Chapter XXIX: Book III: G (3)

But while the stomach contracts for the reason that the whole body possesses a power of attracting and of utilising appropriate qualities, as has already been explained, it also happens that, in this process, the food undergoes alteration; further, when filled and saturated with the fluid pabulum from the food, it thereafter looks on the food as a burden; thus it at once gets rid of the excess--that is to say, drives it downwards--itself turning to another task, namely that of causing adhesion. And during this time, while the nutriment is passing along the whole length of the _intestine_, it is caught up by the vessels which pass into the intestine; as we shall shortly demonstrate,[381] most of it is seized by the veins, but a little also by the arteries; at this stage also it becomes _presented_ to the coats of the intestines.

Now imagine the whole economy of nutrition divided into three periods. Suppose that in the first period the nutriment remains in the stomach and is digested and presented to the stomach until satiety is reached, also that some of it is taken up from the stomach to the liver.[382]

During the second period it passes along the intestines and becomes presented both to them and to the liver--again until the stage of satiety--while a small part of it is carried all over the body.[382] During this period, also imagine that what was presented to the stomach in the first period becomes now adherent to it.

During the third period the stomach has reached the stage of receiving nourishment; it now entirely assimilates everything that had become adherent to it: at the same time in the intestines and liver there takes place adhesion of what had been before presented, while dispersal [anadosis] is taking place to all parts of the body,[383] as also presentation. Now, if the animal takes food immediately after these [three stages] then, during the time that the stomach is again digesting and getting the benefit of this by presenting all the useful part of it to its own coats, the intestines will be engaged in final assimilation of the juices which have adhered to them, and so also will the liver: while in the various parts of the body there will be taking place adhesion of the portions of nutriment presented. And if the stomach is forced to remain without food during this time, it will draw its nutriment from the veins in the mesentery and liver; for it will not do so from the actual body of the liver (by _body of the liver_ I mean first and foremost its flesh proper, and after this all the vessels contained in it), for it is irrational to suppose that one part would draw away from another part the juice already contained in it, especially when adhesion and final assimilation of that juice were already taking place; the juice, however, that is in the cavity of the veins will be abstracted by the part which is stronger and more in need.

It is in this way, therefore, that the stomach, when it is in need of nourishment and the animal has nothing to eat, seizes it from the veins in the liver. Also in the case of the spleen we have shown in a former passage[384] how it draws all material from the liver that tends to be thick, and by working it up converts it into more useful matter. There is nothing surprising, therefore, if, in the present instance also, some of this should be drawn from the spleen into such organs as communicate with it by veins, _e.g._ the omentum, mesentery, small intestine, colon, and the stomach itself. Nor is it surprising that the spleen should disgorge its surplus matters into the stomach at one time, while at another time it should draw some of its appropriate nutriment from the stomach.

For, as has already been said, speaking generally, everything has the power at different times of attracting from and of adding to everything else. What happens is just as if you might imagine a number of animals helping themselves at will to a plentiful common stock of food; some will naturally be eating when others have stopped, some will be on the point of stopping when others are beginning, some eating together, and others in succession. Yes, by Zeus! and one will often be plundering another, if he be in need while the other has an abundant supply ready to hand. Thus it is in no way surprising that matter should make its way back from the outer surface of the body to the interior, or should be carried from the liver and spleen into the stomach by the same vessels by which it was carried in the reverse direction.

In the case of the arteries[385] this is clear enough, as also in the case of heart, thorax, and lungs; for, since all of these dilate and contract alternately, it must needs be that matter is subsequently discharged back into the parts from which it was previously drawn. Now Nature foresaw this necessity,[386] and provided the cardiac openings of the vessels with membranous attachments,[387] to prevent their contents from being carried backwards. How and in what manner this takes place will be stated in my work "On the Use of Parts," where among other things I show that it is impossible for the openings of the vessels to be closed so accurately that nothing at all can run back. Thus it is inevitable that the reflux into the _venous artery_[388] (as will also be made clear in the work mentioned) should be much greater than through the other openings. But what it is important for our present purpose to recognise is that every thing possessing a large and appreciable cavity must, when it dilates, abstract matter from all its neighbours, and, when it contracts, must squeeze matter back into them. This should all be clear from what has already been said in this treatise and from what Erasistratus and I myself have demonstrated elsewhere respecting the tendency of a vacuum to become refilled.[389]

XIII

Ou mên oude to dia tou autou porou tên th' holkên
gignesthai kai tên apokrisin en diapherousi || chronois 187
ouden eti chalepon exeurein, ei ge kai tês gastros ho
stomachos ou monon edesmata kai pomata paragôn eis
autên, alla kan tais nautiais tên enantian hypêresian
hypêretôn enargôs phainetai, kai tês epi tô hêpati
kysteôs ho auchên heis ôn hama men plêroi di' hautou tên
kystin, hama d' ekkenoi, kai tôn mêtrôn ho stomachos
hôsautôs hodos estin eisô men tou spermatos, exô de tou
kyêmatos.

Alla kantautha palin hê men ekkritikê dynamis enargês,
ou mên homoiôs g' autê saphês tois pollois hê helktikê;
all' Hippokratês men arrhôstou mêtras aitiômenos auchena
phêsi; "Ou gar dynatai auteês ho stomachos eirysai tên
gonên."

Erasistratos de kai Asklêpiadês eis tosouton hêkousi
sophias, hôst' ou monon tên koilian kai tas mêtras
aposterousi tês toiautês dynameôs alla kai tên epi tô
hêpati kystin hama tois nephrois. kaitoi g' hoti mêd'
eipein dynaton heteron aition ê ourôn ê cholês
diakriseôs, en tô prôtô dedeiktai logô.

Kai mêtran oun kai gastera kai tên epi tô hêpati kystin
di' henos kai tautou sto||machou tên th' holkên kai tên 188
apokrisin heuriskontes poioumenas mêketi thaumazômen, ei
kai dia tôn phlebôn hê physis ekkrinei pollakis eis tên
gastera perittômata. toutou d' eti mallon ou chrê
thaumazein, ei, di' hôn eis hêpar anedothê phlebôn ek
gastros, authis eis autên ex hêpatos en tais makroterais
asitiais helkesthai tis dynatai trophê. to gar tois
toioutois apistein homoion esti dêpou tô mêketi
pisteuein mêd' hoti ta kathaironta pharmaka dia tôn
autôn stomatôn ex holou tou sômatos eis tên gastera tous
oikeious epispatai chymous, di' hôn emprosthen hê
anadosis egeneto, all' hetera men zêtein anadoseôs,
hetera de katharseôs stomata. kai mên eiper hen kai
tauto stoma dittais hypêretei dynamesin, en diaphorois
chronois eis tanantia tên holkên poioumenais, emprosthen
men tê kata to hêpar, en de tô tês katharseôs kairô tê
tou pharmakou, ti thaumaston esti dittên hypêresian te
kai chreian einai tais phlepsi tais en tô mesô
tetagmenais hêpatos te kai tôn kata tên koilian, hôsth',
hopote men en toutois aphthonos eiê periechomenê trophê,
dia tôn eirêmenôn eis || hêpar anapheresthai phlebôn, 189
hopote d' eiê kena kai deomena trephesthai, dia tôn
autôn authis ex hêpatos helkesthai?

