Chapter XXII: The Gymnasium and the Palaestra (2)

The upper terrace is far the most extensive. It contains the gymnasium of the young men, and to the east the thermae or hot baths. This gymnasium is identified on account of its size with what is called in an inscription “The Panegyric Gymnasium,” where doubtless public festivals and competitions were held. It consisted of an open court 36 by 74 metres, surrounded by a Corinthian colonnade of the time of Hadrian, which replaced an earlier Doric building. In front of the pillars are bases on which statues were placed. Numerous rooms opened on to the colonnade, those on the north being especially spacious. One of these, a large hall with an apse at either end, is named by the excavators the Imperial Hall, on account of an inscription which it has on the architrave, “To the Emperors and the Fatherland.” The floor of the court is unpaved, but at the north-east corner is a small circular pavement which may mark the site of a washing-fountain. Along the south side of the gymnasium is a long corridor extending a considerable distance beyond the gymnasium on either side to a total length of 200 metres, which was obviously the xystos or running track, and behind this track are some thirty or more small rooms which may have served as lodgings for competitors. These rooms must have been a late addition; for in the original building there ran underneath the half-open corridor a second vaulted corridor, the windows of which must have been blocked by the later buildings. This covered running track (crypto-porticus) seems originally to have looked out on a fourth terrace dividing the upper and middle terraces, the northern half of which was subsequently occupied by the foundations of the rooms described, while the southern half was dug away so as to form part of the new double colonnade of the middle terrace. From this date the vaulted corridor became useless for athletic purposes. The eastern half of the terrace is occupied by the thermae, with the details of which we are not concerned.

Pending the final publication of the results of the excavations, it is useless to try to determine the uses of the various buildings. Some of these are mentioned in inscriptions. Diodorus, the son of Heroidas,[841] a distinguished citizen who filled the office of gymnasiarchos about the year 127 B.C., restored the gymnasium of the young men, and repaired the covered colonnade, περίπατος, surrounding the court. Further, finding that the konisterion or dusting-room was quite unworthy of the gymnasium, he built another at his own expense with a marble exedra in front, and rebuilt in marble the cold bath adjoining it. Metrodorus, whom we have already mentioned, placed several public basins (ληνοί) in the bathroom and improved the water-supply. He placed in the sphairisterion two public basins described as λουτῆρας, which seem to have been used to hold oil, and he also made suitable provision for the safe keeping of clothes. In recognition of these gifts his statue was erected in the paradromis of the gymnasium.

Athletics being an essential part of Greek education, the gymnasia were naturally under the control of the various magistrates charged with the education and discipline of the young. The titles and functions of these magistrates and also of the officials who formed the staff of the gymnasia varied considerably at different times and places, and the differences between them are therefore very ill-defined. To discuss them fully is impossible within the limits of this book, nor would it be profitable, most of the details which we know about them belonging to Hellenistic and Roman periods. I shall, therefore, confine myself to a brief general account of the most important of these officials, referring the reader for fuller details to special works dealing with the subject.

The gymnasiarchos[842] must have been originally the magistrate in charge of the gymnasium, and it can only be an accident that the earliest officials of this name whom we know of, the gymnasiarchoi of Athens in the fifth and fourth centuries, had no such general control of the gymnasia and were little more than lampadarchoi, responsible for the training of teams for the various torch-races which were one of the favourite amusements of the Athenian populace. Perhaps the reason for this narrow use of the term was that from the time of Solon, the discipline and education of the young, and consequently the supervision of the gymnasia, was in the hands of a board of ten called sophronistai, while at the close of the fourth century we find a single magistrate, the kosmetes, apparently taking over their functions and exercising supreme control over the epheboi. Hence there was at Athens no room for a special gymnasiarchos such as we find in many Greek states from the third century onwards, and such as must undoubtedly have existed at a much earlier date, if we may trust the obvious meaning of the title.

The gymnasiarchia at Athens was one of the regular leitourgiai or public services exacted from rich citizens for the benefit of the sovereign people. The duty of the gymnasiarchos in early days was to train a team of youths or of boys, or sometimes two teams, for one of the many torch-races. These teams represented the different tribes, each one of which selected a certain number of names of rich tribesmen and submitted them to the King Archon to make the final choice. The selected gymnasiarchos had to collect and train a team, find their instructors, provide oil and torches, and pay for all other expenses. If his team was successful he dedicated a memorial of the victory to the gods, and in return for all his trouble his name figured alone or at the head of his epheboi in the official list of victors, and in records of the victory. He doubtless exercised some authority over the epheboi in his tribe, or at least over those in his team, but had no general control over the public gymnasia.

In Hellenistic and Roman times the gymnasiarchos appears as a sort of minister of education, maintaining discipline among the young, exercising control over the gymnasia, and generally providing out of his own pocket many of the expenses incurred. Sometimes the gymnasiarchia is still a voluntary service. Such was the case at Athens, and in many other states especially in Asia Minor under the Empire. Among the distinguished men who undertook this office we find Marcus Antonius at Athens and at Alexandria, Tiberius and Germanicus at Salamis in Cyprus, Titus at Naples, Hadrian at Eleusis, and, needless to say, Herodes Atticus at Athens. The office was usually held for a year, but was sometimes voluntarily renewed and even continued for life and handed down from father to son. We even hear of women serving as gymnasiarchoi.

Generally in the last three centuries B.C. the gymnasiarchia is not a leitourgia but a public magistracy. The gymnasiarchos is appointed by the assembly and holds office for one year. At Ceos[843] he has to be over thirty years of age. An inscription from Phintia[844] tells us that he has charge of the epheboi, the neoteroi, and generally of those who use the gymnasia, and of all business connected with the gymnasia. He is assisted by subordinates, sometimes by a hypogymnasiarchos, sometimes by a paidonomos who looks after the younger boys, sometimes by other gymnasiarchoi responsible for youths of different ages. At Teos[845] he is charged with the appointment and payment of the hoplomachos and the instructor in the use of the bow and the javelin. He is responsible for the discipline of the young, checks rioting or disorder among them, supervises their education in literature as well as athletics, above all he personally superintends the military training of the epheboi, and organises competitions to test their efficiency, He maintains discipline sometimes with the rod, sometimes by means of fines.

Whether the gymnasiarchia was a leitourgia or a public magistracy it involved considerable expense. The sums allotted by the state for the service of the gymnasia were often ludicrously inadequate, and the gymnasiarchos had usually to supplement them out of his own pocket; often indeed, disdaining to use the public money at all, he provided for all expenses himself. The chief expense was the provision of oil. Even in a small state like Iasos the supply of oil for a single gymnasium cost 450 denarii a month.[846] During the Empire the number of competitions, and consequently the expenses for oil and other purposes, were multiplied at an extraordinary rate. At Tauromenium the number of competitions rose from twenty-four a year in A.D. 69 to eighty-one in A.D. 92.[847] Sacrifices, processions, feasts, prizes afforded ample scope to the liberality of the gymnasiarchos, which often took a more permanent form in costly repairs and additions to the buildings of the gymnasia and baths.

The gymnasiarchoi described above must not be confused with the ephebic gymnasiarchoi at Athens, officers elected by the epheboi from their own ranks. The expenses of training were borne to a great extent by the epheboi themselves, and they seem, therefore, often to have elected as captains rich youths who were willing to provide wholly or in part for the public expenses, for any period from a month to a year.

The actual teachers were the paidotribes and the gymnastes. The paidotribes, as his name denotes, was properly the teacher of boys, who trained their bodies as the schoolmaster did their minds; the gymnastes was the trainer of athletes for athletic competitions. This is the original distinction between the two, and though in practice their functions often overlapped, and though in Plato the terms are practically synonymous, the original distinction never entirely disappeared.

