., the day on which the sun crosses from one constellation to another). Excluding these days, a date is generally fixed on which the Chandra-graha (or the planet moon) is favourable to the constructor of the well. [481]

On the appointed day, the expert, the constructor of the well, the Brahman priest, and the labourers go to the place where the well is to be dug, and an image of the god Ganpati--the protector of all auspicious ceremonies--is first installed on the spot and worshipped with panchamrit. [482] [483] A green coloured piece of atlas (silk cloth), about two feet long, is then spread on the spot, and a pound and a quarter of wheat, a cocoanut, betels, dates and copper coin are placed on it. A copper bowl containing some silver or gold coins and filled with water, is also placed there; the mouth of the bowl is covered with the leaves of the Ashoka tree (Jinesia Asoka) and a cocoanut is placed over the leaves. After this, the priest recites sacred hymns and asks his host to perform the khat [484] ceremonies. [485] Among favourite offerings to Ganpati and the earth in the course of worship and in the performance of the khat ceremonies are: curds, milk, honey, molasses, cocoanuts, dhana (a kind of spices), leaves of nagarvel (a kind of creeper) and red lac. The expert who is called to choose a proper site for the well offers frankincense and a cocoanut to the spot, and lights a lamp thereon. After the khat [486] ceremonies are over, the host distributes sugar or molasses among the bystanders, and offers a sum of money to the expert, who usually refuses it, asking the host to spend it in charity. Those who accept money give away a part of it in alms to the poor.

Sometimes, to secure the unobstructed completion of the work, the god Ganpati and the goddess Jaladevi are installed and worshipped daily, till water appears in the well. Some people, however, install the goddess Jaladevi after the appearance of water, when a stone is taken out from the bottom of the well and is plastered with red-lead to represent the goddess and is ceremoniously worshipped. When the construction of the well is complete, vastu, i.e., the ceremony in vogue after the completion of a new building, or jalotsava (the water-festival) is celebrated, Brahmans being entertained at a feast, with dakshina given. [487]

The water of the Krukalas well in the island of Shankhodwar is believed to cure fever and diseases caused by morbid heat. A draught of the water of the Gomukhi-ganga near Girnar, makes one proof against an attack of cholera. [488]

The water of a gozara well (i.e., a well which is polluted on account of a person bring drowned in it) cures children of bronchitis and cough. [489] [490]

There is a well near Ramdorana, of which the water is effective against cough, [491] and the water of the Bhamaria well near Vasawad possesses the same virtue. [492]

The water of the Mrigi kund near Junagadh remedies leprosy.

The Pipli well near Zalawad and the Detroja-vav near Kolki are well-known for the stimulative effect of their waters on the digestion. [493]

If a dark stone is found in the course of digging a well, the water of that well is believed to have medicinal properties. [494]

The birth of a child under the mul nakshatra endangers the life of its father: but the misfortune is averted if the child and its parents bathe in water drawn from one hundred and eight wells. Such water, if swallowed, is said to cure sanipat or delirium. [495]

In the island of Shial there is a vav called Than-vav, where mothers, who cannot suckle their children for want of milk, wash their bodices. When they afterwards wear these bodices, these are believed to be able to cause the due secretion of milk. [496]

The most famous of the sacred lakes are Pampa [497], Bindu [498], Pushkar and Sambhar near Ajmere, Man-sarovar near Bahucharaji, Narayan-sarovar in Cutch, Ravanrhad in the Himalayas, and Ramarhad. The following popular myth is related about Man-sarovar.

Two kings once agreed that the two children that should first be born to them should marry each other. But it happened that both the kings had daughters. One of them, however, concealed the fact, and gave out that the child born to him was a son. So that when the children attained a marriageable age, they were married to each other according to the agreement.