Pan gar ek pantos helkein phainetai kai panti
metadidonai kai mia tis einai syrrhoia kai sympnoia
pantôn, kathaper kai touth' ho theiotatos Hippokratês
eipen. helkei men oun to ischyroteron, ekkenoutai de to
asthenesteron.

Ischyroteron de kai asthenesteron heteron heterou morion
ê haplôs kai physei kai koinê pasin estin ê idiôs tôde
tini gignetai. physei men kai koinê pasin anthrôpois th'
hama kai zôois hê men kardia tou hêpatos, to d' hêpar
tôn enterôn te kai tês gastros, hai d' artêriai tôn
phlebôn helkysai te to chrêsimon heautais apokrinai te
to mê toiouton ischyroterai. kath' hekaston d' hêmôn
idiôs en men tôde tô kairô to hêpar ischyroteron
helkein, hê gastêr d' en tôde. pollês men gar en tê
koilia periechomenês trophês kai sphodrôs oregomenou te
kai chrêzontos tou hêpatos, pantôs ischyroteron helkei
to splanchnon; empalin de tou men hêpatos empeplêsmenou
te kai dia||tetamenou, tês gastros d' oregomenês kai 190
kenês hyparchousês hê tês holkês ischys eis ekeinên
methistatai.

Hôs gar, ei kan tais chersi tina sitia katechontes
allêlôn harpazoimen, ei men homoiôs eiêmen deomenoi,
perigignesthai ton ischyroteron eikos, ei d' houtos men
empeplêsmenos eiê kai dia tout' amelôs katechôn ta
peritta ê kai tini metadounai pothôn, ho d'
asthenesteros oregoito deinôs, ouden an eiê kôlyma tou
mê panta labein auton, houtô kai hê gastêr ek tou
hêpatos epispatai rhadiôs, hotan autê men hikanôs
oregêtai trophês, empeplêsmenon d' ê to splanchnon. kai
tou ge mê peinên eniote to zôon hê periousia tês en
hêpati trophês aitia; kreittona gar echousa kai
hetoimoteran hê gastêr trophên ouden deitai tês exôthen;
ei de ge pote deoito men, aporoiê de, plêroutai
perittômatôn. ichôres de tines eisi tauta cholôdeis te
kai phlegmatôdeis kai orrhôdeis, hous monous helkousê
methiêsin autê to hêpar, hotan pote kai autê deêtai
trophês.

Hôsper oun ex allêlôn helkei ta moria || trophên, houtô 191
kai apotithetai pot' eis allêla to peritton kai hôsper
helkontôn epleonektei to ischyroteron, houtô kai
apotithemenôn kai tôn ge kaloumenôn rheumatôn hêde hê
prophasis. hekaston gar tôn moriôn echei tina tonon
symphyton, hô diôtheitai to peritton. hotan oun hen ex
autôn arrhôstoteron genêtai kata dê tina diathesin, ex
hapantôn eis ekeino syrrhein anankê ta perittômata. to
men gar ischyrotaton enapotithetai tois plêsion hapasin,
ekeinôn d' au palin hekaston eis heter' atta tôn
asthenesterôn, eit' authis ekeinôn hekaston eis alla kai
tout' epi pleiston gignetai, mechri per an ex hapantôn
elaunomenon to perittôma kath' hen ti meinê tôn
asthenestatôn; enteuthen gar ouket' eis allo dynatai
metarrhein, hôs an mête dechomenou tinos auto tôn
ischyroterôn mêt' apôsasthai dynamenou tou peponthotos.

Alla peri men tôn pathôn tês geneseôs kai tês iaseôs
authis hêmôn epideiknyntôn hikana kax ekeinôn estai
labein martyria tôn en tôde tô logô panti || dedeigmenôn 192
orthôs. ho d' en tô paronti deixai proukeito, palin
analabômen, hôs ouden thaumaston ex hêpatos hêkein tina
trophên enterois te kai gastri dia tôn autôn phlebôn,
di' hôn emprosthen ex ekeinôn eis hêpar anedidoto. kai
pollois athroôs te kai teleôs apostasin ischyrôn
gymnasiôn ê ti kôlon apokopeisin haimatos dia tôn
enterôn gignetai kenôsis ek tinôn periodôn, hôs pou kai
Hippokratês elegen, ouden men allo lypousa, kathairousa
d' oxeôs to pan sôma kai tas plêsmonas ekkenousa, dia
tôn autôn dêpou phlebôn tês phoras tôn perittôn
epiteloumenês, di' hôn emprosthen hê anadosis egigneto.

Pollakis d' en nosois hê physis dia men tôn autôn dêpou
phlebôn to pan ekkathairei zôon, ou mên haimatôdês g' hê
kenôsis autois, alla kata ton lypounta gignetai chymon.
houtô de kan tais cholerais ekkenoutai to pan sôma dia
tôn eis entera te kai gastera kathêkousôn phlebôn.

To d' oiesthai mian einai tais hylais phoran teleôs
agnoountos esti tas physikas || dynameis tas t' allas 193
kai tên ekkritikên enantian ousan tê helktiktê; tais gar
enantiais dynamesin enantias kinêseis te kai phoras tôn
hylôn anankaion akolouthein. hekaston gar tôn moriôn,
hotan helkysê ton oikeion chymon, epeita kataschê kai
apolausê, to peritton hapan apothesthai speudei, kathoti
malista dynatai tachista th' hama kai kallista, kata tên
tou perittou rhopên.

Hothen hê gastêr ta men epipolazonta tôn perittômatôn
emetois ekkathairei, ta d' hyphistamena diarrhoiais. kai
to ge nautiôdes gignesthai to zôon tout' estin hormêsai
tên gastera kenôthênai di' emetou. houtô de dê ti biaion
kai sphodron hê ekkritikê dynamis echei, hôst' en tois
eileois, hotan apokleisthê teleôs hê katô diexodos,
emeitai kopros. kaitoi prin dielthein to te lepton
enteron hapan kai tên nêstin kai ton pylôron kai tên
gastera kai ton oisophagon ouch hoion te dia tou
stomatos ekpesein oudeni toioutô perittômati. ti dê
thaumaston, ei kak tês eschatês epiphaneias tês kata to
derma mechri tôn enterôn te kai tês gastros aphiknoito
ti || metalambanomenon, hôs kai touth' Hippokratês hêmas 194
edidaxen, ou pneuma monon ê perittôma phaskôn alla kai
tên trophên autên ek tês eschatês epiphaneias authis epi
tên archên, hothen anênechthê, katapheresthai.
elachistai gar rhopai kinêseôn tên ekkritikên tautên
oiakizousi dynamin, hôs an dia tôn enkarsiôn men inôn
gignomenên, ôkytata de diadidomenên apo tês kinêsasês
archês epi ta katantikry perata. oukoun apeikos oud'
adynaton aêthei pote psyxei to pros tô dermati morion
exaiphnês pilêthen hama men arrhôstoteron auto
genomenon, hama d' hoion achthos ti mallon ê paraskeuên
threpseôs echon tên emprosthen alypôs autô paresparmenên
hygrotêta kai dia tout' apôtheisthai speudon, hama de
tês exô phoras apokekleismenês tê pyknôsei, pros tên
loipên epistraphênai kai houtô biasamenon eis to
parakeimenon autô morion athroôs apôsasthai to peritton,
ekeino d' au palin eis to met' auto, || kai touto mê 195
pausasthai gignomenon, achris an hê metalêpsis epi ta
entos perata tôn phlebôn teleutêsê.