The paidotribes existed long before the gymnastes, for athletic exercises formed part of the national education long before the demand for specialised athletic training arose. From the time of Solon education was in the hands of the paidotribes and the schoolmaster.[848] In most states education was voluntary, and the paidotribai were usually private teachers, who received fees for their services. In the fourth century the fee seems to have been a mina (about £4) for the whole course.[849] Many of the paidotribai had palaestrae of their own; failing that, they must have taken their pupils to the public palaestrae and gymnasia, which they must in any case have used for such exercises as required more space than could be found in the ordinary palaestra.[850] Besides those private paidotribai who took pupils from the age of seven upwards, there were others who were paid by the state to superintend the training of the epheboi. At Teos the paidotribes received in the third century 500 drachmae a year.[851] The training of the epheboi was practical and military and had no connexion with professional athletics, and the paidotribes regularly figures in the ephebic inscriptions down to the latest times.

Thus the paidotribes had charge of boys from their seventh to their twentieth year. But the training which he gave was not of course sufficient for those who aspired to win prizes in the great games. These required special natural abilities and special practice for the development of their natural abilities; and the special practice they required was supplied by the gymnastai.[852] There was, however, nothing to prevent a successful paidotribes if he possessed the necessary skill and knowledge employing them in training athletes. It was not every one who could afford the services of a champion boxer or wrestler. Further, the paidotribes might also devote himself to medical gymnastics.[853] Herodicus of Selymbria, the founder of medical gymnastics, is said to be have been a paidotribes who suffered from ill-health, and discovered from personal experience the means of treating disease by diet and exercise. Hence the paidotribes might be also a gymnastes. But such training and such knowledge were really outside his sphere, which was that of the drill sergeant, whose duty it is to teach certain definite movements and exercises to boys of various ages. As athletics became more and more professional, and medical gymnastics developed, the difference between the paidotribes and the gymnastes increased, till in Galen and Philostratus we find the paidotribes subordinated to the gymnastes as the mere drill sergeant to the professor of physical culture. Galen compares them respectively to the cook and the physician.[854]

The gymnastes can hardly have come into existence much before the beginning of the fifth century.[855] His work consisted partly in perfecting his pupils in some particular form of athletics, partly in developing their strength and training them into proper condition. The earlier gymnastai, such as those whom we read of in Pindar and Bacchylides, devoted themselves chiefly to practical instruction. They were often themselves successful athletes, especially boxers and wrestlers, who having retired from competition took to teaching, and were doubtless richly rewarded by their patrons. Such was Melesias the trainer of thirty victors in wrestling and the pankration;[856] Iccus of Tarentum, a winner in the pentathlon at Olympia in Ol. 76, the most celebrated trainer of his day; Dromeus of Stymphalus and Pythagoras of Samos, to whom were attributed the introduction of a meat diet. These trainers, like other teachers, went wherever they could find a market. Menander of Athens trained Pytheas of Aegina to victory.[857] We cannot for a moment suppose that men like these descended to the work of the ordinary paidotribes, though, as I have suggested, the reverse must often have been the case. It was an age of science, and in the hands of gymnastai and paidotribai there arose in the middle of the fifth century a new science of gymnastic which aimed not at the performance of particular exercises but at the production of certain physical conditions (ἕξις),[858] especially the condition required for athletic success. Its professors in the fourth century are in ordinary speech called paidotribai, and Isocrates[859] describes it as a branch of the art of the paidotribes, undoubtedly because so many paidotribai professed it. The new science was closely allied to medicine. The trainer, like the doctor, required some knowledge of diet and the effects on the body of different kinds of food;[860] he required, too, some knowledge of the body itself, and the effect on it of various exercises; he required, too, to be a judge of the human animal, and to be able to tell in what form of athletics any individual had most chance of excelling, and what particular form of training he required.[861] The ideal gymnastes, according to Aristotle,[862] should know what is the ideally best condition for the ideally best man, what is the best for the average man, and what is the best for any particular man. Unfortunately the art of the gymnastes was almost from the first connected with the training of professional athletes, and the condition which they aimed at was that artificial condition required for success in some particular form of athletics. At the same time medical gymnastics was corrupted by the quackery which from the fourth century was rampant in all departments of knowledge.[863]

There were also other officials connected with the gymnasia. The xystarches was the president of one of those guilds of professional athletes which we find under the Empire. The aleiptes was properly the person who oiled and rubbed people who exercised in the gymnasia. This was part of the work of the paidotribes or the gymnastes, and it is doubtful whether there were special officials for the purpose. In Aristotle aleiptes is merely another name for gymnastes.[864] In Roman times we find slaves (_unctores_) performing this work in the public baths, and possibly these existed in the Greek gymnasia. Subordinate officials are also mentioned, the hypopaidotribes or assistant, and others who had charge of the palaestra and its contents, variously described as palaistrophylax, epimeletes, epistates. Besides these there were in Hellenistic times special instructors for special exercises, the sphairistes who taught ball-play, the akontistes and toxotes who gave instruction in the use of the javelin and the bow, and the hoplomachos who gave lessons in the use of arms.

Of the special training prescribed for athletes little is known beyond a few details as to diet which have been noticed in the earlier chapters of this book, and a few other details noticed under the special exercises with which they are connected. There were manuals of athletic training, but all are lost except the late treatise by Philostratus to which we have so often referred. With regard to athletics as a branch of education we are somewhat better informed, and it is instructive to compare the physical training given in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. with the system described by Galen in the second century A.D.

The training given in the earlier period was based on those athletic exercises which at all times formed the programme of Greek athletic meetings. To these we may add ball-play, which is enumerated by Plautus among the exercises which formed a young Greek’s training till the age of twenty.[865] These exercises were taught progressively, at first the simple movements or positions (σχήματα) separately, then combinations of these movements which involved more exertion.[866] Many of these movements admitted of being taught to classes as drill to the accompaniment of music. Such drill, especially with halteres, is sometimes represented on vases.[867] The various holds and throws of wrestling were taught in this way, and we possess on the Oxyrhynchus papyrus, to which we have already referred, a portion of such a wrestling lesson.[868] Dances could be utilised in the same way: the movements of wrestling were imitated in a dance performed by Spartan boys called the gymnopaidike[869] just as the movements of war were imitated in the Pyrrhic and other war dances. In the fourth century particular attention was given to exercises of a military character, the use of weapons of all sorts, and riding, but these exercises must have been confined chiefly to older pupils of the age of the epheboi. Proficiency in all the various exercises taught was encouraged by numerous festivals and local competitions where prizes were offered for boys of various ages. The training of teams for the torch-races and choirs for dancing competitions, though not formally a part of the education given by the paidotribes, must have afforded those who took part in them a considerable amount of healthy and agreeable exercise.

Life in this period was spent mostly in the open air, and the formal training of the palaestra was supplemented by hunting, swimming, rowing, and other forms of exercise. Cities in Greece were small, and hunting was as a rule easily obtainable. In Attica, owing to the increase of population and the spread of cultivation, game was scarce, and sport had therefore declined in Xenophon’s time; but the red-figured vases prove its popularity in the fifth century. Swimming and diving were common recreations. Every Greek could swim, and not to know how to swim was as much a sign of an uneducated person as ignorance of letters.[870] Rowing must also have been a universal accomplishment, at least among the Greeks who lived near the sea; but we know nothing of the teaching of rowing or swimming. Probably the Greek boy taught himself to swim and row or picked it up from his fellows.