But the wife found out the secret when she went to stay with her supposed husband, and disclosed it to her parents, who invited the counterfeit son-in-law to their house with the object of ascertaining the truth. The alleged son, however, suspected the design and fled, with a mare and a bitch. On arriving near Man-sarovar, the animals went into the lake in order to refresh themselves, when there was an immediate transformation; and the bitch and the mare came out a horse and a dog. On observing this miracle, their mistress followed their example and was also turned into a male. The story is still sung by girls in a garabi (song) during the Navaratra holidays. [499]

There is a belief that the ancient golden city of Dwarka, the capital of god Krishna, still exists in the sea, although it is invisible to the eyes of mortals. A story is told of a man named Pipo Bhagat, who, once perceiving a golden bowl floating in the sea, plunged into the water and saw the golden palaces of Dwarka and god Krishna resting therein. It is said that he returned with the tide and related his experience to several people. [500]

Similarly, the golden Lanka of Ravan is still believed to exist under the sea, ruled over by Bibhishan, the brother of Ravan, and visible only to the eyes of saints and holy persons. [501] It is a common belief that the nether regions are inhabited by a species of semi-divine beings, half men and half serpents, called Nags, who possess magnificent palaces under the water. [502] The story of Kaliya Nag, who resided at the bottom of the Jumna and was driven from that place by Krishna, is well known. [503] There are a number of mythological traditions in the Puranas of kings and princes having visited these palaces in watery regions, and of their having brought back beautiful Nagakanyas (daughters of Nags) therefrom. [504] For instance, Arjuna married a Nagakanya named Ulupi when he was living in exile with his brothers. He also stayed for some time with the Nags.

Ghosts and demons sometimes inhabit palaces under the water. Deep waters, unfrequented by men, are the favourite resorts of such beings. [505]

The god Varuna resides in the waters, and is said to have once carried off Nand (the adoptive father of Krishna) to his watery abode, for having bathed in the Jumna before dawn.

Kalindi, the daughter of the king of the Kalingas, practised religious austerities in a palace under the waters of the Jumna with the object of securing a suitable husband. Krishna, on being informed of this by Arjuna, went to the place and married her. [506]

There is a story in the Puranas that a king, named Nandraj, used to bury his treasures in the sea with the assistance of a mani (jewel) which furnished a safe passage through the water. The mani was in the end burnt by the queen of Nandraj and the treasure still lies hidden in the waters of the sea. [507]

It is narrated in the fourth chapter of Bhagvat-puran that the ten thousand sons of Prachetas used to reside in palaces built under water. [508]

Mountains are held to be sacred in a variety of circumstances; thus, some are valued for possessing medicinal drugs: some are revered as the birthplaces of the gods, or as the residences of saints: some for possessing many tirthas (holy spots): some because they were visited by Rama or the Pandavas: some serve as guardians of the four quarters: and some contain the sources of holy rivers.

Both the important ranges of the Presidency, the Sahyadri and the Satpuda, are subjects of veneration in the popular mind. The Himalayas, the Vindhya Mountains, and the Nilgiris command special respect. Other sacred mountains are Girnar and Shetrunja in Kathiawar, Mount Abu, Pavagad near Baroda, Brahmagiri Arasur, Tryambak near Nasik, Koyalo, Govardhan near Mathura, Revatachal near Dwarka, and Hinglaj in Sind.

It is said that in ancient times there were deep miry ditches where Girnar and Abu stand at present. One day a cow belonging to the sage Vasishtha fell into one of them and was found by Kacha, the son of Brihaspati, after a long search. When the incident was brought to the notice of Vasishtha, he requested Meru (a mythical mountain) to send his two sons Girnar and Abu to occupy and fill the ditches. Girnar required sixty-eight tirthas to accompany him; and the boon was granted by the gods. [509]

Girnar is one of the seven great mountains which once possessed wings. [510] [511] It is also known as the place where the sage Dattatraya performed religious austerities. [512] The place is so holy that any person dying within a radius of twelve gaus [513] from it is believed to attain moksha. [514] A visit to the temples on Girnar absolves one from all sins; and taking a turn round Girnar and Shetrunja is said to bring good fortune. [515] Bhagwan manifests himself to those who ascend the Bhairavajaya summit on Girnar. There is a rock on this mountain of which it is said that those who cast themselves from it directly attain heaven. [516]

Pavagad is known for the temple of Mahakali Mata. It is said that King Patai once propitiated her by austerities, and on being desired to demand a boon, asked the goddess to accompany him to his palace. The goddess was highly incensed at this request, and promptly destroyed him.