Hai men dê toiautai kinêseis thatton apopauontai, hai d'
apo tôn endothen dierethizontôn, hôs en te tois
kathairousi pharmakois kai tais cholerais ischyroterai
te poly kai monimôterai gignontai kai diamenousin, est'
an kai hê peri tois stomasi tôn angeiôn diathesis, hê to
plêsion helkousa, paramenê. hautê men gar to syneches
ekkenoi morion, ekeino d' au to met' auto kai tout' ou
pauetai mechri tês eschatês epiphaneias, hôste
diadidontôn tôn ephexês aei moriôn heterôn heterois to
prôton pathos ôkytata diikneisthai mechri tôn eschatôn.
houtôs oun echei kapi tôn eileôn. auto men gar to
phlegmainon enteron oute tou barous oute tês drimytêtos
anechetai tôn perittômatôn kai dia tout' ekkrinein auta
speudei kai apôtheisthai porrhôtatô. kôlyomenon de katô
poieisthai tên diôsin, hotan entauthoi pote to
sphodrotaton ê tês phlegmonês, eis ta plêsiazonta tôn
hyperkeimenôn enterôn apôtheitai. kai houtôs êdê kata || 196
to syneches tên rhopên tês ekkritikês dynameôs anô
poiêsamenês achri tou stomatos epanerchetai ta
perittômata.

Tauta men oun dê kan tois tôn nosêmatôn logismois epi
pleon eirêsetai. to d' ek pantos eis pan pheresthai ti
kai metalambanesthai kai mian hapantôn einai sympnoian
te kai syrrhoian, hôs Hippokratês elegen, êdê moi dokô
dedeichthai saphôs kai mêket' an tina, mêd' ei bradys
autô nous eneiê, peri tôn toioutôn aporêsai mêdenos,
hoion hopôs hê gastêr ê ta entera trephetai kai tina
tropon ek tês eschatês epiphaneias eisô ti diikneitai.
pantôn gar tôn moriôn helkein men to prosêkon te kai
philion, apokrinein de to barynon ê daknon echontôn
dynamin ouden thaumaston enantias synechôs gignesthai
kinêseis en autois, hôsper epi te tês kardias horatai
saphôs kai tôn artêriôn hapasôn kai tou thôrakos kai tou
pneumonos. epi men ge toutôn hapantôn monon ou kath'
hekastên kairou rhopên tas enantias kinêseis th' hama
tôn organôn kai phoras tôn hylôn || enargôs estin idein 197
gignomenas. eit' epi men tês tracheias artêrias ouk
aporeis enallax pote men eisô paragousês eis ton
pneumona to pneuma, pote d' exô, kai tôn kata tas rhinas
porôn kai holou tou stomatos hôsautôs oud' einai soi
dokei thaumaston oude paradoxon, ei, di' hou mikrô
prosthen eisô parekomizeto to pneuma, dia toutou nyn
ekpempetai, peri de tôn ex hêpatos eis entera te kai
gastera kathêkousôn phlebôn aporeis kai soi thaumaston
einai phainetai, dia tôn autôn anadidosthai th' hama tên
trophên eis hêpar helkesthai t' ex ekeinou palin eis
gastera? diorisai dê to hama touto poterôs legeis. ei
men gar kata ton auton chronon, oud' hêmeis touto ge
phamen. hôsper gar eispneomen en heterô chronô kai
authis palin en heterô antekpneomen, houtô kai trophên
en heterô men chronô to hêpar ek tês gastros, en heterô
d' hê gastêr ek tou hêpatos epispatai. ei d' hoti kath'
hen kai tauto zôon hen organon enantiais phorais hylôn
hypêretei, touto soi bouletai dêloun to hama kai touto
se tarattei, tên t' || eispnoên ide kai tên ekpnoên. 198
pantôs pou kai hautai dia men tôn autôn organôn
gignontai, tropô de kinêseôs te kai phoras tôn hylôn
diapherousin.

Ho pneumôn men oun kai ho thôrax kai artêriai hai
tracheiai kai hai leiai kai kardia kai stoma kai rhines
en elachistais chronou rhopais eis enantias kinêseis
auta te metaballei kai tas hylas methistêsin. hai d' ex
hêpatos eis entera kai gastera kathêkousai phlebes ouk
en houtô brachesi chronou moriois all' en pollais
hêmerais hapax eniote tên enantian kinountai kinêsin.

Echei gar hôde to sympan. hekaston tôn organôn eis
heauto tên plêsiazousan epispatai trophên ekboskomenon
autês hapasan tên chrêstên notida, mechris an hikanôs
koresthê, kai tautên, hôs kai prosthen edeiknymen,
enapotithetai heautô kai meta tauta prosphyei te kai
homoioi, toutesti trephetai. diôristai gar hikanôs
emprosthen heteron ti tês threpseôs ex anankês autês
proêgoumenon hê prosphysis hyparchein, ekeinês d' eti
proteron hê prosthesis. hôsper oun || tois zôois autois 199
horos esti tês edôdês to plêrôsai tên gastera, kata ton
auton tropon hekastô tôn moriôn horos esti tês
prostheseôs hê plêrôsis tês oikeias hygrotêtos. epei
toinyn hapan morion tê gastri homoiôs oregetai
trephesthai, kai periptyssetai tê trophê kai houtô
sphingei pantachothen autên hôs hê gastêr. hepetai d' ex
anankês toutô, kathaper kai prosthen errhethê, to
pettesthai tois sitiois, tês gastros ou dia touto
peristellomenês autois, hin' epitêdeia tois allois
ergasêtai moriois; houtô gar an ouketi physikon organon
alla zôon ti gignoito logismon te kai noun echon, hôs
haireisthai to beltion.

All' hautê men peristelletai tô to pan sôma dynamin
helktikên tina kai apolaustikên kektêsthai tôn oikeiôn
poiotêtôn, hôs emprosthen edeiknyto; symbainei d' en
toutô tois sitiois alloiousthai. kai mentoi kai
plêrôtheisa tês ex autôn hygrotêtos kai korestheisa
baros hêgeitai to loipon auta. to peritton oun euthys
apotribetai te kai ôthei katô pros || heteron ergon autê 200
trepomenê, tên prosphysin. en de toutô tô chronô
dierchomenê to enteron hapan hê trophê dia tôn eis auto
kathêkontôn angeiôn anarpazetai, pleistê men eis tas
phlebas, oligê de tis eis tas artêrias, hôs mikron
hysteron apodeixomen. en toutô d' au tô chronô kai tois
tôn enterôn chitôsi prostithetai.

Kai moi temôn êdê tô logismô tên tês trophês oikonomian
hapasan eis treis moiras chronôn, en men tê prôtê noei
menousan th' hama kata tên koilian autên kai pettomenên
kai prostithemenên eis koron tê gastri kai ti kai tô
hêpati par' autês anapheromenon.

En de tê deutera, dierchomenên ta t' entera kai
prostithemenên eis koron autois te toutois kai tô hêpati
kai ti brachy meros autês pantê tou sômatos pheromenon;
en de dê toutô tô kairô to prostethen en tô prôtô chronô
prosphyesthai noei tê gastri.