Here too the element of competition came in. At Hermione we hear of a competition in diving (or perhaps swimming[871]), and also boat-races.[872] We have seen that boat-racing took place at the Isthmia and at various Athenian festivals. There was also a boat-race at the Actian festival in the time of Augustus; and Professor Percy Gardner has shown that there is a possible reference to this contest on the coins of Corcyra and Nicopolis, on which a victorious galley is sometimes represented. The coins suggest a race between galleys such as that described in the _Aeneid_, but the boats used in the Athenian races were probably not triremes, but small boats with a single bank of oars, tender-boats (ὑπηρετικά) such as always accompanied a fleet. A boat of this description is depicted on a stele in the Museum of Athens of Hellenistic or Roman period (Fig. 190). It is a long narrow boat with a pointed beak in front, and a curved aplustre at the stern, and in it there sit eight oarsmen. There is no sign of the oars. The men are naked and are sitting at ease, and bow, who is the smallest of the crew, holds a palm-branch. The number eight is of course a pure accident. There is no cox in the boat, but on the upper part of the stele are three figures standing, a draped figure in the centre, probably the gymnasiarchos who fitted out and trained the crew, on his left a naked youth bearing a palm, on his right a youth in a chlamys crowning the man in the centre. These two Professor Gardner identifies with the stroke and cox of the victorious crew.

When we come to Galen, we seem to pass from the free and open atmosphere of the playing-field and the country into the artificial air of the town gymnasium. The simple exercises of the earlier period, so inseparably bound up with the lives and habits of the people, have given place to a scientific system of physical training based on the teaching of generations of gymnastai. In his treatise on Health[873] he describes at length the exercises suited for youths between the ages of fourteen and twenty-one. He distinguishes exercises for the legs, the arms, and the trunk. He further classifies exercises into those which exert the muscles and give them tone without violent movement (τὰ εὔτονα), quick movements which promote activity (τὰ τάχεα), and violent exercises (τὰ σφόδρα). As examples of the first class he mentions digging, driving, carrying heavy weights, rope-climbing, and exercises of resistance such as holding the arms extended while another person tries to pull them down. Among quick exercises he enumerates running, sparring, the use of the korykos or punch-ball, ball-play, rolling on the ground “either alone or with others,” an exercise which seems to resemble “tackling” at football, and a variety of leg and arm movements. Many of these movements are well known in our modern physical drill. That known as ἐκπλεθρίζειν is the familiar running figure in which the runner runs in an ever-decreasing circle till he comes to the centre. Another exercise (πιτυλίζειν) consisted in marching on the toes, and at the same time swinging the arms. The leg exercises include jumping up and down, and raising the legs alternately backwards and forwards. The arm exercises are the usual dumb-bell movements performed rapidly without dumb-bells, with the hands either open or clenched. Finally, any of the exercises of the first class may become violent if practised rapidly and without interruption, and quick exercises become so if practised with weights or in heavy armour. Besides prescribing exercises Galen lays down elaborate rules for the time of exercise, and for massage both before and after exercise. The actual teaching of these exercises must have been in the hands of paidotribai, but the direction of the training and the arrangement of the exercises is, according to Galen, the work of the gymnastes, who alone has a scientific knowledge of physical training.

The details of this training are full of interest to the student of education and hygiene. There is, indeed, little in our modern systems of physical education which he will not find anticipated in Greek medical writings. We do not know how far Galen’s principles were ever carried into practice, though we may suspect that it was only in the case of individuals, and that they had little influence on the nation. But of this we may be certain, that physical training did not, and could not, do for Galen’s contemporaries what athletics had done for their ancestors. Nor can physical training ever take the place of our own games. For it lacks the element of competition and cannot inspire. There is no antagonism between the two. Both are valuable, but their spheres are different. Physical training is a branch of education—a most important branch, and one hitherto shamefully neglected in England—and it must therefore be carried out under discipline: it is a matter of compulsion. Athletics and games are, or ought to be, a matter of free choice, and compulsion tends to kill the spirit of joy which is their essence. Physical training develops the body and imparts habits of discipline, but it cannot impart those still higher qualities, courage, endurance, self-control, courtesy, qualities which are developed by our own games, or by such manly sports as boxing and wrestling when conducted in the true spirit of friendly rivalry: it cannot teach boys “to play the game” in the battle of life; it could never have inspired the poetry of Pindar, or the art of Myron.

Footnote 795:

_Od._ iv. 605.

Footnote 796:

Hdt. vi. 126. Cp. Eur. _Andromache_, 599.

Footnote 797:

Eur. _Hipp._ 229; _Hec._ 207.

Footnote 798:

Paus. v. 15, 8; vi. 21, 2.

Footnote 799:

Aristoph. _Av._ 141; Antiphon, _Tetr._ ii.

Footnote 800:

_Axioch._ 366 C, 367 A.

Footnote 801:

Xen. _Rep. Ath._ 2, 10.

Footnote 802:

_E.g._ Taureas (Plato, _Charm._ 153), Timagetus (Theocrit. ii. 8),
Sibyrtius (Plut. _Alcib._ 3), Hippocrates (Plut. _Vit. dec. or._ 837),
Timeas and Antigonus in second century (_I.G._ ii. 444, 445, 446). Cp.
Staseas at Delos (_B.C.H._, 1891, p. 255).

Footnote 803:

M. Fougères (Dar.-Sagl., _s.v._ “Gymnasium”) considers the earliest
gymnasium to be that of Messene, which he identifies with the
colonnade surrounding the sphendone of what is usually considered to
be the stadium. The identification and the date of the building must
be regarded as very doubtful in the absence of more systematic
excavation.

Footnote 804:

ii. 10.

Footnote 805:

Plato, _Euthydemus_.

Footnote 806:

_Phaedr._ 227 A.

Footnote 807:

_Theaetet._ 144 C; Aristoph. _Nub._ 1005.

Footnote 808:

Gerh. _A. V._ 272, and _supra_, Figs. 63, 64.

Footnote 809:

Gerh. _A. V._ 272, 294.

Footnote 810:

Hartwig, _Meisterschal._ liii.; Freeman, _Schools of Hellas_, Pl. x.

Footnote 811:

The hare was frequently offered as a present. Gerh. _A. V._ 275, 276,
280, 290.

Footnote 812:

Demosth. _in Timocr._ 114.

Footnote 813:

Plato, _Theaet._ 144 C.

Footnote 814:

_Mus. Greg._ i. 37: Schreiber, _Atlas_, xxiii. 9.

Footnote 815:

Helbig, _Führer_, p. 388.

Footnote 816:

Hdt. iv. 75; Aristoph. _Eq._ 1060; _Nub._ 835, 991, 1045.

Footnote 817:

Plato, _Legg._ vi. 761.

Footnote 818:

Roulez, _Vases peints du Musée de Leyde_, Pl. 19. A similar scene in a
woman’s bath occurs on a b.-f. amphora in Berlin 1843. Vide Schreiber,
_Atlas_, xxi. 9, lvii. 4.

Footnote 819:

Aristoph. _Ran._ 710.

Footnote 820:

Tischbein, i. 58; Schreiber, _Atlas_, xxiii. 3.

Footnote 821:

Dar.-Sagl., Fig. 747; Schreiber, _Atlas_, lvii. 5.

Footnote 822:

Homolle, _B.C.H._, 1899, pp. 560 ff.

Footnote 823:

The purchase of a pick (σκαφεῖον) and rollers (τροχιλείαι) for the
palaestra is mentioned in the Delian accounts for 279 B.C., _B.C.H._,
1890, p. 397, ll. 98, 99; cp. p. 488 note 2, for similar purchases in
other years.

Footnote 824:

Similarly in _Ath. Mitth._ v. 232 τὸ πυριατήριον καὶ τὸ κόνισμα; Lebas
Waddington, _Inscr. As. Min._ 1112 λουτρῶνα καί κόνισμα. The open
court for exercise was an essential part of every bath. The κόνισμα
must not be confused with the konisterion or powdering-room of
Vitruvius.

