Chapter XX: Book I: I (3)

Ti gar eroumen? ê dêladê tôn aporrheontôn tês lithou
moriôn enia men proskrousanta tô sidêrô palin
apopallesthai kai tauta men einai, di' hôn kremannysthai
symbainei ton sidêron, ta d' eis auton eisdyomena dia
tôn || kenôn porôn diexerchesthai tachista kapeita tô 48
parakeimenô sidêrô proskrouonta mêt' ekeinon diadynai
dynasthai, kaitoi ton ge prôton diadynta, palindromounta
d' authis epi ton proteron heteras authis ergazesthai
tais proterais homoias periplokas?

Enargôs gar entautha to lêrôdes tês aitias elenchetai.
grapheia goun oida pote sidêra pente kata to syneches
allêlois synaphthenta, tou prôtou men monou tês lithou
psausantos, ex ekeinou d' eis talla tês dynameôs
diadotheisês; kai ouk estin eipein, hôs, ei men tô katô
tou grapheiou perati prosagois heteron, echetai te kai
synaptetai kai krematai to prosenechthen; ei d' allô
tini merei tôn plagiôn prostheiês, ou synaptetai. pantê
gar homoiôs hê tês lithou diadidotai dynamis, ei monon
hapsaito kata ti tou prôtou grapheiou. kai mentoi kak
toutou palin eis to deuteron holon hê dynamis hama
noêmati diarrhei kax ekeinou palin eis to triton holon.
ei dê noêsais smikran tina lithon hêrakleian en oikô
tini kremamenên, eit' en kyklô psauonta pampolla sidêria
kakeinôn palin hetera kakeinôn alla kai tout' achri
pleionos, hapanta || dêpou pimplasthai dei ta sidêria 49
tôn aporrheontôn tês lithou sômatôn. kai kindyneuei
diaphorêthênai to smikron ekeino lithidion eis tas
aporrhoas dialythen. kaitoi, kan ei mêden parakeoit'
autô sidêrion, eis ton aera skedannytai, malist' ei kai
thermos hyparchoi.

Nai, phêsi, smikra gar auta chrê pany noein, hôste tôn
empheromenôn tô aeri psêgmatôn toutôn dê tôn smikrotatôn
ekeinôn enia myrioston einai meros. eit' ex houtô
smikrôn tolmate legein kremannysthai barê têlikauta
sidêrou? ei gar hekaston autôn myrioston esti meros tôn
en tô aeri pheromenôn psêgmatôn, pêlikon chrê noêsai to
peras autôn to ankistroeides, hô peripleketai pros
allêla? pantôs gar dêpou touto smikrotaton estin holou
tou psêgmatos.

Eita mikron mikrô, kinoumenon kinoumenô periplaken ouk
euthys apopalletai. kai gar dê kai all' atta pantôs
autois, ta men anôthen, ta de katôthen, kai ta men
emprosthen, ta d' opisthen, ta d' ek tôn dexiôn, ta d'
ek tôn aristerôn || ekrêgnymena seiei te kai brattei kai 50
menein ouk ea. kai mentoi kai polla chrê noein ex
anankês hekaston ekeinôn tôn smikrôn sômatôn echein
ankistrôdê perata. di' henos men gar allêlois
synaptetai, di' heterou d' henos tou men hyperkeimenou
tê lithô, tou d' hypokeimenou tô sidêrô. ei gar anô men
exaphtheiê tês lithou, katô de tô sidêrô mê symplakeiê,
pleon ouden. hôste tou men hyperkeimenou to anô meros
ekkremasthai chrê tês lithou, tou d' hypokeimenou tô
katô perati synêphthai ton sidêron. epei de kak tôn
plagiôn allêlois peripleketai, pantôs pou kantautha
echei ta ankistra. kai memnêso moi pro pantôn, hopôs
onta smikra tas toiautas kai tosautas apophyseis echei.
kai toutou mallon eti, pôs, hina to deuteron sidêrion
synaphthê tô prôtô kai tô deuterô to triton kakeinô to
tetarton, hama men diexerchesthai chrê tous porous tauti
ta smikra kai lêrôdê psêgmata, hama d' apopallesthai tou
met' auto || tetagmenou, kaitoi kata pan homoiou tên 51
physin hyparchontos.

Oude gar hê toiautê palin hypothesis atolmos, all', ei
chrê talêthes eipein, makrô tôn emprosthen
anaischyntotera, pente sidêriôn homoiôn allêlois ephexês
tetagmenôn dia tou prôtou diadyomena rhadiôs tês lithou
ta moria kata to deuteron apopallesthai kai mê dia
toutou kata ton auton tropon hetoimôs diexerchesthai.
kai mên hekaterôs atopon. ei men gar apopalletai, pôs
eis to triton ôkeôs diexerchetai? ei d' ouk apopalletai,
pôs kremannytai to deuteron ek tou prôtou? tên gar
apopalsin autos hypetheto dêmiourgon tês holkês.

All', hoper ephên, eis adoleschian anankaion empiptein,
epeidan tis toioutois andrasi dialegêtai. syntomon oun
tina kai kephalaiôdê logon eipôn apallattesthai
boulomai. tois Asklêpiadou grammasin ei tis epimelôs
homilêseie, tên te pros tas archas akolouthian tôn
toioutôn dogmatôn akribôs an ekmathoi kai tên pros ta
phainomena machên. ho men oun Epikouros ta phainomena
phylattein boulomenos aschêmonei || philotimoumenos 52
epideiknyein auta tais archais homologounta; ho d'
Asklêpiadês to men akolouthon tais archais phylattei,
tou phainomenou d' ouden autô melei. hostis oun bouletai
tên atopian exelenchein tôn hypotheseôn, ei men pros
Asklêpiadên ho logos autô gignoito, tês pros to
phainomenon hypomimnêsketô machês; ei de pros Epikouron,
tês pros tas archas diaphônias. hai d' allai schedon
haireseis hai tôn homoiôn archôn echomenai teleôs
apesbêsan, hautai d' eti monai diarkousin ouk agennôs.
kaitoi ta men Asklêpiadou Mênodotos ho empeirikos
aphyktôs exelenchei, tên te pros ta phainomena machên
hypomimnêskôn auton kai tên pros allêla; ta d' Epikourou
palin ho Asklêpiadês echomenos aei tês akolouthias, hês
ekeinos ou pany ti phainetai phrontizôn.

All' hoi nyn anthrôpoi, prin kai tautas ekmathein tas
haireseis kai tas allas tas beltious kapeita chronô
pollô krinai te kai basanisai to kath' hekastên autôn
alêthes te kai pseudos, hoi men iatrous heautous, hoi de
philosophous onomazousi mêden eidotes. || ouden oun 53
thaumaston episês tois alêthesi ta pseudê tetimêsthai.
hotô gar an hekastos prôtô peritychê didaskalô, toioutos
egeneto, mê perimeinas mêden eti par' allou mathein.
enioi d' autôn, ei kai pleiosin entychoien, all' houtô
g' eisin asynetoi te kai bradeis tên dianoian, hôste kai
gegêrakotes oupô syniasin akolouthian logou. palai de
tous toioutous epi tas banausous apelyon technas. alla
tauta men es ho ti teleutêsei theos oiden.