Kata de tên tritên moiran tou chronou trephesthai men
êdê tên koilian homoiôsasan heautê teleôs ta prosphynta,
prosphysin de tois enterois kai tô hêpati gignesthai tôn
prostethentôn, ana||dosin de pantê tou sômatos kai 201
prosthesin. ei men oun epi toutois eutheôs to zôon
lambanoi trophên, en hô palin hê gastêr chronô pettei te
tautên kai apolauei prostitheisa pan ex autês to
chrêston tois heautês chitôsi, ta men entera teleôs
homoiôsei ton prosphynta chymon, hôsautôs de kai to
hêpar. en holô de tô sômati prosphysis tôn prostethentôn
tês trophês estai moriôn. ei d' asitos anankazoito
menein hê gastêr en toutô tô chronô, para tôn en
mesenteriô te kai hêpati phlebôn helxei tên trophên; ou
gar ex autou ge tou sômatos tou hêpatos. legô de sôma
tou hêpatos autên te tên idian autou sarka prôtên kai
malista, meta de tênde kai tôn angeiôn hekaston tôn kat'
auto. ton men gar en hekastô tôn moriôn êdê
periechomenon chymon ouket' eulogon antispan heterô
moriô kai malisth' hotan êdê prosphysis ê exomoiôsis
autou gignêtai. ton d' en tais eurychôriais tôn phlebôn
to mallon ischyon th' hama kai deomenon antispa morion.

Houtôs oun kai hê gastêr en || hô chronô deitai men autê 202
trophês, esthiei d' oudepô to zôon, en toutô tôn kata to
hêpar exarpazei phlebôn. epei de kai ton splêna dia tôn
emprosthen edeiknymen hoson en hêpati pachyteron
helkonta katergazesthai te kai metaballein epi to
chrêstoteron, ouden oud' entautha thaumaston helkesthai
ti kak tou splênos eis hekaston tôn koinônountôn autô
kata tas phlebas organôn, hoion eis epiploon kai
mesenterion kai lepton enteron kai kôlon kai autên tên
gastera; kata de ton auton tropon exereugesthai men eis
tên gastera to perittôma kath' heteron chronon, auton d'
authis ek tês gastros helkein ti tês oikeias trophês en
heterô kairô.

Katholou d' eipein, ho kai prosthen êdê lelektai, pan ek
pantos helkein te kai pempein enchôrei kata diapherontas
chronous, homoiotatou gignomenou tou symbainontos, hôs
ei kai zôa noêsais polla trophên aphthonon en koinô
katakeimenên, eis hoson bouletai, prospheromena. kath'
hon gar êdê pepautai chronon hetera, kata touton eikos
esthiein hetera, kai mellein ge ta men || pauesthai, ta 203
d' archesthai, kai tina men synesthionta, ta d' ana
meros esthionta kai nai ma Dia ge to heteron harpazein
thaterou pollakis, ei to men heteron epideoito, tô d'
aphthonôs parakeoito. kai houtôs ouden thaumaston out'
ek tês eschatês epiphaneias eisô ti palin hypostrephein
oute dia tôn autôn angeiôn ex hêpatos te kai splênos eis
koilian anenechthênai ti, di' hôn ek tautês eis ekeina
proteron anênechthê.

Kata men gar tas artêrias hikanôs enarges to toiouton,
hôsper kai kata tên kardian te kai ton thôraka kai ton
pneumona. toutôn gar hapantôn diastellomenôn te kai
systellomenôn enallax anankaion, ex hôn heilkysthê ti
proteron, eis tauth' hysteron ekpempesthai. kai tautên
ara tên anankên hê physis progignôskousa tois en tê
kardia stomasi tôn angeiôn hymenas epephyse kôlysontas
eis toupisô pheresthai tas hylas. all' hopôs men touto
gignetai kai kath' hontina tropon, en tois peri chreias
moriôn eirêsetai deiknyntôn hêmôn ta t' alla kai hôs
adynaton houtôs akribôs kleiesthai ta stomata tôn
angeiôn, hôs || mêden palindromein. eis men gar tên 204
artêrian tên phlebôdê, kai gar kai tout' en ekeinois
deichthêsetai, poly pleon ê dia tôn allôn stomatôn eis
toupisô palin anankaion epanerchesthai. to d' eis ta
paronta chrêsimon, hôs ouk endechetai ti tôn aisthêtên
kai megalên echontôn eurytêta mê ouk êtoi diastellomenon
helkein ex hapantôn tôn plêsion ê ekthlibein authis eis
tauta systellomenon ek te tôn êdê proeirêmenôn en tôde
tô logô saphes an eiê kax hôn Erasistratos te kai hêmeis
heterôthi peri tês pros to kenoumenon akolouthias
edeixamen.

XIV

And further, it has been shown in other treatises that all the arteries possess a power which derives from the heart, and by virtue of which they dilate and contract.

Put together, therefore, the two facts--that the arteries have this motion, and that everything, when it dilates, draws neighbouring matter into itself--and you will find nothing strange in the fact that those arteries which reach the skin draw in the outer air when they dilate, while those which anastomose at any point with the veins attract the thinnest and most vaporous part of the blood which these contain, and as for those arteries which are near the heart, it is on the heart itself that they exert their traction. For, by virtue of the tendency by which a vacuum becomes refilled, the lightest and thinnest part obeys the tendency before that which is heavier and thicker. Now the lightest and thinnest of anything in the body is firstly pneuma, secondly vapour, and in the third place that part of the blood which has been accurately elaborated and refined.

These, then, are what the arteries draw into themselves on every side; those arteries which reach the skin draw in the outer air[390] (this being near them and one of the lightest of things); as to the other arteries, those which pass up from the heart into the neck, and that which lies along the spine, as also such arteries as are near these--draw mostly from the heart itself; and those which are further from the heart and skin necessarily draw the lightest part of the blood out of the veins. So also the traction exercised by the diastole of the arteries which go to the stomach and intestines takes place at the expense of the heart itself and the numerous veins in its neighbourhood; for these arteries cannot get anything worth speaking of from the thick heavy nutriment contained in the intestines and stomach,[391] since they first become filled with lighter elements. For if you let down a tube into a vessel full of water and sand, and suck the air out of the tube with your mouth, the sand cannot come up to you before the water, for in accordance with the principle of the refilling of a vacuum the lighter matter is always the first to succeed to the evacuation.

XIV

Alla mên kai hôs en hekastê tôn artêriôn esti tis
dynamis ek tês kardias epirrheousa, kath' hên
diastellontai te kai systellontai, dedeiktai di'
heterôn.

Eiper oun syntheiês amphô to te tautên einai tên kinêsin
autais to te pan to diastellomenon helkein ek tôn
plêsion eis heauto, thaumaston ouden soi phaneitai tas
artêrias, hosai men eis to derma perainousin autôn,
epispasthai ton exôthen aera diastellomenas, hosai de
kata ti pros tas || phlebas anestomôntai, to leptotaton 205
en autais kai atmôdestaton epispasthai tou haimatos,
hosai d' engys tês kardias eisin, ex autês ekeinês
poieisthai tên holkên. en gar tê pros to kenoumenon
akolouthia to kouphotaton te kai leptotaton hepetai
prôton tou baryterou te kai pachyterou; kouphotaton d'
esti kai leptotaton hapantôn tôn kata to sôma prôton men
to pneuma, deuteron d' ho atmos, epi toutô de triton,
hoson an akribôs ê kateirgasmenon te kai leleptysmenon
haima.