Footnote 825:

Plato, _Theaet._ 146 A, and Schol. on the same. The game of bouncing
the ball on the ground was called ἀπόρραξις.

Footnote 826:

_Char._ xxi. αὐλίδιον παλαιστριαῖον κόνιν ἔχον καὶ σφαιριστήριον. This
palaestra he lends to philosophers, sophists, fencing-masters
(ὁπλόμαχοι) and musicians for their displays, at which he will himself
appear on the scene rather late in order that the spectators may say
one to another, “This is the owner of the palaestra.”

Footnote 827:

Athen. i. 34, p. 19 A.

Footnote 828:

_Ol._ Text. ii. pp. 113, 127.

Footnote 829:

Overbeck, _Pompeii_, 4th Ed., p. 219.

Footnote 830:

For the sake of uniformity I have kept the Greek spelling of the names
of different rooms instead of the Latin forms actually used in
Vitruvius.

Footnote 831:

For references to the numerous inscriptions connected with the
provision of oil _vide_ Dar.-Sagl., _s.vv._ “Gymnasiarchia,” p. 1682,
“Gymnasium,” p. 1689.

Footnote 832:

In inscriptions we find mention of a special room called ἀλειπτήριον,
which is sometimes used as synonymous with palaestra or gymnasium,
just as οἱ ἀλειφόμεινοι is equivalent to οἱ γυμναζόμενοι. Vide
_Hermes_, vii. 42; _C.I.G._ 2782, l. 25; _B.C.H._ xii. p. 326.

Footnote 833:

Phil. _Gym._ 58. I am pleased to find the explanation of ξηραλοιφεῖν
given above, which had occurred to me independently, anticipated and
confirmed by Jüthner in his recent edition of Philostratus. The word
occurs in a decree of Solon quoted by Aeschines. Galen defines it as
rubbing with pure oil as opposed to χυτλοῦσθαι, rubbing with oil mixed
with water. But this distinction can hardly be ascribed to Solon or to
the Spartans. The latter appear to have used a primitive kind of
sweating-bath in the open air (Strabo, iii. 3, 6), and the rubbing
connected with such a bath might well be described as ξηραλοιφεῖν in
contrast with the rubbing usual in other parts of Greece, which was
associated with bathing or washing in water. Jüthner, pp. 181, 182.

Footnote 834:

Lucian, _Anachars._ 2, 29.

Footnote 835:

Philostr. _Gym._ 56.

Footnote 836:

_Priene_, pp. 265 ff.

Footnote 837:

_Priene Inschriften_, 112. The authors date the inscription after 84
B.C.

Footnote 838:

_Ath. Mitth._ xxix. pp. 121 ff., xxxii. pp. 190 ff., xxxiii. pp. 327
ff.

Footnote 839:

_Op. cit._ xxix. p. 158.

Footnote 840:

_Op. cit._ xxxii. p. 273, 10.

Footnote 841:

_Op. cit._ xxxii. p. 257, 8.

Footnote 842:

For the Gymnasiarchia _vide_ the article by G. Glotz in Dar.-Sagl.,
where a full bibliography of the subject and copious references to
inscriptions are given. For the Gymnasiarchia at Athens _vide_ also
Freeman’s _Schools of Hellas_, p. 155.

Footnote 843:

Ditt. _Syll._ 2nd Ed., 522.

Footnote 844:

_I. G._ xiv. 256.

Footnote 845:

Ditt. _Syll._ 2nd Ed., 523.

Footnote 846:

Th. Reinach, _Rec. des études gr._ vi. p. 164, n.

Footnote 847:

_I. G._ xiv. 422?

Footnote 848:

Aeschines _in Timarch._ 10; Aristoph. _Nub._ 973; _Eq._ 1238.

Footnote 849:

Athen. 584 C.

Footnote 850:

Antiphon. _Tetr._ ii.

Footnote 851:

Ditt. _Syll._ 2nd Ed., 523.

Footnote 852:

Isocr. Περὶ ἀντιδόσεως, 181-185.

Footnote 853:

Plato, _Rep._ 406.

Footnote 854:

Philostr. _Gym._ 14; Galen, _De San._ ii. 86, 90.

Footnote 855:

The word first occurs in Xenophon, _Mem._ ii. 1, 20. But the fact that
it does not occur in literature earlier is no proof that it was not in
use; for the cognate words γυμνάζομαι and γυμνάσιον were in use at a
much earlier date.

Footnote 856:

Pindar, _Ol._ viii.; _Nem._ iv., vi.

Footnote 857:

Pindar, _Nem._ v.

Footnote 858:

Xenophon, _Mem._ _l.c._; Aristotle, _Pol._ 1338 b.

Footnote 859:

_l.c._

Footnote 860:

Plato, _Protag._ 313 E.

Footnote 861:

Plato, _De virtute_, 378 E.; _Amator._ 134 E.

Footnote 862:

_Pol._ 1288 b.

Footnote 863:

The account of the paidotribes and gymnastes was written before I had
read Jüthner’s learned discussion of the subject in the introduction
to his _Philostratus_, but I see no reason to alter my views. Jüthner
regards the gymnastes as from the first “the professor of physical
culture,” but himself inadvertently applies the term to Pindar’s
Melesias (p. 22), who was merely a teacher of boxing. Further Jüthner
seems to me vastly to overrate the value of the medical gymnastics and
the science of health based on the teaching of Herodicus of Selymbria.

Footnote 864:

_Nic. Eth._ ii. 6, 7.

Footnote 865:

_Bacch._ iii. 3, 24.

Footnote 866:

Isocrates, _l.c._

Footnote 867:

Cp. Fig. 65.

Footnote 868:

_Supra_, p. 374.

Footnote 869:

Athen. 631 B.

Footnote 870:

Plato, _Legg._ 689 D.

Footnote 871:

Paus. ii. 35, 1.

Footnote 872:

_Vide_ three papers in the _J.H.S._ by Prof. Percy Gardner, vol. ii.
p. 90 and p. 315, vol. xi. p. 146.

Footnote 873:

_De San. Tu._ ii. 8-11. Oribasius, vi. 14.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

_N.B._—No references are given to articles or sections on athletics or athletic festivals in the following books of reference:—

BAUMEISTER, A. Denkmäler des klassischen Altertums.

DAREMBERG ET SAGLIO. Dictionnaire des antiquités.

FRAZER, J. G. Pausanias.

IWAN VON MÜLLER. Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft.

PAULY-WISSOWA. Real-Encyclopädie.

SCHREIBER-ANDERSON. Atlas of Classical Antiquities.

SMITH, W. Dictionary of Antiquities.

etc. etc.

A. ATHLETIC FESTIVALS

1. OLYMPIA.—(_a_) _General_

Olympia. Die Ergebnisse der von dem deutschen Reich veranstalteten Ausgrabung. Edd. E. Curtius and F. Adler. Berlin, 1892-1897.

BÖTTICHER, A. Olympia: das Fest und seine Stätte. 2nd edition. Berlin, 1866.

FLASH, A. Olympia, in Baumeister’s Denkmäler, ii. p. 1053. Munich and Leipsic, 1887.

GARDNER, P. Olympia, in New Chapters in Greek History. London, 1892. On the Ancient Olympic Games, in the Official Handbook of the Olympic Games. London, 1908.

HACHTMANN, K. Olympia u. seine Festspiele. Gütersloh, 1899.

KRAUSE, J. H. Olympia. Vienna, 1838.

S. P. LAMBROS AND N. G. POLITIS. Οἱ Ὀλυμπιακοὶ ἀγῶνες. Athens, 1896.

LEONARDOS, B. Ὀλυμπία. Athens, 1901.

WEST, G. A Dissertation on the Olympick Games, in his translation of The Odes of Pindar. London, 1753.