Hêmeis d' epeidê, kaitoi pheugontes antilegein tois en
autais tais archais euthys esphalmenois, homôs
ênankasthêmen hyp' autês tôn pragmatôn tês akolouthias
eipein tina kai dialechthênai pros autous, eti kai touto
prosthêsomen tois eirêmenois, hôs ou monon ta
kathaironta pharmaka pephyken epispasthai tas oikeias
poiotêtas alla kai ta tous skolopas anagonta kai tas tôn
belôn akidas eis poly bathos sarkos empeparmenas eniote.
kai mentoi kai hosa tous ious tôn thêriôn ê tous
empepharmagmenous tois belesin anelkei, kai tauta tên
autên tais hêrakleiais lithois epi||deiknytai dynamin. 54
egôg' oun oida pote katapeparmenon en podi neaniskou
skolopa tois men daktylois helkousin hêmin biaiôs ouk
akolouthêsanta, pharmakou d' epitethentos alypôs te kai
dia tacheôn anelthonta. kaitoi kai pros touto tines
antilegousi phaskontes, hotan hê phlegmonê lythê tou
merous, automaton exienai ton skolopa pros oudenos
anelkomenon. all' houtoi ge prôton men agnoein eoikasin,
hôs alla men esti phlegmonês, alla de tôn houtô
katapeparmenôn helktika pharmaka; kaitoi g' eiper
aphlegmantôn genomenôn exekrineto ta para physin, hosa
phlegmonês esti lytika, taut' euthys an ên kakeinôn
helktika.

Deuteron d', ho kai mallon an tis thaumaseien, hôs ou
monon alla men tous skolopas, alla de tous ious exagei
pharmaka, alla kai autôn tôn tous ious helkontôn ta men
ton tês echidnês, ta de ton tês trygonos, ta d' allou
tinos epispatai kai saphôs estin idein tois pharmakois
epikeimenous autous. entauth' oun Epikouron men epainein
chrê tês pros || to phainomenon aidous, memphesthai de 55
ton logon tês aitias. hon gar hêmeis helkontes tois
daktylois ouk anêgagomen skolopa, touton hypo tôn
smikrôn ekeinôn anelkesthai psêgmatôn, pôs ou pantapasin
atopon einai chrê nomizein?

Ar' oun êdê pepeismetha tôn ontôn hekastô dynamin tin'
hyparchein, hê tên oikeian helkei poiotêta, to men
mallon, to d' hêtton?

Ê kai to tôn pyrôn eti paradeigma procheirisometha tô
logô? phanêsontai gar oimai kai tôn geôrgôn autôn
amathesteroi peri tên physin hoi mêden holôs hypo
mêdenos helkesthai synchôrountes; hôs egôge prôton men
akousas to gignomenon ethaumasa kai autos êboulêthên
autoptês autou katastênai. meta tauta de, hôs kai ta tês
peiras hômologei, tên aitian skopoumenos en pampollô
chronô kata pasas tas haireseis oudemian allên heurein
hoios t' ên oud' achri tou pithanou proïousan alla
katagelastous te kai saphôs exelenchomenas tas allas
hapasas plên tês tên holkên presbeuousês.

Esti de to gignomenon toionde. katakomizontes hoi par'
hêmin geôrgoi tous || ek tôn agrôn pyrous eis tên polin 56
en hamaxais tisin, hotan hyphelesthai boulêthôsin, hôste
mê phôrathênai, kerami' atta plêrôsantes hydatos mesois
autois enistasin. helkontes oun ekeinoi dia tou keramiou
to hygron eis hautous onkon men kai baros prosktôntai,
katadêloi d' ou pany gignontai tois horôsin, ei mê tis
propepysmenos êdê periergoteron episkopoito. kaitoi g'
ei boulêtheiês en hêliô katatheinai pany thermô tauton
angeion, elachiston pantelôs heurêseis to dapanômenon
eph' hekastês hêmeras. houtôs ara kai tês hêliakês
thermasias tês sphodras ischyroteran hoi pyroi dynamin
echousin helkein eis heautous tên plêsiazousan
hygrotêta. lêros oun entautha makros hê pros to
leptomeres phora tou periechontos hêmas aeros kai
malisth' hotan hikanôs ê thermos, poly men hyparchontos
ê kata tous pyrous leptomeresterou, dechomenou d' oude
to dekaton meros tês eis ekeinous metalambanomenês
hygrotêtos.

XV

Since then, we have talked sufficient nonsense--not willingly, but because we were forced, as the proverb says, "to behave madly among madmen"--let us return again to the subject of urinary secretion. Here let us forget the absurdities of Asclepiades, and, in company with those who are persuaded that the urine does pass through the kidneys, let us consider what is the character of this function. For, most assuredly, either the urine is conveyed by its own motion to the kidneys, considering this the better course (as do we when we go off to market![134]), or, if this be impossible, then some other reason for its conveyance must be found. What, then, is this? If we are not going to grant the kidneys a faculty for attracting this particular quality,[135] as Hippocrates held, we shall discover no other reason. For, surely everyone sees that either the kidneys must attract the urine, or the veins must propel it--if, that is, it does not move of itself. But if the veins did exert a propulsive action when they contract, they would squeeze out into the kidneys not merely the urine, but along with it the whole of the blood which they contain.[136] And if this is impossible, as we shall show, the remaining explanation is that the kidneys do exert traction.

And how is propulsion by the veins impossible? The situation of the kidneys is against it. They do not occupy a position beneath the hollow vein [vena cava] as does the sieve-like [ethmoid] passage in the nose and palate in relation to the surplus matter from the brain;[137] they are situated on both sides of it. Besides, if the kidneys are like sieves, and readily let the thinner serous [whey-like] portion through, and keep out the thicker portion, then the whole of the blood contained in the vena cava must go to them, just as the whole of the wine is thrown into the filters. Further, the example of milk being made into cheese will show clearly what I mean. For this, too, although it is all thrown into the wicker strainers, does not all percolate through; such part of it as is too fine in proportion to the width of the meshes passes downwards, and this is called _whey_ [serum]; the remaining thick portion which is destined to become cheese cannot get down, since the pores of the strainers will not admit it. Thus it is that, if the blood-serum has similarly to percolate through the kidneys, the whole of the blood must come to them, and not merely one part of it.

What, then, is the appearance as found on dissection?

One division of the vena cava is carried upwards[138] to the heart, and the other mounts upon the spine and extends along its whole length as far as the legs; thus one division does not even come near the kidneys, while the other approaches them but is certainly not inserted into them. Now, if the blood were destined to be purified by them as if they were sieves, the whole of it would have to fall into them, the thin part being thereafter conveyed downwards, and the thick part retained above. But, as a matter of fact, this is not so. For the kidneys lie on either side of the vena cava. They therefore do not act like sieves, filtering fluid sent to them by the vena cava, and themselves contributing no force. They obviously exert traction; for this is the only remaining alternative.

_How_, then, do they exert this traction? If, as Epicurus thinks, all attraction takes place by virtue of the _rebounds_ and _entanglements_ of atoms, it would be certainly better to maintain that the kidneys have no attractive action at all; for his theory, when examined, would be found as it stands to be much more ridiculous even than the theory of the lodestone, mentioned a little while ago. Attraction occurs in the way that Hippocrates laid down; this will be stated more clearly as the discussion proceeds; for the present our task is not to demonstrate this, but to point out that no other cause of the secretion of urine can be given except that of attraction by the kidneys,[139] and that this attraction does not take place in the way imagined by people who do not allow Nature a faculty of her own.[140]

For if it be granted that there is any attractive faculty at all in those things which are governed by Nature,[141] a person who attempted to say anything else about the absorption of nutriment[142] would be considered a fool.