Taut' oun eis heautas helkousin hai artêriai
pantachothen, hai men eis to derma kathêkousai ton
exôthen aera; plêsion te gar autais houtos esti kai
kouphotatos en tois malista; tôn d' allôn hê men epi ton
trachêlon ek tês kardias aniousa kai hê kata rhachin,
êdê de kai hosai toutôn engys ex autês malista tês
kardias; hosai de kai tês kardias porrhôterô kai tou
dermatos, helkein tautais anankaion ek tôn phlebôn to
kouphotaton tou haimatos; hôste kai tôn eis tên gastera
te kai ta entera kathêkousôn artêriôn tên holkên en tô
diastellesthai gignesthai para te tês || kardias autês 206
kai tôn parakeimenôn autê phlebôn pampollôn ousôn. ou
gar dê ek ge tôn enterôn kai tês koilias trophên houtô
pacheian te kai bareian en heautois echontôn dynantai ti
metalambanein, ho ti kai axion logou, phthanousai
plêrousthai tois kouphoterois. oude gar ei katheis
auliskon eis angeion hydatos te kai psammou plêres
epispasaio tô stomati ton ek tou auliskou aera, dynait'
an akolouthêsai soi pro tou hydatos hê psammos; aei gar
en tê pros to kenoumenon akolouthia to kouphoteron
hepetai proteron.

XV

It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that only a very little [nutrient matter] such, namely, as has been accurately elaborated--gets from the stomach into the arteries, since these first become filled with lighter matter. We must understand that _there are two kinds of attraction_, that by which a vacuum becomes refilled and that caused by appropriateness of quality;[392] air is drawn into bellows in one way, and iron by the lodestone in another. And we must also understand that the traction which results from evacuation acts primarily on what is light, whilst that from appropriateness of quality acts frequently, it may be, on what is heavier (if this should be naturally more nearly related[393]). Therefore, in the case of the heart and the arteries, it is in so far as they are hollow organs, capable of diastole, that they always attract the lighter matter first, while, in so far as they require nourishment, it is actually into their _coats_ (which are the real _bodies_ of these organs) that the appropriate matter is drawn.[394] Of the blood, then, which is taken into their cavities when they dilate, that part which is most proper to them and most able to afford nourishment is attracted by their actual coats.

Now, apart from what has been said,[395] the following is sufficient proof that something is taken over from the veins into the arteries. If you will kill an animal by cutting through a number of its large arteries, you will find the veins becoming empty along with the arteries: now, this could never occur if there were not anastomoses between them. Similarly, also, in the heart itself, the thinnest portion of the blood is drawn from the right ventricle into the left, owing to there being perforations in the septum between them: these can be seen for a great part [of their length]; they are like a kind of fossae [pits] with wide mouths, and they get constantly narrower; it is not possible, however, actually to observe their extreme terminations, owing both to the smallness of these and to the fact that when the animal is dead all the parts are chilled and shrunken.[396] Here, too, however, our argument,[397] starting from the principle that nothing is done by Nature in vain, discovers these anastomoses between the ventricles of the heart; for it could not be at random and by chance that there occurred fossae ending thus in narrow terminations.

And secondly [the presence of these anastomoses has been assumed] from the fact that, of the two orifices in the right ventricle, the one conducting blood in and the other out, the former[398] is much the larger. For, the fact that the insertion of the vena cava into the heart[399] is larger than the vein which is inserted into the lungs[400] suggests that not all the blood which the vena cava gives to the heart is driven away again from the heart to the lungs. Nor can it be said that any of the blood is expended in the nourishment of the actual body of the heart, since there is another vein[401] which breaks up in it and which does not take its origin nor get its share of blood from the heart itself. And even if a certain amount is so expended, still the vein leading to the lungs is not to such a slight extent smaller than that inserted into the heart as to make it likely that the blood is used as nutriment for the heart: the disparity is much too great for such an explanation. It is, therefore, clear that something _is_ taken over into the left ventricle.[402]

Moreover, of the two vessels connected with it, that which brings pneuma into it from the lungs[403] is much smaller than the great outgrowing artery[404] from which the arteries all over the body originate; this would suggest that it not merely gets pneuma from the lungs, but that it also gets blood from the right ventricle through the anastomoses mentioned.

Now it belongs to the treatise "On the Use of Parts" to show that it was best that some parts of the body should be nourished by pure, thin, and vaporous blood, and others by thick, turbid blood, and that in this matter also Nature has overlooked nothing. Thus it is not desirable that these matters should be further discussed. Having mentioned, however, that there are two kinds of attraction, certain bodies exerting attraction along wide channels during diastole (by virtue of the principle by which a vacuum becomes refilled) and others exerting it by virtue of their appropriateness of quality, we must next remark that the former bodies can attract even from a distance, while the latter can only do so from among things which are quite close to them; the very longest tube let down into water can easily draw up the liquid into the mouth, but if you withdraw iron to a distance from the lodestone or corn from the jar (an instance of this kind has in fact been already given[405]) no further attraction can take place.

This you can observe most clearly in connection with _garden conduits_. For a certain amount of moisture is distributed from these into every part lying close at hand but it cannot reach those lying further off: therefore one has to arrange the flow of water into all parts of the garden by cutting a number of small channels leading from the large one. The intervening spaces between these small channels are made of such a size as will, presumably, best allow them [the spaces] to satisfy their needs by drawing from the liquid which flows to them from every side. So also is it in the bodies of animals. Numerous conduits distributed through the various limbs bring them pure blood, much like the garden water-supply, and, further, the intervals between these conduits have been wonderfully arranged by Nature from the outset so that the intervening parts should be plentifully provided for when absorbing blood, and that they should never be deluged by a quantity of superfluous fluid running in at unsuitable times.

For the way in which they obtain nourishment is somewhat as follows. In the body[406] which is continuous throughout, such as Erasistratus supposes his _simple vessel_ to be, it is the superficial parts which are the first to make use of the nutriment with which they are brought into contact; then the parts coming next draw their share from these by virtue of their contiguity; and again others from these; and this does not stop until the quality of the nutrient substance has been distributed among all parts of the corpuscle in question. And for such parts as need the humour which is destined to nourish them to be altered still further, Nature has provided a kind of storehouse, either in the form of a central cavity or else as separate caverns,[407] or something analogous to caverns. Thus the flesh of the viscera and of the muscles is nourished from the blood directly, this having undergone merely a slight alteration; the bones, however, in order to be nourished, require very great change, and what blood is to flesh marrow is to bone; in the case of the small bones, which do not possess central cavities, this marrow is distributed in their caverns, whereas in the larger bones which do contain central cavities the marrow is all concentrated in these.

For, as was pointed out in the first book,[408] things having a similar substance can easily change into one another, whereas it is impossible for those which are very different to be assimilated to one another without intermediate stages. Such a one in respect to cartilage is the myxoid substance which surrounds it, and in respect to ligaments, membranes, and nerves the viscous liquid dispersed inside them; for each of these consists of numerous fibres, which are homogeneous[409]--in fact, actual _sensible elements_; and in the intervals between these fibres is dispersed the humour most suited for nutrition; this they have drawn from the blood in the veins, choosing the most appropriate possible, and now they are assimilating it step by step and changing it into their own substance.