(_b_) _Chronology and Lists of Victors_

S. JULII AFRICANI Ὀλυμπιάδων ἀναγραφή (Eusebii Chronic. (Schoene), i. 193) rec. J. Rutgers. Leyden, 1862.

DIEHL, C. Olympische Sieger. _Hermes_, xxxvi. p. 71.

FÖRSTER, H. Sieger in den olympischen Spielen. 2 parts. Zwickau, 1891, 1892.

GUTTMANN, W. De Olympionicis apud Minae Philostratum. Breslau, 1865.

HYDE, W. De Olympionicarum statuis a Pausania commemoratis. Halle, 1903.

KÖRTE, A. Die Entstehung der Olympionikenliste. _Hermes_, xxxix. p. 224.

MAHAFFY, J. P. On the Authenticity of the Olympic Register. _J.H.S._ ii. 164.

ROBERT, C. Die Ordnung der olympischen Spiele und die Sieger der 75-83 Olympiade. _Hermes_, xxxv., 1900. p. 141.

(_c_) _Miscellaneous_

DISSEN, L. De ordine certaminum Olympicorum. Göttingen, 1841.

DÖRFELD, W. Alter des Heiligtums von Olympia. _Ath. Mitth._ xxxi. p. 205. Tiryns, Olympia, Pylos. _Ib._ xxxii. p. 1. Pisa bei Olympia. _Ib._ xxxiii. p. 318. Olympia in prähistorischer Zeit. _Ib._ p. 185.

DYER, L. Olympian Treasuries and Treasuries in General. _J.H.S._ xxv. p. 294. Details of Olympian Treasuries. _Ib._ xxvi. p. 46. The Olympian Theatron and the Battle of Olympia. _Ib._ xxviii. p. 250. The Olympian Council-House and Council. _Harvard Studies in Classical Philology_, xix. p. 1.

FÖRSTER, H. De Hellanodicis Olympicis. Leipsic, 1879.

HERMANN, G. De Hippodromo Olympico. Leipsic, 1839.

HOLWERDA, J. Olympische Studien. _Arch. Zeit._, 1880, pp. 169-172. (1) Die Folgenreihe der Festspiele. (2) Ἔφεδρος and ἐφεδρεία.

MIE, F. Quaestiones agonisticae, imprimis ad Olympia pertinentes. Rostock, 1888.

MOMMSEN, A. Über die Zeit der Olympien. Leipsic, 1891.

PUCHSTEIN, O. Altar des olympischen Zeus. _Jahrb._, 1896, p. 53.

ROBERT, C. Sosipolis in Olympia. _Ath. Mitth._, xviii. p. 37.

SCHERER, C. De Olympionicarum statuis. Göttingen, 1885.

SCHÖNE, H. Neue Angaben über den Hippodrom zu Olympia. _Jahrb._, 1897, p. 150.

WENIGER, L. Das Hoch Fest des Zeus in Olympia. _Klio_, 1904, p. 125; 1905, pp. 1, 184. Olympische Forschungen. _Ib._, 1906, pp. 1, 259; 1907, p. 145; 1909, p. 291.

WERNICKE, K. Olympische Beiträge. _Jahrb._, 1894, pp. 88, 127, 191; 1897, p. 169. (1) Altäre, (2) Heraion, (3) Proedria u. Hellanodikeon, (4) Gymnasien, (5) Hippodrom, (6) Ostgiebel des Zeustempels.

II. THE PANHELLENIC FESTIVALS

CORSINI, E. Dissertationes IV. agonisticae quibus Olympiorum, Pythiorum, Nemeorum atque Isthmiorum tempus inquiritur ac demonstratur. Florence, 1747.

KRAUSE, J. H. Die Pythien, Nemeen und Isthmien. Leipsic, 1841.

HOMOLLE, T. Les Fouilles de Delphes. Paris, _in progress_.

DROYSEN, J. G. Die Festzeit der Nemeen. _Hermes_, xiv., 1879, p. 1.

BURY, J. B. Pindar. Nemean Odes. (_Vide_ Appendix.) London, 1890.

JEBB, SIR RICHARD C. Bacchylides. (_Vide_ Introduction.) Cambridge, 1905.

MONCEAUX, P. Fouilles et recherches archéologiques au sanctuaire des jeux isthmiques. _Gazette archéologique_, 1884, ix. pp. 273-285, 352-365; 1885, x. pp. 205-214, 402-412.

POMTOW. Studien zu den Weihgeschenken und der Topographie von Delphi. ATH. MITTH. xxxi. p. 437.

UNGER, G. T. Die Zeit der nemeischen Spiele. _Philologus_, xxxiv., 1874, pp. 50-64. Die Winter Nemeen. _Ib._ xxxvii., 1877, pp. 524-566. Die Isthmien und Hyacinthien. _Ib._ xxxvii., 1877, p. 1.

VILLOISON. Recherches historiques sur les jeux néméens. (Hist. de l’Acad. des Inscr. et Belles-Lettres, xxxviii. p. 29.)

III. THE PANATHENAEA

BÖCKH, A. De ludis Panathenaicis. Berlin, 1832.

MICHAELIS, A. Der Parthenon. Leipsic, 1871.

MOMMSEN, A. Feste der Stadt Athen. Leipsic, 1898.

SMITH, A. H. Sculptures of the Parthenon (Part of British Museum Catalogue of Sculpture).

B. GREEK ATHLETICS

(_a_) GENERAL

KRAUSE, J. H. Die Gymnastik und Agonistik der Hellenen. Leipsic, 1841.

FABRI, P. Agonisticon. Lugduni, 1592.

GRASBERGER, L. Erziehung und Unterricht im klassischen Altertum. Würzburg, 1864.

JAEGER, O. Die Gymnastik der Hellenen. Stuttgart, 1878.

MERCURIALIS. De arte gymnastica. Venetiis, 1573.

MEURSII, J. De ludis Graecorum. Elzevir, 1662.

PACIAUDI, P. M. De athletarum κυβιστήσει in palaestra Graecorum. Rome, 1756.

PHILOSTRATUS. For full Bibliography of the _Gymnastike_, _vide_ Jüthner’s edition, p. 84.

DAREMBERG, CH. Philostrate. Traité sur la gynmastique. Paris, 1858.

KAYSER, G. L. Philostratei libri de Gymnastica quae supersunt. Heidelberg, 1840. Flavii Philostrati opera. Leipsic, 1870.

JÜTHNER, JULIUS. Philostratos über Gymnastik. Leipsic and Berlin, 1909.

(_b_) SPECIAL

BURETTE, M. In Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 1736. Mémoire pour servir à l’histoire de la sphéristique ou de la paume des anciens, i. p. 153. Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire des athlètes, i. pp. 211, 237, 258. Mémoire pour servir à l’histoire de la lutte des anciens, iii. p. 228. Mémoire pour servir à l’histoire du pugilat des anciens, iii. p. 255. Mémoire pour servir à l’histoire de la course, iii. p. 280. Dissertation sur ce qu’on appelle pentathle, iii. p. 318. Dissertation sur l’exercice du disque ou palet, iii. p. 330.

GARDINER, E. N. The Method of deciding the Pentathlon. _J.H.S._ xxiii. p. 54. Notes on the Greek Foot-race. _Ib._ xxiii. p. 261. Phayllus and his Record Jump. _Ib._ xxiv. p. 70. Further Notes on the Greek Jump. _Ib._ xxiv. p. 179. Wrestling, I., II. _Ib._ xxv. pp. 14, 263. The Pankration and Wrestling. _Ib._ xxvi. p. 4. Throwing the Diskos. _Ib._ xxvii. p. 1. Throwing the Javelin. _Ib._ xxvii. p. 249.