XV

Epei d' hikanôs êdoleschêsamen ouch hekontes, all', hôs
hê paroimia phêsi, mainomenois anankasthentes
sym||manênai, palin epi tên tôn ourôn epanelthômen 57
diakrisin, en hê tôn men Asklêpiadou lêrôn
epilathômetha, meta de tôn pepeismenôn diêtheisthai ta
oura dia tôn nephrôn, tis ho tropos tês energeias estin,
episkepsômetha; pantôs gar ê ex hautôn epi tous nephrous
pheretai ta oura touto beltion einai nomizonta, kathaper
hêmeis, hopotan eis tên agoran apiômen; ê, ei tout'
adynaton, heteron ti chrê tês phoras autôn exeurein
aition. ti dê tout' estin? ei gar mê tois nephrois
dôsomen tina dynamin helktikên tês toiautês poiotêtos,
hôs Hippokratês enomizen, ouden heteron exeurêsomen.
hoti men gar êtoi toutous helkein auto prosêken ê tas
phlebas pempein, eiper ge mê ex heautou pheretai, panti
pou dêlon. all' ei men hai phlebes peristellomenai
proôthoien, ouk ekeino monon, alla syn autô kai to pan
haima to periechomenon en heautais eis tous nephrous
ekthlipsousin; ei de tout' adynaton, hôs deixomen,
leipetai tous nephrous helkein.

Pôs oun adynaton touto? tôn nephrôn hê thesis
antibainei. ou gar dê houtô g' hypokeintai tê koilê
phlebi || kathaper tois ex enkephalou perittômasin en te 58
tê rhini kai kata tên hyperôan hoi tois êthmois homoioi
poroi, all' hekaterôthen autê parakeintai. kai mên,
eiper homoiôs tois êthmois hoson an ê leptoteron kai
teleôs orrhôdes, touto men hetoimôs diapempousi, to de
pachyteron apostegousin, hapan ep' autous ienai chrê to
haima to periechomenon en tê koilê phlebi, kathaper eis
tous trygêtous ho pas oinos emballetai. kai men ge kai
to tou galaktos tou tyroumenou paradeigma saphôs an, ho
boulomai legein, endeixaito. kai gar kai touto pan
emblêthen eis tous talarous ou pan diêtheitai, all'
hoson men an ê leptoteron tês eurytêtos tôn plokamôn,
eis to katantes pheretai kai touto men orrhos
eponomazetai; to loipon de to pachy to mellon esesthai
tyros, hôs an ou paradechomenôn auto tôn en tois
talarois porôn, ou diekpiptei katô. kai toinyn, eiper
houtô mellei diêtheisthai tôn nephrôn ho tou haimatos
orrhos, hapan ep' autous hêkein chrê to haima kai mê to
men nai, to d' ou. || 59

Pôs oun echei to phainomenon ek tês anatomês?

To men heteron meros tês koilês anô pros tên kardian
anapheretai, to loipon d' epibainei tê rhachei kath'
holês autês ekteinomenon achri tôn skelôn, hôste to men
heteron oud' engys aphikneitai tôn nephrôn, to loipon de
plêsiazei men, ou mên eis autous ge kataphyetai. echrên
d', eiper emellen hôs di' êthmôn autôn katharthêsesthai
to haima, pan empiptein eis autous kapeita katô men
pheresthai to lepton, ischesthai d' anô to pachy. nyni
d' ouch houtôs echei; plagioi gar hekaterôthen tês
koilês phlebos hoi nephroi keintai. oukoun hôs êthmoi
diêthousi, pempousês men ekeinês, autoi d' oudemian
eispheromenoi dynamin, all' helkousi dêlonoti; touto gar
eti leipetai.

Pôs oun helkousin? ei men, hôs Epikouros oietai tas
holkas hapasas gignesthai kata tas tôn atomôn apopalseis
te kai periplokas, ameinon ên ontôs eipein autous mêd'
helkein holôs; poly gar an houtô ge tôn epi tês
hêrakleias lithou mikrô prosthen eirê||menôn ho logos 60
exetazomenos heuretheiê geloioteros; all' hôs
Hippokratês êbouleto. lechthêsetai de saphesteron epi
proêkonti tô logô. nyni gar ou touto prokeitai
didaskein, all' hôs out' allo ti dynaton eipein aition
einai tês tôn ourôn diakriseôs plên tês holkês tôn
nephrôn outh' houtô gignesthai tên holkên, hôs hoi
mêdemian oikeian didontes tê physei dynamin oiontai
gignesthai.

Toutou gar homologêthentos, hôs estin holôs tis en tois
hypo physeôs dioikoumenois dynamis helktikê, lêrôdês
nomizoit' an ho peri anadoseôs trophês allo ti legein
epicheirôn.

XVI

Now, while Erasistratus[143] for some reason replied at great length to certain other foolish doctrines, he entirely passed over the view held by Hippocrates, not even thinking it worth while to mention it, as he did in his work "On Deglutition"; in that work, as may be seen, he did go so far as at least to make mention of the word _attraction_, writing somewhat as follows:

"Now, the stomach does not appear to exercise any attraction."[143] But when he is dealing with _anadosis_ he does not mention the Hippocratic view even to the extent of a single syllable. Yet we should have been satisfied if he had even merely written this: "Hippocrates lies in saying 'The flesh[144] attracts both from the stomach and from without,' for it cannot attract either from the stomach or from without." Or if he had thought it worth while to state that Hippocrates was wrong in criticizing the weakness of the neck of the uterus, "seeing that the orifice of the uterus has no power of attracting semen,"[145] or if he [Erasistratus] had thought proper to write any other similar opinion, then we in our turn would have defended ourselves in the following terms:

"My good sir, do not run us down in this rhetorical fashion without some proof; state some definite objection to our view, in order that either you may convince us by a brilliant refutation of the ancient doctrine, or that, on the other hand, we may convert you from your ignorance." Yet why do I say "rhetorical"? For we too are not to suppose that when certain rhetoricians pour ridicule upon that which they are quite incapable of refuting, without any attempt at argument, their words are really thereby constituted rhetoric. For rhetoric proceeds by persuasive reasoning; words without reasoning are buffoonery rather than rhetoric. Therefore, the reply of Erasistratus in his treatise "On Deglutition" was neither rhetoric nor logic. For what is it that he says? "Now, the stomach does not appear to exercise any traction." Let us testify against him in return, and set our argument beside his in the same form. _Now, there appears to be no peristalsis[146] of the gullet._ "And how does this appear?" one of his adherents may perchance ask. "For is it not indicative of _peristalsis_ that always when the upper parts of the gullet contract the lower parts dilate?" Again, then, we say, "And in what way does the attraction of the stomach not appear? For is it not indicative of _attraction_ that always when the lower parts of the gullet dilate the upper parts contract?" Now, if he would but be sensible and recognize that this phenomenon is not more indicative of the one than of the other view, but that it applies equally to both,[147] we should then show him without further delay the proper way to the discovery of truth.

We will, however, speak about the stomach again. And the dispersal of nutriment [anadosis] need not make us have recourse to the theory regarding the _natural tendency of a vacuum to become refilled_,[148] when once we have granted the attractive faculty of the kidneys. Now, although Erasistratus knew that this faculty most certainly existed, he neither mentioned it nor denied it, nor did he make any statement as to his views on the secretion of urine.