All these considerations, then, agree with one another, and bear sufficient witness to the truth of what has been already demonstrated; there is thus no need to prolong the discussion further. For, from what has been said, anyone can readily discover in what way all the particular [vital activities] come about. For instance, we could in this way ascertain why it is that in the case of many people who are partaking freely of wine, the fluid which they have drunk is rapidly absorbed[410] through the body and almost the whole of it is passed by the kidneys within a very short time. For here, too, the rapidity with which the fluid is absorbed depends on appropriateness of quality, on the thinness of the fluid, on the width of the vessels and their mouths, and on the efficiency of the attractive faculty. The parts situated near the alimentary canal, by virtue of their appropriateness of quality, draw in the imbibed food for their own purposes, then the parts next to them in their turn snatch it away, then those next again take it from these, until it reaches the vena cava, whence finally the kidneys attract that part of it which is proper to them. Thus it is in no way surprising that wine is taken up more rapidly than water, owing to its appropriateness of quality, and, further, that the white clear kind of wine is absorbed more rapidly owing to its thinness, while black turbid wine, is checked on the way and retarded because of its thickness.

These facts, also, will afford abundant proof of what has already been said about the arteries; everywhere, in fact, such blood as is both specifically appropriate and at the same time thin in consistency answers more readily to their traction than does blood which is not so; this is why the arteries which, in their diastole, absorb vapour, pneuma, and thin blood attract either none at all or very little of the juices contained in the stomach and intestines.

XV

Oukoun chrê thaumazein, ei pantelôs oligon ek tês
koilias, hoson an akribôs ê kateirgasmenon, eis tas
artêrias paragignetai phthanousas plêrousthai tôn
kouphoterôn, all' ekeino gignôskein, hôs dy' eston
holkês eidê, to men tê pros to kenoumenon akolouthia, to
d' oikeiotêti poiotêtos gignomenon; heterôs men gar eis
tas physas ho aêr, heterôs d' ho sidêros hypo tês
hêrakleias epispatai lithou; kai hôs hê men pros to
kenoumenon akolouthia || to kouphoteron helkei proteron, 207
hê de kata tên tês poiotêtos oikeiotêta pollakis, ei
houtôs etyche, to baryteron, an tê physei syngenesteron
hyparchê. kai toinyn kai tais artêriais te kai tê
kardia, hôs men koilois te kai diastellesthai dynamenois
organois, aei to kouphoteron akolouthei proteron, hôs de
trephesthai deomenois, eis autous tous chitônas, hoi dê
ta sômata tôn organôn eisin, helketai to oikeion. hoson
an oun eis tên koilotêta diastellomenôn autôn haimatos
metalêphthê, toutou to oikeiotaton te kai malista
trephein dynamenon hoi chitônes autoi tôn angeiôn
epispôntai.

Tou d' ek tôn phlebôn eis tas artêrias metalambanesthai
ti pros tois eirêmenois hikanon kai touto ge tekmêrion.
ei pollas kai megalas artêrias diatemôn apokteinai to
zôon boulêtheiês, heurêseis autou tas phlebas homoiôs
tais artêrias ekkenoumenas, ouk an toutou pote genomenou
chôris tôn pros allêlas autais anastomôseôn. hôsautôs de
kai kat' autên tên kardian ek tês dexias koilias eis tên
aristeran helketai to lepto||taton echontos tina trêmata 208
tou mesou diaphragmatos autôn, ha mechri men pleistou
dynaton estin idein, hoion bothynous tinas ex euryterou
stomatos aei kai mallon eis stenoteron proïontas. ou mên
auta ge ta eschata perata dynaton eti theasasthai dia te
smikrotêta kai hoti tethneôtos êdê tou zôou katepsyktai
te kai pepyknôtai panta. all' ho logos kantautha prôton
men ek tou mêden hypo tês physeôs gignesthai matên
hormômenos exeuriskei tas anastomôseis tautas tôn
koiliôn tês kardias; ou gar dê eikê ge kai hôs etychen
hoi es stenon houtô teleutôntes egenonto bothynoi.

Deuteron de kak tou dyoin ontoin stomatoin en tê dexia
tês kardias koilia tou men eisagontos to haima, tou d'
exagontos poly meizon einai to eisagon. hôs gar ou
pantos tou haimatos, hoson hê koilê phleps didôsi tê
kardia, palin ex ekeinês ekpempomenou tô pneumoni,
meizôn estin hê apo tês koilês eis autên emphysis tês
emphyomenês eis ton pneumona phlebos. oude || gar tout' 209
estin eipein, hôs edapanêthê ti tou haimatos eis tên
autou tou sômatos tês kardias threpsin. hetera gar esti
phleps hê eis ekeino kataschizomenê mête tên genesin ek
tês kardias autês mête tên tou haimatos echousa
metalêpsin. ei de kai dapanatai ti, all' ou tosouton ge
meiôn estin hê eis ton pneumona phleps agousa tês eis
tên kardian emphyomenês, hoson eikos eis tên trophên
anêlôsthai tês kardias, alla pleon pollô. dêlon oun, hôs
eis tên aristeran ti metalambanetai koilian.

Kai gar oun kai tôn kat' ekeinên angeiôn dyoin ontôn
elatton esti pollô to ek tou pneumonos eis autên eisagon
to pneuma tês ekphyomenês artêrias tês megalês, aph' hês
hai kata to sôma sympasai pephykasin, hôs an mê monon ek
tou pneumonos pneuma metalambanousês autês, alla kak tês
dexias koilias haima dia tôn eirêmenôn anastomôseôn.

Hoti d' ameinon ên tois tou sômatos moriois tois men
hypo katharou kai leptou kai atmôdous haimatos
trephesthai, tois d' hypo pacheos kai tholerou kai hôs
oud' entautha ti pareôratai tê physei, tês || peri 210
chreias moriôn pragmateias estin, hôst' ou chrê nyn
hyper toutôn eti legein, all' hypomnêsantas, hôs dyo
eston holkês eidê, tôn men eureiais hodois en tô
diastellesthai tê pros to kenoumenon akolouthia tên
helxin poioumenôn, tôn d' oikeiotêti poiotêtos, ephexês
legein, hôs ta men protera kai porrhôthen helkein ti
dynatai, ta de deutera ek tôn engytatô monôn. auliskon
men gar hoti mêkiston eis hydôr enesti kathenta rhadiôs
anaspan eis to stoma di' autou to hygron; ou mên ei g'
epi pleon apagagois tês hêrakleias lithou ton sidêron ê
tous pyrous tou keramiou--kai gar kai toiouton ti
prosthen elegeto paradeigma--dynait' an eti genesthai
tis holkê.