JÜTHNER, JULIUS. Antike Turngeräthe. (Halteres, Diskos, Akontion, Himantes.) Vienna, 1896. Also in Pauly-Wissowa, _passim_.

_Boxing_

FABRETTI. Columna Trajani, p. 260. Rome, 1683.

FROST, K. T. Greek Boxing. _J.H.S._ xxvi. p. 213.

HÜLSEN. Il Cesto dei pugili antiqui. _Röm. Mitth._ iv. 175.

_The Diskos_

CHRYSSAPHIS, J. E. Ἡ Ἐλληνικὴ δισκοβολία in “Bulletin du comité des jeux olympiques,” No. 3, p. 59. Athens, 1906.

KIETZ, G. Der Diskoswurf bei der Griechen. Agonistische Studien, i. Munich, 1892.

PERNICE, E. Zum Diskoswurf. _Jahrb._, 1908, p. 95.

E. R. The Diskos Thrower. _Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York_, 1908, iii. 2, p. 31.

ROBERTSON, G. S. On Throwing the Discus, in the “Official Handbook of the Olympic Games.” London, 1908.

SIX. Vases polychromes sur fond noir. Appendice au sujet du discobole. _Gaz. Arch._, 1888, 291.

_The Hippodrome_, etc.

HELBIG, W. Les Hippeis athéniens. Paris, 1902.

MARTIN, A. Les Cavaliers athéniens. Paris, 1886. Also in Dar.-Sagl., _s.v._ Hippodrome.

POLLACK, E. Hippodromica. Leipsic, 1890.

_The Javelin and the Amentum_

BERTRAND, A. L’Amentum et la cateia sur line plaque de ceinture en bronze. _Revue arch._, 1884, 104 f.

KÖCHLY. Opuscula, ii. 351 ff.

KRAUSE, F. Schleudervorrichtungen für Wurfwaffen. _Internationales Archiv._ Leyden, 1902, pp. 121 ff.

MÉRIMÉE, P. _Revue arch._, 1860, 2nd Ed., 210 f.

_The Jump_

KÜPPERS. _Arch. Anz._, 1900, 104 ff.

PINDER, E. _Arch. Anz._, 1864, 230 f.

ROULEZ, M. Mémoire sur une coupe de Vulci. Brussels, 1842.

_The Race in Armour_

HAUSER. Zur Tübinger Bronze, i., ii. _Jahrb._ 2, 1887, p. 95; 1895, p. 182.

DE RIDDER, A. L’Hoplitodrome de Tübingen. _B.C.H._, 1897, p. 211.

_Wrestling Groups_

FÖRSTER. _Jahrb._, 1898, p. 178; 1901, pp. 49-51.

PERCLÜZET. _Rev. arch._, 1903, sér. 1, pp. 396-397.

_The Pentathlon_

BLÜMNER. In Baumeister’s Denkmäler, i. p. 1592.

BÖCKH, A. Adnotationes criticae, in his edition of Pindar, 1811. Über die kritische Behandlung der pindarischen Gedichte. _Abhandlungen d. Berl. Akad._, 1822-1823, p. 391.

FABER, MARTIN. Zum Fünfkampf der Hellenen. _Philologus_, 1891 (L), p. 469.

FEDDE, F. Der Fünfkampf der Hellenen. Breslau, 1888. Über den Fünfkampf d. Hell. Leipsic, 1889.

FENNELL, C. A. M. The Pentathlon, in his edition of Pindar’s Nemean and Isthmian Odes. Cambridge Press, 1883.

GARDNER, P. The Pentathlon. _J.H.S._ i. p. 210.

HAGGENMÜLLER. Die Aufeinanderfolge der Kämpfe im Pentathlon. Berlin, 1892.

HEINRICH, K. E. Über das Pentathlon der Griechen. Würzburg, 1892.

HERMANN, G. Commentationes de metris Pindari. Ed. Heyne, iii. 225. De Sogenis Aeginetae victoria quinquertii. Lips., 1822.

HOLWERDA. Zum Pentathlon. _Arch. Zeit._, 1881, pp. 205-216.

LEGRAND, PH. E. In Dar.-Sagl., _s.v._ Quinquertium. 1907.

MARQUARDT, H. Zum Pentathlon der Griechen. Güstrow, 1886.

MYERS, E. The Pentathlon. _J.H.S._ ii. p. 217.

PHILIPP, G. F. De Pentathlo. Berlin, 1827.

PINDER, E. Über den Fünfkampf der Hellenen. Berlin, 1867.

(_c_) MISCELLANEOUS

BASIADES, C. De vet. Graecorum gymnastice. Berlin, 1858.

BECKER, W. A. Charikles. Leipsic, 1840.

BINTZ, J. Die Gymnastike d. Hellenen. Gütersloh, 1878.

EGGER, J. B. Begriff der Gymnastik bei den alten Philosophen und Medizinern. Freiburg (Switz.), 1903.

FREEMAN, K. J. Schools of Hellas. Macmillan & Co., 1907.

GARDNER, P. Boat-races among the Greeks. _J.H.S._, ii. p. 90. Boat-races at Athens. _Ib._ p. 315. A Stele commemorating a Victory in a Boat-race. _Ib._ xi. p. 146.

GIRARD, P. L’Éducation athénienne. Paris, 1889.

GUTCH, C. The Greek Games. Cambridge, 1900.

JOUBERT, L. De gymnasiis et generibus exercitationum apud antiquos. Sallengre Thes., i.

JÜTHNER, J. Gymnastisches in Philostrat’s Eikones. Eranos Vindob. p. 310. Vienna, 1893.

LINDEMANN, F. De utilitate artis gymnasticae apud Graecos. Zitt., 1841.

MIE, F. Über die διὰ πάντων καὶ ὁ ἐπινίκιος in agonistischen Inschriften. _Ath. Mitth._ xxxiv. p. 1.

PETERSEN, CHR. Das Gymnasium der Griechen. Hamburg, 1858.

POLKE. Artis gymnasticae apud Graecos origo atque indoles. Gleiw., 1851.

RICHTER, W. Die Spiele der Griechen und Römer. Leipsic, 1840.

STALLBAUM, G. De vet. gymnasiorum disciplina et institutione. Leipsic, 1856, 1858.

TARBELL, F. B. The Palm of Victory. _Classical Philology_, iii. p. 264.

WILKINS, A. S. Roman Education. Cambridge Press, 1905.

P. WOLTERS. Zu griechischen Agonen. Würzburg, 1901.

C. ATHLETIC ART

_N.B._—The following section lays no claim to completeness. The references are as a rule too scattered and fragmentary to be included in a bibliography. Much information will be found in all histories and handbooks of athletic art.

_Coins (for equestrian types)_

HILL, G. F. Historical Greek Coins. London, 1906.

EVANS, A. The Horsemen of Tarentum. London, 1889.

_Mosaics_

LUCAS, HANS. Athleten-Typen. _Jahrb._ xix., 1904, pp. 127-136.

SECCHI, P. Musaico antoniniano.

_Sculpture_

FURTWÄNGLER, A. Die Bedeutung der Gymnastik in der griechischen Kunst. Leipsic, 1905.

GARDNER, P. The Apoxyomenos of Lysippus. _J.H.S._ xxv. p. 234.

KALKMANN, A. Die Statue von Subiaco. _Jahrb._, 1895, p. 46.

PATER, WALTER. The Age of Athletic Prizemen, in Greek Studies. London, 1895.

WALDSTEIN, C. Pythagoras of Rhegium and the Early Athletic Statues. _J.H.S._ i. p. 168; ii. p. 332.

_Vases_

References to the most important Athletic vases will be found in our list of illustrations. The following list is confined to Panathenaic vases.

BÖCKH, A. De vasorum Panathenaicorum generibus. Berlin, 1831.