Why did he give notice at the very beginning of his "General Principles" that he was going to speak about natural activities--firstly what they are, how they take place, and in what situations--and then, in the case of urinary secretion, declared that this took place through the kidneys, but left out its method of occurrence? It must, then, have been for no purpose that he told us how digestion occurs, or spends time upon the secretion of biliary superfluities;[149] for in these cases also it would have been sufficient to have named the parts through which the function takes place, and to have omitted the method. On the contrary, in these cases he was able to tell us not merely through what organs, but also in what way it occurs--as he also did, I think, in the case of _anadosis_; for he was not satisfied with saying that this took place through the veins, but he also considered fully the method, which he held to be from the tendency of a vacuum to become refilled. Concerning the secretion of urine, however, he writes that this occurs through the kidneys, but does not add in what _way_ it occurs. I do not think he could say that this was from the tendency of matter to fill a vacuum,[150] for, if this were so, nobody would have ever died of retention of urine, since no more can flow into a vacuum than has run out. For, if no other factor comes into operation[151] save only this tendency by which a vacuum becomes refilled, no more could ever flow in than had been evacuated. Nor could he suggest any other plausible cause, such, for example, as the expression of nutriment by the stomach[152] which occurs in the process of anadosis; this had been entirely disproved in the case of blood in the vena cava;[153] it is excluded, not merely owing to the long distance, but also from the fact that the overlying heart, at each diastole, robs the vena cava by violence of a considerable quantity of blood.

In relation to the lower part of the vena cava[154] there would still remain, solitary and abandoned, the specious theory concerning the filling of a vacuum. This, however, is deprived of plausibility by the fact that people die of retention of urine, and also, no less, by the situation of the kidneys. For, if the whole of the blood were carried to the kidneys, one might properly maintain that it all undergoes purification there. But, as a matter of fact, the whole of it does not go to them, but only so much as can be contained in the veins going to the kidneys;[155] this portion only, therefore, will be purified. Further, the thin serous part of this will pass through the kidneys as if through a sieve, while the thick sanguineous portion remaining in the veins will obstruct the blood flowing in from behind; this will first, therefore, have to run back to the vena cava, and so to empty the veins going to the kidneys; these veins will no longer be able to conduct a second quantity of unpurified blood to the kidneys--occupied as they are by the blood which had preceded, there is no passage left. What power have we, then, which will draw back the purified blood from the kidneys? And what power, in the next place, will bid this blood retire to the lower part of the vena cava, and will enjoin on another quantity coming from above not to proceed downwards before turning off into the kidneys?

Now Erasistratus realized that all these ideas were open to many objections, and he could only find one idea which held good in all respects--namely, that of _attraction_. Since, therefore, he did not wish either to get into difficulties or to mention the view of Hippocrates, he deemed it better to say nothing at all as to the manner in which secretion occurs.

But even if he kept silence, I am not going to do so. For I know that if one passes over the Hippocratic view and makes some other pronouncement about the function of the kidneys, one cannot fail to make oneself utterly ridiculous. It was for this reason that Erasistratus kept silence and Asclepiades lied; they are like slaves who have had plenty to say in the early part of their career, and have managed by excessive rascality to escape many and frequent accusations, but who, later, when caught in the act of thieving, cannot find any excuse; the more modest one then keeps silence, as though thunderstruck, whilst the more shameless continues to hide the missing article beneath his arm and denies on oath that he has ever seen it. For it was in this way also that Asclepiades, when all subtle excuses had failed him and there was no longer any room for nonsense about "conveyance towards the rarefied part [of the air],"[156] and when it was impossible without incurring the greatest derision to say that this superfluity [_i.e._ the urine] is generated by the kidneys as is bile by the canals in the liver--he, then, I say, clearly lied when he swore that the urine does not reach the kidneys, and maintained that it passes, in the form of vapour, straight from the region of the vena cava,[157] to collect in the bladder.

Like slaves, then, caught in the act of stealing, these two are quite bewildered, and while the one says nothing, the other indulges in shameless lying.

XVI

Erasistratos d' ouk oid' hopôs heterais men tisi doxais
euêthesin anteipe dia makrôn, hyperebê de teleôs tên
Hippokratous, oud' achri tou mnêmoneusai monon autês,
hôs en tois peri kataposeôs epoiêsen, axiôsas. en
ekeinois men gar achri tosoutou phainetai mnêmoneuôn,
hôs tounom' eipein tês holkês monon hôde pôs graphôn;

"Holkê men oun tês koilias oudemia phainetai einai";
peri de tês || anadoseôs ton logon poioumenos oud' achri 61
syllabês mias emnêmoneuse tês Hippokrateiou doxês.
kaitoi g' epêrkesen an hêmin, ei kai tout' egrapse
monon, hôs Hippokratês eipôn "Sarkes holkoi kai ek
koiliês kai exôthen" pseudetai; oute gar ek tês koilias
out' exôthen helkein dynantai. ei de kai hoti mêtras
aitiômenos arrhôston auchena kakôs eipen "Ou gar dynatai
auteês ho stomachos eirysai tên gonên," ê ei kai ti
toiouton allo graphein ho Erasistratos êxiôse, tot' an
kai hêmeis pros auton apologoumenoi eipomen;

Ô gennaie, mê rhêtorikôs hêmôn katatreche chôris
apodeixeôs, all' eipe tina katêgorian tou dogmatos, hin'
ê peisthômen soi hôs kalôs exelenchonti ton palaion
logon ê metapeisômen hôs agnoounta. kaitoi ti legô
rhêtorikôs? mê gar, epeidê tines tôn rhêtorôn, ha
malist' adynatousi dialyesthai, tauta diagelasantes oud'
epicheirousin antilegein, êdê pou touto kai hêmeis
hêgômeth' einai to rhêtorikôs; to gar dia logou pithanou
esti to || rhêtorikôs, to d' aneu logou bômolochikon, ou 62
rhêtorikon. oukoun oute rhêtorikôs oute dialektikôs
anteipen ho Erasistratos en tô peri tês kataposeôs logô.
ti gar phêsin? "Holkê men oun tês koilias oudemia
phainetai einai." palin oun autô par' hêmôn antimartyrôn
ho autos logos antiparaballesthô; peristolê men oun tou
stomachou oudemia phainetai einai. kai pôs ou phainetai?
tach' an isôs eipoi tis tôn ap' autou; to gar aei tôn
anôthen autou merôn systellomenôn diastellesthai ta katô
pôs ouk esti tês peristolês endeiktikon? authis oun
hêmeis, kai pôs ou phainetai, phêsomen, hê tês koilias
holkê? to gar aei tôn katôthen merôn tou stomachou
diastellomenôn systellesthai ta anô pôs ouk esti tês
holkês endeiktikon? ei de sôphronêseie pote kai gnoiê to
phainomenon touto mêden mallon tês heteras tôn doxôn
hyparchein endeiktikon all' amphoterôn einai koinon,
houtôs an êdê deixaimen autô tên orthên hodon tês tou
alêthous heureseôs.

Alla peri men tês koilias authis. hê de tês trophês
anadosis ouden deitai || tês pros to kenoumenon 63
akolouthias hapax ge tês helktikês dynameôs epi tôn
nephrôn hômologêmenês, hên kaitoi pany saphôs alêthê
gignôskôn hyparchein ho Erasistratos out' emnêmoneusen
out' anteipen outh' holôs apephênato, tin' echei doxan
hyper tês tôn ourôn diakriseôs.