Hanuman, the monkey-god, once promised to take the Mountain Govardhan to meet Rama. It is well known how the monkey allies of Rama constructed a bridge of rocks across the sea to Lanka, and how Hanuman supplied the requisite material by fetching huge mountains. Whilst engaged on this work, he was one day carrying the Govardhan mountain to the site of the bridge, when Rama issued an order that all monkeys who were fetching mountains should deposit their burdens at the spot where they stood at the moment of the order. Hanuman could not disobey the order of his lord, and he had accordingly to drop the Govardhan mountain near Mathura. In order to fulfil Hanuman's promise, however, Vishnu held the mountain over his head for seven days, at the time of his Krishna incarnation.

It is said that the inhabitants of the districts round Govardhan formerly revered and adored Indra. But Krishna condemned this custom, and introduced the worship of Govardhan. Indra was exasperated at this conduct, and poured tremendous rains on Gokal in order to drown Krishna and his followers. But Krishna held up the Govardhan mountain on his little finger and sheltered all his people under its cover. The mountain was supported in this manner for seven days, by the end of which the rains subsided and Indra confessed himself vanquished. Even now Vaishnavas form an image of Govardhan out of mud and worship it on the Janmashtami day (i.e., the eighth day of the dark half of Shravan). [517]

The Oshama Hill near Patanvav (in the jurisdiction of Gondal) is noted for the beautiful temples of Tapakeshwar Mahadev, and Matari Mata. It is said that Bhima [518] the second of the five Pandavas, first met the giantess Hidimba, on this hill. [519] The charcoal-like stones which are dug out in numbers from this hill are believed by the people to have been blackened by the blood of the giant Hidimb, the brother of Hidimba who was killed by Bhima. [520]

Mount Shetrunja (or Shatruñjaya) possesses numerous Jain shrines and attracts thousands of pilgrims every year. The hearts of all pilgrims are believed to be purified from the moment they come within six miles of the mountain. [521]

Mount Abu possesses the temple of Amba Mata where Krishna's hair was clipped for the first time. [522] Tryambak is known for the temple of Tryambakeshwar and the source of the holy Godavari. [523] About Revatachal, it is said that the mountain was golden in ancient times. [524] In the Vindhya Mountains is situated the famous temple of Omkar Mandhata. [525] The hermitage of Kakbhushundi in the Nilgiris was visited by Rama when he listened to the religious stories read out by that sage. The sage Agatsya also is said to have resided in these mountains. [526]

The temple of Hinglaj stands on a hill, which is situated at a distance of eighteen days' journey by road from Karachi. The Mata is ministered to by a Musalman and the place is mostly visited by Atits, Bavas, Khatris, Chhipas, Mochis, and other low-caste Hindus. On occasions the doors of the temple spontaneously open, and after the devotees have visited the Mata, they again shut in the same mysterious manner.

As the abode of Shiva and as containing the sources of the holiest of rivers, the Himalayas are the most sacred of all mountains, and possess many holy places of pilgrimage, such as Badrinarayan, Kedarnath, Hardwar, etc. Badrinarayan is the favourite resort of those who have relinquished the world and who only wish to meditate on the Divine Being. The sages Nara and Narayan are said to have performed religious austerities in this place, and eighty-eight thousand rishis (sages) are believed to be similarly occupied there to-day. Owing to the excessive cold, the place is extremely difficult to reach. Pilgrims carry burning hearths with them to protect themselves against cold. Besides, it is necessary to cross the Pathar-nadi (or stony river), of which the water, if touched, turns one into stone. The method of crossing this river is to suspend sikans or slings above its water and to swing from one sling to another. [527]

A hill called Swargarohan is believed to be twenty miles to the north of Badrikedarnath and is said to lead to heaven. In ancient times the Pandavas had repaired to this place in order to do penance for the sin of having killed their kinsmen in the Great War. But when they tried to ascend to heaven by the Swargarohan Hill, only Yudhishthir and his faithful dog were able to reach their goal: the rest were frozen in the snow.