DICKINS, G. Panathenaic Amphorae found at Sparta. _B.S.A._ xiii. p. 150.

HEERMANCE, T. W. Fragment of dated Panathenaic Amphora. _Amer. Journ. Archaeology_, 1896, p. 331.

HEINZE, F. Eine panathenäische Amphore des akademischen Kunstmuseums zu Bonn. Bonner Studien R. Kekulé gewidmet. Berlin, 1890, p. 240.

HOPPIN, J. C. A Panathenaic Amphora. _Amer. Journ. Archaeology_, 1906, p. 385.

POTTIER, E. Amphora panathénaïque. _B.C.H._ vi. p. 168.

ROBINSON, D. M. Fragment of Panathenaic Amphora. _Amer. Journ. of Philology_, 1908, p. 47.

SMITH, SIR C. Panathenaic Amphorae. _B.S.A._ iii. p. 182.

STEPHANI. Compte rendu, 1876, p. 18.

TARBELL, F. B. Fragment of a dated Panathenaic Amphora. _Cl. Review_, 1900, p. 474.

WALTERS, H. B. History of Ancient Pottery, ii. p. 388.

WITTE, J. DE. Annali dell’ Instituto, 1877, p. 294; 1878, p. 276.

INDEX

Academea at Athens, 468

Achaeans, athletic character of, 8, 11

Acrobats, in Homer, 25;
on Panathenaic vase, 243

Aeginetan pediments, physical type of, 92

Aeginetan successes, 92, 216, 226

Aepytus of Elis, rides his father’s horse, 463

Aezani, stadium, 266

Africanus compiles Olympic register, 50, 192

Age, classification by, 271

Agesidamus of Locri Epizephyrii, boxer, 110

Ageus of Argos, dolichodromos, 201, 285

Agias, pankratiast, statue of, at Delphi, 124, 212

Aglaus of Athens, runner, 273

Agonothetes, 150

Akontistes, 150, 506

Alcibiades, victories at Olympia, 132;
at Isthmia, 225;
his feast at Olympia, 207;
wrestling, 445

Alcimedon of Aegina, wrestler, 375

Alcimidas of Aegina, wrestler, 375

Alcmaeon of Athens, 60

Aleiptes, 477, 506

Alexander, son of Amyntas, at Olympia, 47, 80

Alexander the Great, his contempt for athletics, 127, 154;
respect for Olympia, 154

Alexandria, victories at Olympia, 155

Alexandrini, guild of, 175

Amentum, 339 ff.

Amphiaraus vase, 29, 385, 463

Amphictionies, in Peloponnese, 41

Anaxilas of Rhegium, 71, 207

Anaximenes, statue of, at Olympia, 140

Anolympiads, 45

Antiochus, pankratiast, Arcadian ambassador to Persia, 143

Antipater of Miletus, boxer, refuses bribe, 134

Antiphon, 339, 354

Anystis, courier, 181

Aphesis, of stadium, 253, 259, 265, 273;
of hippodrome, 453

Aphetes, or katapaltaphetes, 150

Aphrodisias, stadium, 260

Apobates, 71, 237, 461

Apollo, statues of, 84, 88 ff.

Apollonius, boxer, disqualified at Olympia, 201

Apollonius Rhodius, description of boxing, 430

Apoxyomenos, 124, 482

Aratus of Sicyon, 157, 160

Arcesilas of Cyrene, 210

Archelaus of Macedon, founds Olympia at Dium, 152

Archilochus of Paros, hymn of, 56, 207

Argeius of Ceos, boxer, 216, 225, 426

Argive wrestlers, 393, 401

Argos, and Olympia, 55;
and Nemean games, 224

Aristomenes of Aegina, wrestler, 375

Ariston, P. Cornelius, pankratiast, 178, 375

Aristonicus of Carystus, Alexander’s sphairistes, 485

Aristophanes, on decline of athletics, 131

Aristotle, his opinion on athletics, 127;
on the pentathlon, 136;
edits list of Olympionicae, 50,
and Pythionicae, 213;
statue of, at Olympia, 140

Armed combat. _Vide_ Hoplomachia

Armed race. _Vide_ Foot-race

Arrhichion of Phigalia, pankratiast, 70, 201, 438, 443, 450

Asclepiades, Publius, inscribed diskos of, 183, 316

Asinius Quadratus, C., Olympic chronology, 182

Aspendus, coins of, 103, 373, 385, 441

Astylus of Croton, runner, proclaimed as a Syracusan, 76, 82, 134

Atarbus, monument of, 240

Athenian festivals, 227 ff.;
Panathenaea, 227;
Heraclea, 228;
Eleusinia, 228;
Oschophoria, 228;
Thesea, 228, 247;
Epitaphia, 228;
Dionysia, 229;
Aiantea, 229;
Olympia, 229;
Bendidea, 229;
Diisoteria, 229

Athens, successes at Olympia, 73;
athletic training at, 108;
decline of athletics, 131;
training of epheboi, 149;
gladiatorial shows at, 172;
Panathenaic stadium, 263;
popularity of foot-race and pankration, 272;
gymnasia and palaestrae, 149, 468 ff.

Athletes, honours and rewards of, 77;
profits of, 129;
transfer of, 134

Athletic art, 84, 86 ff., 103.
_Vide_ Coins, Gems, Sculpture

Athletics, difference between Greek and modern, 3, 5;
distinguish Greek from barbarian, 47, 107

Athletics and athletic games, 3;
and physical training, 186, 510

Athletics, Greek, practical character of, 1;
part of education, 2;
absence of records, 2;
connexion with religion, 3;
political importance of, 4;
danger of excess in, 4;
vitality of, 5;
importance attached to style, 2, 114;
influence of, upon art, 86;
influence of art upon, 114

Athletics, history of Greek—
Northern origin of athletics, 8;
pre-Achaeans unathletic, 9;
sport in Homer, 11 ff.;
sport aristocratic, 14, 25
Rise of athletic festival, 26 ff.;
early records of Olympia, 54;
superiority of Sparta, seventh century, 56;
athletics in Sicily and Italy, 58;
sport national and democratic, 60
Organization of athletics, sixth century, 61;
profits and rewards of, 76;
protest of Xenophanes against over-athleticism, 78;
growth of competition, 79;
athletic training, 81;
decline of Sparta, 81;
age of strong men, 82
Athletic ideal of fifth century, 86 ff.;
influence of Persian wars, 107;
influence of art on athletics, 114
Growth of specialization 440-338 B.C., 124 ff.;
athletic diet, 125;
artificial training, 126;
rise of medical gymnastics, 129;
lucrativeness of athletics, 129;
professionalism, 131;
corruption, 134;
brutalization of sport, 135
The professional strong man, 146;
age of athletic buildings, 148;
military training of epheboi, 149;
athletic revival in Asia and Egypt, 155;
decline of Italy and Sicily, 160
Roman prejudice against athletics, 163;
brutalizing influence of Rome, 172;
increase of corruption, 174;
athletic guilds, 174;
artificial revival of athletics under Empire, 178;
age of records, 181;
sports of Sparta, 183;
Galen condemns athletics, 188;
Philostratus on the decline of athletics, 190;
artificiality of training, 191

Aurelius Asclepiades, M., periodoneikes, 178

Automedes of Phlius, pentathlete, 368

Bacchylides, 105, 109, 195, 200, 272

Balbis, 252, 318 ff.

Ball-play in Homer, 24;
at Sparta, 185;
Galen’s treatise on, 187;
Alexander fond of, 485;
rooms for, 485

Bater, 252, 297

Bathing arrangements in gymnasium, 479 ff.