Ê dia ti proeipôn euthys kat' archas tôn kath' holou
logôn, hôs hyper tôn physikôn energeiôn erei, prôton
tines t' eisi kai pôs gignontai kai dia tinôn topôn, epi
tês tôn ourôn diakriseôs, hoti men dia nephrôn,
apephênato, to d' hopôs gignetai parelipe? matên oun
hêmas kai peri tês pepseôs edidaxen, hopôs gignetai, kai
peri tês tou cholôdous perittômatos diakriseôs
katatribei. êrkei gar eipein kantautha ta moria, di' hôn
gignetai, to d' hopôs paralipein. alla peri men ekeinôn
eiche legein, ou monon di' hôn organôn alla kai kath'
hontina gignetai tropon, hôsper oimai kai peri tês
anadoseôs; ou gar êrkesen eipein autô monon, hoti dia
phlebôn, alla kai pôs epexêlthen, hoti tê pros || to 64
kenoumenon akolouthia; peri de tôn ourôn tês diakriseôs,
hoti men dia nephrôn gignetai, graphei, to d' hopôs
ouketi prostithêsin. oude gar oimai tê pros to
kenoumenon akolouthia ên eipein; houtô gar an oudeis
hyp' ischourias apethanen oudepote mê dynamenou pleionos
epirrhyênai pote para to kenoumenon; allês gar aitias
mêdemias prostetheisês, alla monês tês pros to
kenoumenon akolouthias podêgousês to syneches, ouk
enchôrei pleon epirrhyênai pote tou kenoumenou. all'
oud' allên tina prostheinai pithanên aitian eichen, hôs
epi tês anadoseôs tên ekthlipsin tês gastros. all' hautê
g' epi tou kata tên koilên haimatos apôlôlei teleôs, ou
tô mêkei monon tês apostaseôs eklytheisa, alla kai tô
tên kardian hyperkeimenên exarpazein autês sphodrôs
kath' hekastên diastolên ouk oligon haima.

Monê dê tis eti kai pantôn erêmos apeleipeto tôn
sophismatôn en tois katô tês koilês hê pros || to 65
kenoumenon akolouthia, dia te tous epi tais ischouriais
apothnêskontas apolôlekuia tên pithanotêta kai dia tên
tôn nephrôn thesin ouden hêtton, ei men gar hapan ep'
autous ephereto to haima, deontôs an tis hapan ephasken
auto kathairesthai. nyni de, ou gar holon alla tosouton
autou meros, hoson hai mechri nephrôn dechontai phlebes,
ep' autous erchetai, monon ekeino katharthêsetai. kai to
men orrhôdes autou kai lepton hoion di' êthmôn tinôn tôn
nephrôn diadysetai; to d' haimatôdes te kai pachy kata
tas phlebas hypomenon empodôn stêsetai tô katopin
epirrheonti. palindromein oun auto proteron epi tên
koilên anankaion kai kenas houtôs ergazesthai tas epi
tous nephrous iousas phlebas, hai deuteron ouketi
parakomiousin ep' autous akatharton haima; kateilêphotos
gar autas tou proterou parodos oudemia leleiptai. tis
oun hêmin hê dynamis apaxei palin opisô tôn nephrôn to
katharon haima? tis de touto men diadexamenê keleusei
palin pros to katô meros ienai tês koilês, heterô d'
anôthen epipheromenô prostaxei, prin || epi tous 66
nephrous apelthein, mê pheresthai katô?

Taut' oun hapanta synidôn ho Erasistratos aporiôn mesta
kai mian monên doxan euporon heurôn en hapasi tên tês
holkês, out' aporeisthai boulomenos oute tên
Hippokratous ethelôn legein ameinon hypelabe siôpêteon
einai peri tou tropou tês diakriseôs.

All' ei kakeinos esigêsen, hêmeis ou siôpêsomen; ismen
gar, hôs ouk endechetai parelthonta tên Hippokrateion
doxan, eith' heteron ti peri nephrôn energeias eiponta
mê ou katagelaston einai pantapasi. dia tout'
Erasistratos men esiôpêsen, Asklêpiadês d' epseusato
paraplêsiôs oiketais lalois men ta prosthen tou biou kai
polla pollakis enklêmata dialysamenois hypo perittês
panourgias, ep' autophôrô de pote kateilêmmenois, eit'
ouden exeuriskousi sophisma kapeit' entautha tou men
aidêmonesterou siôpôntos, hoion apoplêxia tini
kateilêmmenou, tou d' anaischyntoterou kryptontos men
eth' hypo malês to zêtoumenon, exomnymenou de kai mêd'
heôrakenai pôpote phaskontos. houtô gar toi kai ho
Asklêpiadês || epileipontôn auton tôn tês panourgias 67
sophismatôn kai mête tês pros to leptomeres phoras
echousês eti chôran entauthoi lêreisthai mêth' hôs hypo
tôn nephrôn gennatai touti to perittôma, kathaper hypo
tôn en hêpati porôn hê cholê, dynaton on eiponta mê ou
megiston ophlein gelôta, exomnytai te kai pseudetai
phanerôs, ou diêkein legôn epi tous nephrous to ouron
all' atmoeidôs euthys ek tôn kata tên koilên merôn eis
tên kystin athroizesthai.

Houtoi men oun tois ep' autophôrô kateilêmmenois
oiketais homoiôs ekplagentes ho men esiôpêsen, ho d'
anaischyntôs pseudetai.

XVII

Now such of the younger men as have dignified themselves with the names of these two authorities by taking the appellations "Erasistrateans" or "Asclepiadeans" are like the _Davi_ and _Getae_--the slaves introduced by the excellent Menander into his comedies. As these slaves held that they had done nothing fine unless they had cheated their master three times, so also the men I am discussing have taken their time over the construction of impudent sophisms, the one party striving to prevent the lies of Asclepiades from ever being refuted, and the other saying stupidly what Erasistratus had the sense to keep silence about.

But enough about the Asclepiadeans. The Erasistrateans, in attempting to say how the kidneys let the urine through, will do anything or suffer anything or try any shift in order to find some plausible explanation which does not demand the principle of _attraction_.

Now those near the times of Erasistratus maintain that the parts above the kidneys receive pure blood, whilst the watery residue, being heavy, tends to run downwards; that this, after percolating through the kidneys themselves, is thus rendered serviceable, and is sent, as blood, to all the parts below the kidneys.

For a certain period at least this view also found favour and flourished, and was held to be true; after a time, however, it became suspect to the Erasistrateans themselves, and at last they abandoned it. For apparently the following two points were assumed, neither of which is conceded by anyone, nor is even capable of being proved. The first is the heaviness of the serous fluid, which was said to be produced in the vena cava, and which did not exist, apparently, at the beginning, when this fluid was being carried up from the stomach to the liver. Why, then, did it not at once run downwards when it was in these situations? And if the watery fluid is so heavy, what plausibility can anyone find in the statement that it assists in the process of _anadosis_?

In the second place there is this absurdity, that even if it be agreed that all the watery fluid does fall downwards, and only when it is in the vena cava,[158] still it is difficult, or, rather, impossible, to say through what means it is going to fall into the kidneys, seeing that these are not situated below, but on either side of the vena cava, and that the vena cava is not inserted into them, but merely sends a branch[159] into each of them, as it also does into all the other parts.