Saphestata d' an auto mathois epi tôn en tois kêpois
ochetôn; ek toutôn gar eis men ta parakeimena kai
plêsion hapanta diadidotai tis ikmas, eis de ta
porrhôterô proselthein ouketi dynatai, kai dia tout'
anankazontai pollois ochetois mikrois apo tou megalou
tetmêmenois eis hekaston meros tou kêpou tên epirrhysin
tou hydatos epitechnasthai; kai têlikauta ge ta || 211
metaxy diastêmata toutôn tôn mikrôn ochetôn poiousin,
hêlika malista nomizousin arkein eis to hikanôs
apolauein helkonta tês hekaterôthen autois epirrheousês
hygrotêtos. houtôs oun echei kan tois tôn zôôn sômasin.
ochetoi polloi kata panta ta melê diesparmenoi
paragousin autois haima kathaper en kêpois hydreian
tina. kai toutôn tôn ochetôn ta metaxy diastêmata
thaumastôs hypo tês physeôs euthys ex archês diatetaktai
pros to mêt' endeôs chorêgeisthai tois metaxy moriois
helkousin eis heauta to haima mête kataklyzesthai pot'
auta plêthei perittês hygrotêtos akairôs epirrheousês.

Ho gar dê tropos tês threpseôs autôn toiosde tis esti.
tou synechous heautô sômatos, hoionper to haploun
angeion Erasistratos hypotithetai, ta men epipolês merê
prôta tês homilousês apolauei trophês; ek de toutôn au
metalambanei kata to syneches helkonta ta toutôn hexês,
eit' ex ekeinôn authis hetera kai tout' ou pauetai
gignomenon, achris an eis hapant' autou diadothê ta
moria tês trephousês ousias hê poiotês. hosa de tôn
moriôn epi pleon || alloioumenou deitai tou mellontos 212
auta threpsein chymou, toutois hôsper ti tamieion hê
physis pareskeuasen êtoi koilias ê sêrangas ê ti tais
sêranxin analogon. hai men gar sarkes hai te tôn
splanchnôn hapantôn hai te tôn myôn ex haimatos autou
trephontai bracheian alloiôsin dexamenou. ta d' osta
pampollês en tô metaxy deitai tês metabolês, hina
traphê, kai estin hoionper to haima tais sarxi, toioutos
ho myelos tois ostois en men tois mikrois te kai
akoiliois kata tas sêrangas autôn diesparmenos, en de
tois meizosi te kai koilias echousin en ekeinais
êthroismenos.

Hôs gar kai dia tou prôtou grammatos edeiknyto, tois men
homoian echousi tên ousian eis allêla metaballein
enchôrei, tois de pampoly diestôsin amêchanon allêlois
homoiôthênai chôris tôn en mesô metabolôn. toiouton ti
kai tois chondrois esti to perikechymenon myxôdes kai
tois syndesmois kai tois hymesi kai tois neurois to
paresparmenon en autois hygron glischron; hekaston gar
|| toutôn ex inôn synkeitai pollôn, haiper homoiomereis 213
t' eisi kai ontôs aisthêta stoicheia. kata de tas metaxy
chôras autôn ho oikeiotatos eis threpsin parespartai
chymos, hon heilkysan men ek tôn phlebôn tou haimatos,
hoson hoion t' ên eklexamenai ton epitêdeiotaton,
exomoiousi de kata brachy kai metaballousin eis tên
heautôn ousian.

Hapant' oun tauta kai allêlois homologei kai tois
emprosthen apodedeigmenois hikanôs martyrei kai ou chrê
mêkynein eti ton logon; ek gar tôn eirêmenôn enestin
hekastô ta kata meros hapanta kath' hontina gignetai
tropon exeuriskein hetoimôs, hôsper kai dia ti pollois
kôthônizomenois pampoly tachista men anadidotai to
pothen, oureitai d' oligou dein hapan entos ou pollou
chronou. kai gar kantautha tê te tês poiotêtos
oikeiotêti kai tê tês hygrotêtos leptotêti kai tê tôn
angeiôn te kai tôn kat' auta stomatôn eurytêti kai tê
tês helktikês dynameôs eurôstia to tachos synteleitai
tês anadoseôs, tôn men plêsion tês koilias tetagmenôn
moriôn oikeiotêti poiotêtos || heautôn heneka helkontôn 214
to poma, tôn d' hexês toutois exarpazontôn kai autôn eis
heauta kapeita tôn ephexês palin ek toutôn
metalambanontôn, achris an eis tên koilên aphikêtai
phleba, tounteuthen d' êdê tôn nephrôn to oikeion
epispômenôn. hôst' ouden thaumaston oinon men hydatos
analambanesthai thatton oikeiotêti poiotêtos, auton de
ton oinon ton men leukon kai katharon hetoimôs
anadidosthai dia leptotêta, ton d' au melana kai
tholeron ischesthai te kata tên hodon kai bradynein hypo
pachous.

Eiê d' an tauta kai tôn hyper tôn artêriôn emprosthen
eirêmenôn ou smikra martyria. pantachou gar hoson
oikeion te kai lepton haima tou mê toioutou rhaon
hepetai tois helkousin. atmon oun helkousai kai pneuma
kai lepton haima kata tas diastaseis hai artêriai tôn
kata tên koilian kai ta entera periechomenôn chymôn ê
oud' holôs ê pantapasin epispôntai brachy.

[299] "Of food to feeder," _i.e._ of the environment to
the organism. _cf._ p. 39, chap. xi.

[300] "Drawing"; _cf._ p. 116, note 2 (168).

[301] For these terms (_prosthesis_ and _prosphysis_ in
Greek) _cf._ p. 39, notes 5 (66) and 6 (67).

[302] Lit. "through the _energizing_ (or _functioning_)
of the attractive faculty"; the faculty ([Greek:
dynamis]) _in operation_ is an activity ([Greek:
energeia]). _cf._ p. 3, note 2 (6).

[303] This chapter is an excellent example of Galen's
method of reasoning _a priori_. The complementary
inductive method, however, is employed in the next
chapter. _cf._ p. 209, note 1 (288).

[304] The deductive.

[305] The _logos_ is the argument or "theory" arrived
at by the process of [Greek: logikê theôria] or
"theorizing"; _cf._ p. 151, note 3 (214); p. 205, note 1
(282).

[306] The Greek words for the uterus (_mêtrae_ and
_hysterae_) probably owe their plural form to the belief
that the organ was bicornuate in the human, as it is in
some of the lower species.

[307] Note this expression. For Galen's views on the
origin of species, _cf._ Introduction, p. xxxi.,
footnote (3).

[308] Herophilus of Chalcedon (_circa_ 300 B.C.) was,
like Erasistratus, a representative of the anatomical
school of Alexandria. His book on Midwifery was known
for centuries. _cf._ Introduction, p. xii.

[309] Relaxation of utero-sacral ligaments as an
important predisposing cause of prolapsus uteri.

[310] That is, at the end of the first stage of labour.

[311] The pylorus.

[312] "Chylosis," chylification. _cf._ p. 240, note 1
(314).

[313] Lit. barley-"chyle," _i.e._ barley-water.

[314] _i.e._ not the mere mechanical breaking down of
food, but a distinctively vital action of "alteration."

[315] _Pepsis._

[316] Book I., chaps. x., xi.

[317] _cf._ p. 222, note 1 (299).

[318] _Choledochous_.

[319] More exactly _peristolé_; _cf._ p. 97, note 1
(146).

[320] Neuburger says of Erasistratus that "dissection
had taught him to think in terms of anatomy." It was
chiefly the gross movements or structure of organs with
which he concerned himself. Where an organ had no
obvious function, he dubbed it "useless"; _e.g._ the
spleen (_cf._ p. 143).

[321] _i.e._ contracting and dilating; no longitudinal
movements involved; _cf._ p. 263, note 2 (341).