Bathroom at Delphi, 486;
at Priene, 495

Beauty, Greek love of, 88

Belistiche, 159, 462

Beni-Hassan, wrestling scenes at, 9, 372

Boat-races, 221, 229, 240, 508

Bolas, 314

Boxing—
In Crete, 9, 10, 403;
in Homer, 17, 417;
in Eastern Aegean, 33;
at Priene (ἐν εἵμασι), 496;
popularity of, 131, 402
Himantes, 402;
sphairai, 406, 136;
himantes oxeis, 409;
caestus, 411;
represented on bronze situlae, 412
History of, in Greece, 414;
conditions of, 415;
position of boxer, 419
Use of left hand, 422;
use of right hand, 423;
the crushed ear, 425;
foot-work, 425;
defect of style, 427
Amycus and Polydeuces in Theocritus, 428;
in Apollonius Rhodius, 430;
Dares and Entellus in Vergil, 431, 172;
laws of, 432
Practice for, 433

Boys, competitions for, 80;
pankration for, 161;
Claudian, Augustan, 175;
Isthmian, Pythian, 271

Bull-baiting at Cnossus, 10

Burgon vase, 242, 457

Bybon, inscription of, on weight, 83

Bye, importance of, 370, 374

Caestus, 136, 172.
_Vide_ Boxing

Callippus of Athens, pentathlete, bribes opponents, 134, 136

Caprus of Elis, pankratiast, 146

Carrhotus, charioteer of Arcesilas, 463

Ceos, athletic successes of, 107, 216, 226;
list of victors, 216;
ephebic inscription, 151, 502

Chariot, four-horse and two-horse, 457

Charioteer, 111, 463;
dress of, 459, 460

Chariot-race, in Homer, 15;
in funeral games, 31, 32;
antiquity of, at Olympia, 40, 56;
tyrants compete in, 59;
popularity of, in Sicily, 132, 451;
in Sparta, 133;
in Macedon, 161;
discontinuance of, at Olympia, 165;
at Pythia, 211;
at Isthmia, 221;
at Nemea, 225;
at Athens, 235 ff.;
women compete in, 462;
states compete in, 463;
danger of, 463.
_Vide_ also Hippodrome

Chilon, death of, at Olympia, 73

Chionis of Sparta, runner, 58, 70

Chios, girls and men wrestle, 387

Chromius of Aetna, chariot, 114, 225

Cimon of Athens, 73, 468

Cirrus, 377

Claudius Rufus, T., pankratiast, decree in honour of, 115

Cleisthenes of Sicyon, 60, 63, 66, 210

Cleitomachus of Thebes, boxer, wrestler, pankratiast, 146, 199;
epigram on, 377

Cleitostratus of Rhodes, wrestler, 401

Clothes, penalty for stealing, in gymnasium, 477;
provision for care of, 500

Cnossus, bull-baiting at, 9;
dancing and boxing, 10

Coins—
Athletic types on, 103;
diskobolos (Cos), 330;
wrestlers (Aspendus, Alexandria, Heraclea, Syracuse, Tarentum),
372, 373, 385, 390
Equestrian types on coins of Italy and Sicily, 451;
mule car (Rhegium, Messana), 460;
torch-race, apobates (Tarentum), 461;
chariot (Catana), 465;
(Syracuse, Agrigentum), 465;
chariot and horse on coins of Macedon, 459
The Zeus of Pheidias (Elis), 178;
nymph Olympia and Victory (Elis), 194;
prize table (Delphi), 214;
crown (Delphi), 214;
(Corinth), 222;
(Argos), 224

Colotes, prize-table of, 121

Colts, races for, 161;
judging, 204, 461

Competition, Greek love of, 3

Coroebus of Elis, first Olympic victor, 50, 54

Corruption in athletics, 134, 148, 174, 218

Cretans excel as runners, 284

Creugas and Damoxenus at Nemea, 421, 432

Croton, victories of, 58, 82, 284;
tries to rival Olympia, 82

Cryptoporticus, 494, 498

Cylon of Athens, 71, 73

Cynisca, 133, 462

Cynosarges, 149, 468

Cypselus, chest of, 30, 60

Damagetus of Sparta, boxer, 73

Damaretus of Heraea, hoplitodromos, statue of, 70

Damaretus, king of Sparta, chariot-race, 133

Damiscus of Messene, boy runner, 271

Damonon, inscription, 133, 284, 151, 463

Damostratus, wrestler, epigram on, 377

Dead heats, 206

Deinosthenes of Sparta, courier, 155 n. 2

Delos, festival at, 33;
gymnasium, 489

Delphi, charioteer, 111;
inscription, περὶ οἴνου, 126;
stadium, 257;
gymnasium, 483

Democrates of Tenedos, decree in honour of, 156

Diadumenos of Polycleitus, 96

Diagoras of Rhodes, 180

Diagoridae of Rhodes, 47, 130, 179

Diaulos, 51, 280, 283

Diet of athletes, 124, 126, 191

Dikon of Syracuse, runner, 137

Diodorus, gymnasiarchos, stele of, 491

Diodorus of Pergamum, gymnasiarchos, restores gymnasium, 500

Dion, accounts of archonship of, at Delphi, 261, 483

Dion of Prusa (Chrysostom) at the Isthmia, 173, 214

Dionysodorus of Thebes and Alexander, 154

Diophon, pentathlete, epigram on, 359, 368

Discipline enforced by the rod, 142, 274, 436, 469, 475

Diskobolos, of Myron, 95, 319, 322, 330;
the standing (Vatican), 327.
_Vide_ Coins, Sculpture

Diskoi, of stone, 315;
of metal, 316;
existing specimens, 316;
weight and size of, 317

Diskoi, inscribed, Iphitus, 43;
Publius Asclepiades, 183;
Exoïdas, 316

Diskos and solos in Homer, 22, 313

Diskos, throwing the, distance thrown, 318;
balbis, 318;
marking the throw, 320;
principle of the throw, 322;
typical positions, 323;
stance, 327;
backward swing, 330;
the forward swing and throw, 331;
modern styles, 333;
competitions in, 337

Dolichos, 51, 270, 279, 281, 284

Domitius Tutus, Q., votive offering of, 222

Dorian invasion, 42

Dorieus of Rhodes, boxer, 130, 375

Doryphoros of Polycleitus, 95

Drachma, value of, 262

Drill, textbooks of, 374

Dromeus of Mantinea, pankratiast, 375

Dromeus of Stymphalus, dolichodromos and trainer, introduces meat diet,
126, 505

Dromos, at Sparta, 467

Drumos of Epidaurus, inscription of, 285

Dumb-bells, halteres used as, 310

Elaiothesion, 490

Elean embassy to Egypt, 68

Eleans and Pisatans, 43, 142

Eleans, Ϝρατραι of, 51

Elis, synoecism of, 115;
the new city, 117;
treaty with Heraea, 46

Empedocles of Aetna, 207

Epaenetus, inscribed halter of, 298

Epaminondas and athletics, 127

Epharmostus of Opous, 180, 228

Ephebeion, 490, 495

Epheboi, 99;
reorganized by Lycurgus, 148;
training of,, 149 ff.

Ephesus, stadium, 266;
gymnasium, 494

Epicharinus, hoplitodromos, statue of, 94

Epidaurus, athletes fined for bribery, 148 n.;
stadium, 254

Epigrams, athletic, 172;
their veracity, 310

Epinikia, 78, 105 ff.

Etruscan wall-paintings, funeral games, 27;
wrestling, 384;
boxing, 412

Euagoras of Sparta, chariot-race, 133

Eumastas, inscription on weight, 83

Eumelus, 34

Eupolemus of Elis, runner, 135

Eupolus of Thessaly, boxer, bribes opponents, 134

Euripides, epinikion on Alcibiades, 105;
on professional athletes, 131

Euryleonis of Sparta, 462