Mount Kailasa, the abode of Shiva, is supposed to be situated in the northern part of the Himalayas. The mountain is described as always covered with verdure and full of beautiful gardens and of palaces made of jewels, with roads paved with golden dust and sphatika-mani (crystal stone). It is said that Ravan, the king of Lanka, once uprooted this mountain and held it on the palm of his hand, in order to display his prowess. The demon Bhasmasur, who was enamoured of the goddess Parvati, is said to have performed the same feat in order to frighten Shiva.

Another mythical mountain is Meru, which is supposed to occupy the centre of the earth. [528] The sun, the moon, and all the planets revolve round this mountain, and it therefore plays an important part in the causation of day and night. For night falls on one side of the earth when the sun goes to the other side of Meru; and the day begins when the sun emerges from that side of the mountain. Meru is sixty-eight thousand yojans [529] in height, and penetrates the earth to the depth of sixteen thousand yojans. Its eastern side appears white, the southern is yellow, the western is black, and the northern red. The mountain is also believed to consist of gold and gems. The Ganges, in her fall from the heavens, is said to have descended first on the top of this mountain and then to have flowed in four streams in four directions. The southern stream is known as the Ganges; the northern, in Tartary, is called Bhadrasoma; the eastern is the same as the Sita; and the western is named Chax or the Oxus. The top of this mountain is believed to be inhabited by gods, gandharvas (celestial musicians) and rishis (sages). [530] According to the Yoga-vasishtha, there is a kalpa-vriksha [531] on the Lalmani summit of Meru, where a rishi named Bhushundkak is engaged in devotional prayers since time immemorial. [532] The Puranas declare that Vaivaswat Manu, the first man, resided near Meru, and that his descendants migrated to Ayodhya to found there a kingdom which was afterwards ruled over by Rama.

It is believed by some people that mountain-tops are inhabited by a class of recluses, called Aghori-bavas, who devour human beings. [533] The Kalika hill near Girnar is believed to be frequented by Joganis (female harpies) who take the lives of visitors to the hill, and it is said that none who visits the place is ever known to return. [534] Persons who visit the temple of Kalikamata on Mount Girnar always lose one of their party, who falls a victim to the goddess. [535]

The changes in the seasons are attributed by some to Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesha (Shiva), the gods of the Hindu Trinity. Brahma sends down the rains and produces corn, grass, etc., Vishnu protects and nourishes the harvests in winter, and Shiva causes the heat of the summer. [536] There is also a belief that these three gods go down in turns to the patal (nether regions) and stay there for four months. Vishnu descends on the eleventh day of the bright half of Ashadh, and on that day the rainy season begins. When Vishnu comes up and Shiva takes his place, people experience the cold of winter: but as this god always keeps a dhuni [537] burning near him, the waters under the surface of the earth, such as those in the wells, remain hot during this period. Such waters are cooled when Shiva returns and Brahma goes down to the patal: but the return of Shiva causes summer on the earth. [538]

According to another belief, the sequence of the seasons is controlled by the sun-god. [539] There are six ritus or seasons: and the changes in the ritus depend upon the position of the sun in the twelve rashis or signs of the Zodiac. [540] Each ritu lasts for a period of two months, during which time the sun travels through two rashis. Vasant-ritu is the period which the sun takes to pass through the Min (Pisces) and Mesha (Aries) rashis. Grishma-ritu corresponds to the time during which the sun passes through Vrishabha (Taurus) and Mithun (Gemini). During Varsha-ritu the sun moves through the signs Karka (Cancer) and Sinha (Leo), and during Sharad-ritu through Kanya (Virgo) and Tula (Libra). Hemant-ritu is the time which the sun takes to travel through Vrishchika (Scorpio) and Dhanu (Sagittarius). Shishir-ritu occurs when the sun stands in the Makar (Capricornus) and Kumbha (Aquarius) rashis. [541]

Indra (the god of rain), Varuna (the lord of all waters), Vayu (the god of wind), Agni (the god of fire), and the moon-god are also believed by some to have power over the seasons. [542]

The belief is as old as the Vedas that demons sometimes obstruct the fall of rain, and confine the waters of the clouds. It is Indra who fights with them and breaks through their castles by means of his thunderbolt, sending down showers of rain for the benefit of his worshippers. So, whenever there is an unusual drought, people still invoke the aid of this god, and celebrate a festival in his honour, called Ujjani or Indramahotsava. Homas [543] are performed to propitiate the god, and Brahmans are entertained at a feast. Sometimes the festival is celebrated outside the village, where people go in large parties to dine together. The usual dish on such an occasion is Meghladu or sweet balls of wheat-flour fried in ghi.

