Chapter XVI: Part II: Animal Life (9)

_Observations_--1. Where were the toads’ eggs found and on what date? Were they attached to anything in the water or were they floating free? Are the eggs in long strings? Do you find any eggs laid in jellylike masses? If so, what are they? How can you tell the eggs of toads from those of frogs?

2. Is the jellylike substance in which the eggs are placed clear or discolored? What is the shape and the size of the eggs? A little later how do they look? Do the young tadpoles move about while they are still in the jelly mass?

3. Describe how the little tadpole works its way out from the jelly covering. Can you distinguish then which is head and which is tail? How does it act at first? Where and how does it rest?

4. Can you see with the aid of a lens the little fringes on each side of the neck? What are these? Do these fringes disappear a little later? Do they disappear on both sides of the neck at once? What becomes of them? How does the tadpole breathe? Can you see the little hole on the left side, through which the water used for breathing passes?

1–18, Changes and growth from April to November
1–13, Development in 25 to 60 days
9–14, Different sizes, July 30, 1903
15–18, Different sizes, October 21, 1903
10, 11, The same tadpole, 11 is 47 hours older than 10
12, 13, The same tadpole, 13 is 47 hours older than 12

Photo by S. H. Gage.]

5. How does the tail look and how is it used? How long is it in proportion to the body? Describe the act of swimming.

6. Which pair of legs appears first? How do they look? When they get a little larger are they used as a help in swimming? Describe the hind legs and feet.

7. How long after the hind legs appear before the front legs or arms appear? What happens to the breathing-pore when the left arm is pushed through?

8. After both pairs of legs are developed what happens to the tail? What becomes of it?

9. When the tadpole is very young can you see its eyes? How do they look as it grows older? Do they ever bulge out like toads’ eyes?

10. As the tadpole gains its legs and loses its tail how does it change in its actions? How does it swim now? Does it come oftener to the surface? Why?

11. Describe the difference between the front and the hind legs and the front and the hind feet on the fully grown tadpole. If the tail or a leg is bitten off by some other creature will it grow again?

LESSON XLV

THE TOAD

_Leading thought_--The toad is colored so that it resembles the soil and thus escapes the observation of its enemies. It lives in damp places and eats insects, usually hunting them at night. It has powerful hind legs and is a vigorous jumper.

_Method_--Make a moss garden in a glass aquarium jar thus: Place some stones or gravel in the bottom of the jar and cover with moss. Cover the jar with a wire screen. The moss should be deluged with water at least once a day and the jar should be placed where the direct sunlight will not reach it. In this jar, place the toad for study.

_Observations_--1. Describe the general color of the toad above and below. How does the toad’s back look? Of what use are the warts on its back?

2. Where is the toad usually found? Does it feel warm or cold to the hand? Is it slimy or dry? The toad is a cold-blooded animal, what does this mean?

3. Describe the eyes and explain how their situation is of special advantage to the toad. Do you think it can see in front and behind and above all at the same time? Does the bulge of the eyes help in this? Note the shape and color of the pupil and iris. How does the toad wink?

4. Find and describe the nostrils. Find and describe the ear. Note the swelling above and just back of the ear. Do you know the use of this?

5. What is the shape of the toad’s mouth? Has it any teeth? Is the toad’s tongue attached to the front or the back part of the mouth? How is it used to catch insects?

6. Describe the “arms and hands.” How many “fingers” on the “hand?” Which way do the fingers point when the toad is sitting down?

7. Describe the legs and feet. How many toes are there? What is the relative length of the toes and how are they connected? What is this web between the toes for? Why are the hind legs so much larger than the front legs?

8. Will a toad change color if placed upon different colored objects? How long does it take it to do this? Of what advantage is this to the toad?

9. Where does the toad live? When it is disturbed how does it act? How far can it jump? If very frightened does it flatten out and lie still? Why is this?

10. At what time does the toad come out to hunt insects? How does it catch the insect? Does it swallow an earthworm head or tail first? When swallowing an earthworm or large insect, how does it use its hands? How does it act when swallowing a large mouthful?

11. How does the toad drink? Where does it remain during the day? Describe how it burrows into the earth.

12. What happens to the toad in the winter? What does it do in the spring? Is it a good swimmer? How does it use its legs in swimming?

13. How does the toad look when croaking? What sort of a noise does it make?

14. Describe the action of the toad’s throat when breathing. Did you ever see a toad shed its skin?

15. What are the toad’s enemies? How does it act when caught by a snake? Does it make any noise? Is it swallowed head or tail first? What means has it of escaping or defending itself from its enemies?

16. How is the toad of great use to the farmer and gardener?

_References_--“The Life History of the Toad,” by S. H. Gage, Cornell Nature-Study Volume; The Frog Book, Dickerson.

_Supplementary reading_--“K’dunk, the fat one,” A Little Brother to the Bear, Long.