[322] _cf._ p. 282, note 1 (356).

[323] Book II., chaps. ii. and viii.

[324] Note use of psychological terms in biology. _cf._
also p. 133, note 3 (191).

[325] "In everything." _cf._ p. 66, note 3 (104).

[326] Galen confuses the nutrition of organs with that
of the ultimate living elements or cells; the stomach
does not, of course, feed itself in the way a cell does.
_cf._ Introduction, p. xxxii.

[327] _cf._ Asclepiades's theory regarding the urine, p.
51.

[328] The process of _application_ or _prosthesis_.
_cf._ p. 223, note 3 (301).

[329] Mutual influence of organism and environment.

[330] Qualitative change. _cf._ Book I., chap. ii.

[331] Apparently skin-diseases in which a superficial
crust (resembling the lichen on a tree-trunk)
forms--_e.g._ psoriasis.

[332] Note especially pneuma and innate heat, which
practically stand for oxygen and the heat generated in
oxidation. _cf._ p. 41, note 3 (70).

[333] Book I., chap. x.

[334] That is to say, faeces are obviously altered food.
This alteration cannot have taken place entirely in the
small intestine: therefore alteration of food must take
place in the stomach.

[335] _cf._ p. 39.

[336] Asclepiades held that there was no such thing as
real qualitative change; the food was merely broken up
into its constituent molecules, and absorbed unaltered.
_cf._ p. 49, note 5 (82).

[337] _i.e._ denial of forethought in the Physis.

[338] _v._ p. 9, _et passim_.

[339] _cf._ p. 97.

[340] It appears to me, from comparison between this and
other passages in Galen's writings (notably _Use of
Parts_, iv., 8), that he means by the "two coats" simply
the mucous and the muscular coats. In this case the
"straight" or "longitudinal" fibres of the inner coat
would be the _rugae_; the "circular" fibres of the inner
intestinal coat would be the _valvulae conniventes_.

[341] The term here rendered _peristalsis_ is
_peristolé_ in Greek; it is applied only to the
intermittent movements of muscles placed circularly
round a lumen or cavity, and comprehends _systolé_ or
contraction and _diastolé_ or dilatation. In its modern
significance, _peristalsis_, however, also includes the
movements of _longitudinal_ fibres. _cf._ p. 97, note 1
(146).

[342] _i.e._ those containing non-striped or
"involuntary" muscle fibres; organs governed by the
"natural" pneuma; _cf._ p. 186, note 3 (265).

[343] By this term is meant only what we should call the
"voluntary" muscles.

[344] _cf._ p. 97.

[345] For "symptom," _cf._ p. 13, and p. 12, note 3
(24). "Transitum namque materiae per angustum corpus id
accidens consequitur" (Linacre). Less a "result" or
"consequence" than an "accompaniment."

[346] _i.e._ this is a purely mechanical process.

[347] _i.e._. this phenomenon is a proof neither of
_peristolé_ nor of attraction. _cf._ p. 97, note 2
(147).

[348] Contraction and dilatation of course being
reversed.

[349] The _channa_ is a kind of sea-perch; "a species of
_Serranus_, either _S. scriba_ or _S. cabrilla_" (D'Arcy
W. Thompson). _cf._ Aristotle's _Nat. Hist._ (D'Arcy
Thompson's edition, Oxford, 1910), IV., xi., 538 A, 20.
The _synodont_ "is not to be identified with certainty,
but is supposed to be _Dentex vulgaris_," that is, an
edible Mediterranean perch. "It is not the stomach,"
adds Prof. Thompson, "but the air-bladder that gets
everted and hangs out of the mouth in fishes, especially
when they are hauled in from a considerable depth."
_cf._ _H. A._, VIII., ii., 591 B, 5.

[350] Under the term "neura," tendons were often
included as well as nerves. Similarly in modern Dutch
the word _zenuw_ ("sinew") means both a tendon and a
nerve; _zenuwachtig_ = "nervous."

[351] Rather than the alternative reading, [Greek: ton
esôthen chitôna]. Galen apparently supposes that the
outer coat will not be damaged, as the cuts will pass
_between_ its fibres. These cuts would be, presumably,
short ones, at various levels, no single one of them
involving the whole circumference of the gullet.

[352] _cf._ p. 205.

[353] Thus Galen elsewhere calls the spleen a mere
_emunctory_ ([Greek: ekmageion]) of the liver. _cf._ p.
214, note 1 (295).

[354] _cf._ p. 269.

[355] The urinary bladders of pigs (such as Galen
dissected) are thin, and appear to have only one coat.

[356] _cf._ p. 243.

[357] My suggestion is that Galen refers to (1) the
_mucous_ coat, with its _valvulae conniventes_, and (2)
the _muscular_ coat, of which the chief layer is made up
of circular fibres. _cf._ p. 262, note 1 (340).

[358] Or _utility_.

[359] Relationship between physiology and pathology
again emphasized. _cf._ p. 188, note 2 (267).

[360] Or physicist--the investigator of the Physis or
Nature. _cf._ p. 196, note 2 (274). Note here the use of
analogical reasoning. _cf._ p. 113, note 2 (166).

[361] _cf._ p. 95.

[362] I. xiii.; II. ii.

[363] Galen's idea is that if reversal of the direction
of flow can occur in the _primae viae_ (in vomiting), it
may also be expected to occur in the _secundae viae_ or
absorptive channels.

[364] For this "delivery," "up-yield," or _anadosis_,
_v._ p. 13, note 5 (26).

[365] The mesenteric veins.

[366] Linacre renders: "Una omnium confluxio ac
conspiratio"; and he adds the marginal note "Totum
corpus nostrum est conspirabile et confluxile per meatus
communes." _cf._ p. 48.

[367] The alimentary canal, as not being edible, is not
considered a _splanchnon_ or viscus.

[368] Lit. _rheums_; hence our term _rheumatism_.

[369] Here Galen apparently indicates that vital
functions are at least partly explicable in terms of
mechanical law. _cf._ Introduction, p. xxviii.

[370] _cf._ pp. 211, 247.

[371] See p. 298, note 1 (369).

[372] The ends of the veins in the alimentary canal from
which absorption or _anadosis_ had originally taken
place.

[373] _Diathesis_.

[374] _Diathesis_.

[375] _Pathos_.

[376] He means, not only under the stress of special
circumstances, but also normally.

[377] Lit. "rough artery." The air-passages as well as
the arteries proper were supposed by the Greeks to carry
air (pneuma); diastole of arteries was, like expansion
of the chest, a movement for drawing in air. _cf._ p.
317, note 1 (390).

[378] _cf._ p. 39, chap. xi.

[379] Lit. _orexis_.

[380] Lit. a "physical" organ; that is, a mere
instrument or organon of the Physis,--not one of the
Psyche or conscious personality. _cf._ semen, p. 132,
note 1 (189).

[381] _cf._ p. 317, note 2 (391); p. 319, chap. xv.

[382] Note that absorption takes place from the stomach
as well as the intestines. _cf._ p. 118, note 1 (171).

[383] That is, among the ultimate tissues or cells.

[384] Pp. 205-9.

[385] By this term, of course, the air-passages are also
meant; _cf._ p. 305.

[386] _cf._ p. 34, note 1 (57).

[387] _cf._ p. 121, note 4 (177).