What doctrine, then, took the place of this one when it was condemned? One which to me seems far more foolish than the first, although it also flourished at one time. For they say, that if oil be mixed with water and poured upon the ground, each will take a different route, the one flowing this way and the other that, and that, therefore, it is not surprising that the watery fluid runs into the kidneys, while the blood falls downwards along the vena cava. Now this doctrine also stands already condemned. For why, of the countless veins which spring from the vena cava, should blood flow into all the others, and the serous fluid be diverted to those going to the kidneys? They have not answered the question which was asked; they merely state what happens and imagine they have thereby assigned the reason.

Once again, then (the third cup to the Saviour!),[160] let us now speak of the worst doctrine of all, lately invented by Lycus of Macedonia,[161] but which is popular owing to its novelty. This Lycus, then, maintains, as though uttering an oracle from the inner sanctuary, that urine is _residual matter from the nutrition of the kidneys_![162] Now, the amount of urine passed every day shows clearly that it is the whole of the fluid drunk which becomes urine, except for that which comes away with the dejections or passes off as sweat or insensible perspiration. This is most easily recognized in winter in those who are doing no work but are carousing, especially if the wine be thin and diffusible; these people rapidly pass almost the same quantity as they drink. And that even Erasistratus was aware of this is known to those who have read the first book of his "General Principles."[163] Thus Lycus is speaking neither good Erasistratism, nor good Asclepiadism, far less good Hippocratism. He is, therefore, as the saying is, like a white crow, which cannot mix with the genuine crows owing to its colour, nor with the pigeons owing to its size. For all this, however, he is not to be disregarded; he may, perhaps, be stating some wonderful truth, unknown to any of his predecessors.

Now it is agreed that all parts which are undergoing nutrition produce a certain amount of residue, but it is neither agreed nor is it likely, that the kidneys alone, small bodies as they are, could hold four whole _congii_,[164] and sometimes even more, of residual matter. For this surplus must necessarily be greater in quantity in each of the larger viscera; thus, for example, that of the lung, if it corresponds in amount to the size of the viscus, will obviously be many times more than that in the kidneys, and thus the whole of the thorax will become filled, and the animal will be at once suffocated. But if it be said that the residual matter is equal in amount in each of the other parts, where are the _bladders_, one may ask, through which it is excreted? For, if the kidneys produce in drinkers three and sometimes four _congii_ of superfluous matter, that of each of the other viscera will be much more, and thus an enormous barrel will be needed to contain the waste products of them all. Yet one often urinates practically the same quantity as one has drunk, which would show that the whole of what one drinks goes to the kidneys.

Thus the author of this third piece of trickery would appear to have achieved nothing, but to have been at once detected, and there still remains the original difficulty which was insoluble by Erasistratus and by all others except Hippocrates. I dwell purposely on this topic, knowing well that nobody else has anything to say about the function of the kidneys, but that either we must prove more foolish than the very butchers[165] if we do not agree that the urine passes through the kidneys; or, if one acknowledges this, that then one cannot possibly give any other reason for the secretion than the principle of attraction.

Now, if the movement of urine does not depend on the tendency of a vacuum to become refilled,[166] it is clear that neither does that of the blood nor that of the bile; or if that of these latter does so, then so also does that of the former. For they must all be accomplished in one and the same way, even according to Erasistratus himself.

This matter, however, will be discussed more fully in the book following this.

XVII

Tôn de neôterôn hosoi tois toutôn onomasin heautous
esemnynan Erasistrateious te kai Asklêpiadeious
eponomasantes, homoiôs tois hypo tou beltistou Menandrou
kata tas kômôdias eisagomenois oiketais, Daois te tisi
kai Getais, ouden hêgoumenois sphisi peprachthai
gennaion, ei mê tris exapatêseian ton despotên, houtô
kai autoi kata pollên scholên anaischynta sophismata
synethesan, hoi men, hina mêd' holôs exelenchtheiê pot'
|| Asklêpiadês pseudomenos, hoi d', hina kakôs eipôsin, 68
ha kalôs esiôpêsen Erasistratos.

Alla tôn men Asklêpiadeiôn halis. hoi d' Erasistrateioi
legein epicheirountes, hopôs hoi nephroi diêthousi to
ouron, hapanta drôsi te kai paschousi kai pantoioi
gignontai pithanon exeurein ti zêtountes aition holkês
mê deomenon.

Hoi men dê plêsion Erasistratou tois chronois genomenoi
ta men anô tôn nephrôn moria katharon haima lambanein
phasi, tô de baros echein to hydatôdes perittôma
brithein te kai hyporrhein katô; diêthoumenon d'
entautha kata tous nephrous autous chrêston houtô
genomenon hapasi tois katô tôn nephrôn epipempesthai to
haima.

Kai mechri ge tinos eudokimêsen hêde hê doxa kai êkmase
kai alêthês enomisthê; chronô d' hysteron kai autois
tois Erasistrateiois hypoptos ephanê kai teleutôntes
apestêsan autês. aiteisthai gar edokoun dyo tauta mête
synchôroumena pros tinos all' oud' apodeichthênai
dynamena, prôton men to baros tês orrhôdous hygrotêtos
en tê koilê || phlebi gennômenon, hôsper ouk ex archês 69
hyparchon, hopot' ek tês koilias eis hêpar anephereto.
ti dê oun ouk euthys en ekeinois tois chôriois hyperrhei
katô? pôs d' an tô doxeien eulogôs eirêsthai syntelein
eis tên anadosin hê hydatôdês hygrotês, eiper houtôs
esti bareia?

Deuteron d' atopon, hoti kan katô synchôrêthê pheresthai
pasa kai mê kat' allo chôrion ê tên koilên phleba, tina
tropon eis tous nephrous empeseitai, chalepon, mallon d'
adynaton eipein, mêt' en tois katô meresi keimenôn autôn
tês phlebos all' ek tôn plagiôn mêt' emphyomenês eis
autous tês koilês all' apophysin tina monon eis
hekateron pempousês, hôsper kai eis talla panta moria.

Tis oun hê diadexamenê tautên doxa katagnôstheisan? emoi
men êlithiôtera makrô phainetai tês proteras. êkmase d'
oun kai hautê pote. phasi gar, ei kata tês gês
ekchytheiê memigmenon elaion hydati, diaphoron hekateron
hodon badieisthai kai rhyêsesthai to men têde, to de
têde. thaumaston oun ouden einai phasin, ei to men
hydatôdes hygron eis tous ne||phrous rhei, to d' haima 70
dia tês koilês pheretai katô. kategnôstai oun êdê kai
hêde hê doxa. dia ti gar apo tês koilês myriôn
ekpephykuiôn phlebôn haima men eis tas allas hapasas, hê
d' orrhôdês hygrotês eis tas epi tous nephrous
pheromenas ektrepetai? tout' auto to zêtoumenon ouk
eirêkasin, alla to gignomenon eipontes monon oiontai tên
aitian apodedôkenai.