Another favourite ceremony supposed to cause rain to fall is the submersion of the image of Shiva in water, by blocking up the khal or passage in the Shiva-linga by which water poured over the image usually runs off. This ceremony is known as Jala-jatra. Rudrabhisheka, or the ceremony of pouring water in a constant stream over the image of Shiva for eleven consecutive days and nights, is sometimes performed with the same object. [544]

Sometimes the assistance of Shringhi rishi is invoked to bring about a fall of rain. The rishi is installed in water, mantras are recited, and prayers are offered before a sacrificial fire. This ceremony, called Parjanya-shanti, is said to have been performed within recent years in Bombay, and to have been successful in bringing rain. [545]

It is also said that rainfall can be caused by singing a song or a sacred hymn to the malar tune. There is a tradition that the well-known saint Narsinha Mehta once sang this tune on the occasion of the celebration of the first pregnancy of his daughter, and the performance was immediately followed by a shower of rain. Rain, which is brought down in this manner, can be put a stop to by singing to a different tune. [546]

Low-caste women have recourse to the following expedient to bring rain. Five or six of them place a quantity of muddy earth on a wooden stool, which is carried by one of them. The lump of mud is covered with leaves of the Gidotan or Tindotan creeper, and is called mehulo or meghalo. The whole party then sing songs, and visit every house in the village. A bowl of water is poured over the mehulo and the women receive some corn for their trouble. [547]

Some believe that when the worship of the village-gods is neglected and when the people grow corrupt, ill-treat the saints and are given to the killing of cows and Brahmans, Yama, the God of Death, directs his colleagues, Indra and Varuna, to threaten the world with a drought. The rainfall returns only when the people revert to righteous ways, and after Indra and Varuna have been conciliated by offerings.

The lower classes of the people believe a prolonged cessation of rain to be due to the wrath of local minor deities, aroused by the neglect of their worship. In such a contingency, therefore, they prepare baklan [548] of udad (lentils), lapsi, [549] vadan [550] and other dishes, and offer them to the local gods for their propitiation. [551]

To stop an incessant fall of rain, people often observe the Aladra vow. The patel or headman issues a proclamation that on a particular day none should cook, or churn whey, or fetch water, or wash clothes, or attend to any of the multifarious household duties; but that all should pass the day in prayer. A complete cessation from toil in favour of earnest devotion to divine powers are the peculiar features of this vow. People do not abstain from food: but food must be prepared on the previous day. If the rains do not cease in spite of this vow, but threaten the village with inundation, the headman leads a procession to the confines of the village and makes an offering to the waters. [552]

In some places a spinning wheel, sometimes specially constructed of human bones, [553] is turned by a naked person in the reverse direction to the usual one, with the object of causing the cessation of immoderate rainfall. [554]

A cessation of rains is also believed to be brought about by offering an oblation to the god Kasatia, and by the observance of the vow called Kasatia ganth (or tying the knot of Kasatia). The vow lasts for three weeks, and those who observe it do not partake of anything except rice [555] (or, according to others, jiran, a kind of spice [556]).

Some persons attribute a heavy fall of rain to the wrath of Indra, and offer ceremonious prayers to appease that god. [557] In some places people engage the services of magicians to restrain the fall of rain. [558] Farmers sometimes brand the rain by casting burning sparks upon it in order to stop an incessant fall. [559] Vows in honour of samudra (the ocean) are also observed with the same object.