Palin oun, to triton tô sôtêri, tên cheiristên hapasôn
doxan exeurêmenên nyn hypo Lykou tou Makedonos,
eudokimousan de dia to kainon êdê legômen. apephênato
gar dê ho Lykos houtos, hôsper ex adytou tinos chrêsmon
apophthengomenos, perittôma tês tôn nephrôn threpseôs
einai to ouron. hoti men oun auto to pinomenon hapan
ouron gignetai, plên ei ti meta tôn diachôrêmatôn
hypêlthen ê eis hidrôtas apechôrêsen ê eis tên adêlon
diapnoên, enargôs endeiknytai to plêthos tôn kath'
hekastên hêmeran ouroumenôn. en cheimôni de malista
mathein estin epi tôn argountôn men, kôthônizomenôn de,
kai malist' ei leptos ho oinos eiê kai porimos. ourousi
|| gar houtoi dia tacheôn oligou dein, hosonper kai 71
pinousin. hoti de kai ho Erasistratos houtôs egignôsken,
hoi to prôton anegnôkotes autou syngramma tôn katholou
logôn epistantai. hôsth' ho Lykos out' alêthê phainetai
legôn out' Erasistrateia, dêlon d' hôs oud'
Asklêpiadeia, poly de mallon oud' Hippokrateia. leukô
toinyn kata tên paroimian eoike koraki mêt' autois tois
koraxin anamichthênai dynamenô dia tên chroan mête tais
peristerais dia to megethos, all' outi pou toutou g'
heneka paropteos; isôs gar ti legei thaumaston, ho
mêdeis tôn emprosthen egnô.

To men oun hapanta ta trephomena moria poiein ti
perittôma synchôroumenon, to de tous nephrous monous,
houtô smikra sômata, choas holous tettaras ê kai pleious
ischein eniote perittômatos outh' homologoumenon oute
logon echon; to gar hekastou tôn meizonôn splanchnôn
perittôma pleion anankaion hyparchein. hoion autika to
tou pneumonos, eiper analogon tô megethei tou splanchnou
gignoito, pollapla||sion estai dêpou tou kata tous 72
nephrous, hôsth' holos men ho thôrax emplêsthêsetai,
pnigêsetai d' autika to zôon. all' ei ison phêsei tis
gignesthai to kath' hekaston tôn allôn moriôn perittôma,
dia poiôn kysteôn ekkrinetai? ei gar hoi nephroi tois
kôthônizomenois treis ê tettaras eniote choas poiousi
perittômatos, hekastou tôn allôn splanchnôn pollô
pleious esontai kai pithou tinos houtô megistou deêsei
tou dexomenou ta pantôn perittômata. kaitoi pollakis,
hoson epie tis, oligou dein ourêsen hapan, hôs an epi
tous nephrous pheromenou tou pomatos hapantos.

Eoiken oun ho to triton exapatôn houtos ouden anyein
all' euthys gegonenai kataphôros kai menein eti to ex
archês aporon Erasistratô te kai tois allois hapasi plên
Hippokratous. diatribô d' hekôn en tô topô saphôs eidôs,
hoti mêden eipein echei mêdeis allos peri tês tôn
nephrôn energeias, all' anankaion ê tôn mageirôn
amathesterous phainesthai mêd' hoti diêtheitai di' autôn
to ouron homologountas ê || touto synchôrêsantas mêden 73
et' echein eipein heteron aition tês diakriseôs plên tês
holkês.

All' ei mê tôn ourôn hê phora tê pros to kenoumenon
akolouthia gignetai, dêlon, hôs oud' hê tou haimatos
oud' hê tês cholês ê eiper ekeinôn kai toutou; panta gar
hôsautôs anankaion epiteleisthai kai kat' auton ton
Erasistraton.

Eirêsetai d' epi pleon hyper autôn en tô meta tauta
grammati.

[5] That is, "On the Natural Powers," the powers of the
_Physis_ or Nature. By that Galen practically means what
we would call the physiological or biological powers,
the characteristic faculties of the living organism; his
Physis is the subconscious vital principle of the animal
or plant. Like Aristotle, however, he also ascribes
quasi-vital properties to inanimate things, _cf._
Introduction, p. xxvii.

[6] _Ergon_, here rendered an _effect_, is literally a
_work_ or _deed_; strictly speaking, it is something
_done_, _completed_, as distinguished from _energeia_,
which is the actual _doing_, the _activity_ which
produces this _ergon_, _cf._ p. 13, and Introduction, p.
xxx.

[7] Gk. _psyche_, Lat. _anima_.

[8] Gk. _physis_, Lat. _natura_.

[9] _Motion_ (kinesis) is Aristotle's general term for
what we would rather call _change_. It includes various
kinds of change, as well as movement proper, _cf._
Introduction, p. xxix.

[10] "Conveyance," "transport," "transit"; purely
mechanical or passive motion, as distinguished from
_alteration_ (qualitative change).

[11] "Waxing and waning," the latter literally
_phthisis_, a wasting or "decline;" _cf._ Scotch
_divining_, Dutch _verdwijnen_.

[12] Becoming and perishing: Latin, _generatio et
corruptio_.

[13] "Ad substantiam productio seu ad formam processus"
(Linacre).

[14] "Preformationist" doctrine of Anaxagoras. To him
the apparent alteration in qualities took place when a
number of minute pre-existing bodies, all bearing the
same quality, came together in sufficient numbers to
impress that quality on the senses. The factor which
united the minute quality-bearers was Nous. "In the
beginning," says Anaxagoras, "all things existed
together--then came Nous and brought them into order."

[15] "De ea alteratione quae per totam fit substantiam"
(Linacre).

[16] The systematizer of Stoicism and successor of Zeno.

[17] Note characteristic impatience with metaphysics. To
Galen, as to Hippocrates and Aristotle, it sufficed to
look on the qualitative differences apprehended by the
senses as fundamental. Zeno of Citium was the founder of
the Stoic school; on the further analysis by this school
of the _qualities_ into _bodies_ _cf._ p. 144, note 3
(203).

[18] A rallying-ground: lit. a place where two glens
meet.

[19] Thus according to Gomperz (_Greek Thinkers_), the
hypothesis of Anaxagoras was that "the bread ... already
contained the countless forms of matter as such which
the human body displays. Their minuteness of size would
withdraw them from our perception. For the defect or
'weakness' of the senses is the narrowness of their
receptive area. These elusive particles are rendered
visible and tangible by the process of _nutrition_,
which combines them."

[20] Therefore the blood must have come from the bread.
The food from the alimentary canal was supposed by Galen
to be converted into blood in and by the portal veins,
_cf._ p. 17.

[21] By "elements" is meant all homogeneous, amorphous
substances, such as metals, &c., as well as the
elementary _tissues_.

[22] Work or product. Lat. _opus_. _cf._ p. 3, note 2
(6).

[23] Operation, activation, or functioning. Lat.
_actio_. _cf._ _loc. cit._

[24] _i.e._ a concomitant (secondary) or passive
affection. Galen is contrasting active and passive
"motion." _cf._ p. 6, note 1 (10).

[25] As already indicated, there is no exact English
equivalent for the Greek term _physis_, which is a
principle immanent in the animal itself, whereas our
term "Nature" suggests something more transcendent; we
are forced often, however, to employ it in default of a
better word. _cf._ p. 2, note 1 (5).

[26] In Greek _anadosis_. This process includes two
stages: (1) transmission of food from alimentary canal
to liver (rather more than our "absorption"); (2)
further transmission from liver to tissues. _Anadosis_
is lit. a yielding-up, a "delivery;" it may sometimes be
rendered "dispersal." "Distribution" (_diadosis_) is a
further stage; _cf._ p. 163, note 4 (230).

[27] _cf._ p. 9.

[28] Since heat and cold tend to cause diffusion and
condensation respectively.

[29] Lit. _haematopoietic_. _cf._ p. 11, note 3 (20).

[30] Lit. _peptic_.

[31] Lit. _sphygmic_.

[32] _Genesis_ corresponds to the intrauterine life, or
what we may call _embryogeny_. _Alteration_ here means
histogenesis or tissue-production; _shaping_ or
_moulding_ (in Greek _diaplasis_) means the ordering of
these tissues into organs (organogenesis).

[33] _cf._ p. 25, note 4 (49).

[34] Note inadequate analogy of semen with fertilised
seeds of plants (_i.e._ of gamete with zygote). Strictly
speaking, of course, semen corresponds to pollen. _cf._
p. 130, note 2 (188).

[35] _i.e._ the four primary qualities; _cf._ chap. iii.
_supra_.

[36] Various secondary or derivative differences in the
tissues. Note pre-eminence of sense of touch.

[37] _De Anima_, ii. _et seq._

[38] Lit. _homoeomerous_ = of similar parts throughout,
"the same all through." He refers to the elementary
tissues, conceived as not being susceptible of further
analysis.

[39] That is, by the bodily eye, and not by the mind's
eye. The observer is here called an _autoptes_ or
"eye-witness." Our medical term _autopsy_ thus means
literally a _persona inspection_ of internal parts,
ordinarily hidden.

[40] _i.e._ "alteration" is the earlier of the two
stages which constitute embryogeny or "genesis." _cf._
p. 18, note 1 (32).

[41] The terms Galen actually uses are: _ostopoietic_,
_neuropoietic_, _chondropoietic_.

[42] As we should say, _parenchyma_ (a term used by
Erasistratus).

[43] Those were all the elemental tissues that
Aristotle, for example, had recognized; other tissues
(_e.g._ flesh or muscle) he believed to be complexes of
these.

[44] Or _tunics_.

[45] _i.e._ tissues.

[46] As, for example, Aristotle had held; _cf._ p. 23,
note 3 (43). Galen added many new tissues to those described
by Aristotle.

[47] Lit. _synthesis_.

[48] By this is meant the _duodenum_, considered as an
outgrowth or prolongation of the stomach towards the
intestines.

[49] _cf._ p. 19, note 2 (33).

[50] Lit. the _auxetic_ or _incremental_ faculty.

[51] _i.e._ to the alterative and shaping faculties
(histogenetic and organogenetic).

[52] If the reading is correct we can only suppose that
Galen meant _the embryo_.

[53] _i.e._ not the pre-natal development of tissue
already described. _cf._ chap. vi.

[54] Administration, lit. "economy."

[55] The _activation_ or _functioning_ of this faculty,
the faculty _in actual operation_. _cf._ p. 3, note 2
(6).

[56] "Un rapport commun et une affinité" (Daremberg).
"Societatem aliquam cognationemque in qualitatibus"
(Linacre). _cf._ p. 36, note 2 (61).

[57] Lit. "necessity"; more _restrictive_, however, than
our "law of Nature." _cf._ p. 314, note 1 (386).

[58] His point is that no great change, in colours or in
anything else, can take place at one step.

[59] Not quite our "waste _products_," since these are
considered as being partly synthetic, whereas the Greek
_perittomata_ were simply superfluous substances which
could not be used and were thrown aside.

[60] Note "our natures," _cf._ p. 12, note 4 (25); p. 47,
note 1 (75).

[61] The term [Greek: oikeios], here rendered
_appropriate_, is explained on p. 33. _cf._ also
footnote on same page. Linacre often translated it
_conveniens_, and it may usually be rendered _proper_,
_peculiar_, _own special_, or _own particular_ in
English. Sometimes it is almost equal to _akin_,
_cognate_, _related_: _cf._ p. 319, note 2 (394). With
Galen's [Greek: oikeios] and [Greek: allotrios] we may
compare the German terms _eigen_ and _fremd_ used by
Aberhalden in connection with his theory of defensive
ferments in the blood-serum.

[62] Transit, _cf._ p. 6, note 1 (10).

[63] _i.e._ of the living organism, _cf._ p. 2, note 1
(5).

[64] _i.e._ with nutrition.

[65] We might perhaps say, more shortly, "assimilation
of food to feeder," or, "of food to fed"; Linacre
renders, "nutrimenti cum nutrito assimilatio."

[66] Lit. _prosphysis_, _i.e._ attachment, implantation.

[67] Lit. _prosthesis_, "apposition." One is almost
tempted to retain the terms _prosthesis_ and
_prosphysis_ in translation, as they obviously
correspond much more closely to Galen's physiological
conceptions than any English or semi-English words can.

[68] Lit. _phthisis_. _cf._ p. 6, note 2 (11). Now
means _tuberculosis_ only.

[69] More literally, "chymified." In _anasarca_ the
subcutaneous tissue is soft, and pits on pressure. In
the "white" disease referred to here (by which is
probably meant _nodular leprosy_) the same tissues are
indurated and "brawny." The principle of certain
diseases being best explained as cases of _arrest_ at
various stages of the metabolic path is recognized in
modern pathology, although of course the instances given
by Galen are too crude to stand.

[70] The effects of _oxidation_ attributed to the heat
which accompanies it? _cf._ p. 141, note 1 (199); p.
254, note 1 (332).

[71] Here follows a contrast between the Vitalists and
the Epicurean Atomists. _cf._ p. 153 _et seq._

[72] A unity or _continuum_, an _individuum_.

[73] Lit. to the _physis_ or the _psyche_; that is, a
denial of the autonomy of physiology and psychology.

[74] Lit. _somata_.

[75] For "natures" in the plural, involving the idea of
a separate nature immanent in each individual, _cf._ p.
36, note 1 (60).

[76] A lost work.

[77] For Asclepiades _v._ p. 49, note 5 (82).

[78] "Le corps tout entier a unité de souffle
(_perspiration et expiration_) et unité de flux
(_courants_, _circulation des liquides_)" (Daremberg).
"Conspirabile et confluxile corpus esse" (Linacre).
Apparently Galen refers to the pneuma and the various
humours. _cf._ p. 293, note 2 (366).

[79] _i.e._ "appropriated"; very nearly "assimilated."

[80] "Attractricem convenientis qualitatis vim"
(Linacre). _cf._ p. 36, note 2 (61).

[81] Lit. "obvious phenomena."

[82] Asclepiades of Bithynia, who flourished in the
first half of the first century B.C., was an adherent of
the atomistic philosophy of Democritus, and is the
typical representative of the Mechanistic school in
Graeco-Roman medicine; he disbelieved in any principle
of individuality ("nature") in the organism, and his
methods of treatment, in accordance with his pathology,
were mechano-therapeutical. _cf._ p. 64, note 3 (100).

[83] Diocles of Carystus was the chief representative of
the Dogmatic or Hippocratic school in the first half of
the fourth century B.C. Praxagoras was his disciple, and
followed him in the leadership of the school. For
Erasistratus, _cf._ p. 95 _et seq._

[84] Sufferers from kidney-trouble.

[85] The ureters.

[86] Unless otherwise stated, "peritoneum" stands for
parietal peritoneum alone.

[87] In the peritoneal cavity.

[88] Contrast, however, _anasarca_, p. 41.

[89] Regurgitation, however, is prevented by the fact
that the ureter runs for nearly one inch obliquely
through the bladder wall before opening into its cavity,
and thus an efficient _valve_ is produced.