In the changing circumstances of life, women more readily have recourse to religious vows for the fulfilment of their wishes than men. This fondness of women for vows has brought into vogue a number of vrats or religious observances which are practised by women only. Gangigor or Ganagor, Vat-Savitri, Molakat, Goutrat, Alavana or Alunda, Eva-vrat, Tulsi-vrat, Uma masheshwar-vrat, and Surya-vrat are instances of such vows. The Molakat-vrat is observed by virgins from the eleventh to the fifteenth day of the bright half of Ashadh. [560] The Goutrat-vrat is believed to secure male progeny, as well as long life to the husband. It is observed on the fourth day of the dark half of Shravana, on which day women fast till the evening, and then take food after worshipping a cow. [561] The object of the Eva-vrat (or Jiva-vrat) is to secure eternal exemption from widowhood, the day for this vow being the last day of Ashadh. It is then necessary to observe a fast till the evening; and the only food allowed is a preparation of wheat, taken at nightfall. [562]

On the fourth day of the dark half of Shravan, women observe a vrat called Bolchoth. In the morning the woman worships a cow and her calf (which must both be of the same colour), applies a little cotton to the horns of the cow, and makes an auspicious mark on the foreheads of both with red lac. She then places an offering of betel and rice before the cow, takes four turns round the pair, and whispers in the ears of the cow the words tarun satya marun vritya (your truth and my devotion). A Brahman then recites the legend of the vrat. [563]

After narrating this story, the Brahman takes the betel and other things placed before the cow. The woman then returns home and takes food for the first time during that day, the meal consisting of loaves of bajra-flour and some preparation of mag (phaseolus mungo). Some women take ghi and khir: but any preparation of cow's milk is strictly forbidden. Similarly, there is a prohibition against using things which have been cut by a knife or scissors. [564]

The worship of the goddess Randal is a favourite vrat with Gujarati women. A bower is erected for the installation of the goddess, and a bajat or a wooden stool is placed therein. A piece of fine cloth is spread on the bajat, and a figure is drawn in seeds of corn. A kalasio or bowl, with a cocoanut on it, is placed over the figure. The cocoanut has two eyes painted on it in black collyrium and a nose in red lac, and is decorated with rich clothes and ornaments to represent the goddess Randal. Ghi lamps are kept constantly burning before the goddess for three consecutive days and nights. An invitation is sent to the neighbouring women, who bring offerings of ghi to the goddess, and dance in a group at night to the accompaniment of melodious garabis (songs). [565] Sometimes, if a child is ill, or some misfortune is apprehended, goranis, i.e., a certain number of unmarried girls and unwidowed women, are invited to a feast in honour of Randal.

On the Nagapanchami day, i.e., the 5th day of the bright half of Shravan, [566] women draw an image of a nag (cobra), and worship it with sprouts of bajra. In some places it is the custom to avoid all food but khichedi [567] on this day.

The wad (the banyan tree) is worshipped on the first day of the dark half of Shravan. On that day the woman wears a necklace of fifteen leaves of this tree and prepares a dish called navamuthium. [568] A dora or piece of string is also worn on the person to ward off evil. [569]

Rishi-panchami, [570] Gauri-pujan, Shitalai-pujan, Shili-satem are holidays observed only by women. On the Rishi-panchami day only niar [571] rice is allowed to those who observe the vrat. [572]

Besides the observance of vrats, there are other ceremonies, auspicious as well as inauspicious, in which women alone can take part. Only women are concerned with all those ceremonies which are gone through on the birth of a child. On the twelfth day after birth, a name is given to the child by its aunt. The ceremony of making an auspicious mark on the throne of a king is performed by an unwidowed woman or an unmarried girl. [573]

At the time of a marriage, women make the auspicious mark on the forehead of the bridegroom and carry a laman-divo [574] to fetch ukardi. For nine days preceding the date of marriage the bride and the bridegroom are besmeared with pithi or yellow turmeric powder, when auspicious songs are recited by a party of women invited to witness the ceremony. When the bridegroom reaches the entrance of the marriage bower, he is welcomed there by his mother-in-law, who carries him on her hip to his seat in the marriage booth. [575]

It is necessary to make certain marks on the corpse of a woman, and these marks are made by women only. [576] Similarly, women alone take part in the ceremony of getting a widow's hair shaved on the ninth day after her husband's death. [577]