* * * * *

“_In the early years we are not to teach nature as science,
we are not to teach it primarily for method or for drill: we
are to teach it for loving--and this is nature-study. On these
points I make no compromise._”
--L. H. BAILEY.

THE TREE-FROG, OR TREE-TOAD

_Teacher’s Story_

“_Ere yet the earliest warbler wakes, of coming spring to
tell,
From every marsh a chorus breaks, a choir invisible,
As if the blossoms underground, a breath of utterance
had found._”
--TABB.

Associated with the first songs of robin and bluebird, is the equally delightful chorus of the spring peepers, yet how infrequently do most of us see a member of this invisible choir! There are some creatures which are the quintessence of the slang word “cute” which, interpreted, means the perfection of Lilliputian proportions, permeated with undaunted spirit. The chickadee is one of these, and the tree-frog is another. I confess to a thrill of delight when the Pickering’s hyla lifts itself on its tiny front feet, twists its head knowingly, and turns on me the full gaze of its bronze-rimmed eyes. This is the tiniest froglet of them all, being little more than an inch long when fully grown; it wears the Greek cross in darker color upon its back, with some stripes across its long hind legs which join the pattern on the back when the frog is “shut up,” as the boys say.

_Pickering’s Hyla._

Photo by Cyrus Crosby.]

The reason we see so little of tree-frogs, is because they are protected from discovery by their color. They have the chameleon power of changing color to match their background. The Pickering’s hyla will effect this change in twenty minutes; in this species, the darker lines forming the cross change first, giving a mottled appearance which is at once protective. I have taken three of these peepers, all of them pale yellowish brown with gray markings, and have placed one upon a fern, one on dark soil and one on the purple bud of a flower. Within half an hour, each matched its surroundings so closely, that the casual eye would not detect them. The song of the Pickering’s hyla is a resonant chirp, very stirring when heard nearby; it sounds somewhat like the note of a water bird. How such a small creature can make such a loud noise, is a mystery. The process, however, may be watched at night by the light of a lamp, as none of the tree-frogs seem to pay any attention to an artificial light; the thin membrane beneath the throat swells out until it seems almost large enough to balloon the little chap off his perch. No wonder that, with such a sounding-sac, the note is stirring. There are several species of tree-frogs that trill in the branches above our heads all summer, and their songs are sometimes mistaken for those of the cicada, which is far more shrill.

The tree-frogs have toes and fingers ending in little round discs which secrete at will a substance by means of which they can cling to vertical surfaces, even to glass. In fact, the way to study these wonderful feet is when the frog is climbing up the sides of the glass jar. The fingers are arranged, two short inside ones, a long one, and another short one outside. The hind feet have three shorter inside toes quite far apart, a long one at the tip of the foot and a shorter one outside. When climbing a smooth surface like glass, the toes are spread wide apart, and there are other little clinging discs on their lower sides, although not so large as those at the tips. It is by means of these sticky, disc-like toes that the tree-frogs hold themselves upon the tree trunks.

The whole body of the tree-frog is covered with little tubercles, which give it a roughened appearance. The eyes are black with the iris of reddish color. The tongue is like that of other frogs, hinged to the front of the lower jaw; it is sticky and can be thrust far out to capture insects, of which the tree-frogs eat vast numbers.

The hylas breathe by the rapid pulsation of the membrane of the throat, which makes the whole body tremble. The nostrils are two tiny holes on either side of the tip of the snout. The ears are a little below and just behind the eyes, and are in the form of a circular slit.

The eggs of the spring peepers are laid in ponds during April; each egg has a little globe of jelly about it and is fastened to a stone or a water plant. The tadpoles are small and delicate; the under side of the body is reddish and shines with metallic lustre. These tadpoles differ from those of other frogs in that they often leave the water while yet the tail is still quite long. In summer, they may be found among the leaves and moss around the banks of ponds. They are indefatigable in hunting for gnats, mosquitoes and ants; their destruction of mosquitoes, as pollywogs and as grown up frogs, renders them of great use to us. The voice of this peeper may be heard among the shrubs and vines or in trees during late summer and until November. The little creatures sleep beneath moss and leaves during the winter, waking to give us the earliest news of spring.

LESSON XLVI

THE TREE-FROG OR TREE-TOAD

_Leading thought_--The prettiest part of the spring chorus of the frog ponds is sung by the tree-frogs. These little frogs have the tips of their toes specially fitted for climbing up the sides of trees.

_Method_--Make a moss garden in an aquarium jar or a two-quart can. Place stones in the bottom and moss at one side, leaving a place on the other side for a tiny pond of water. In this garden place a tree-frog and cover the jar with mosquito netting and place in the shade. The frogs may be found by searching the banks of a pond at night with a lantern. However, this lesson is usually given when by accident the tree-frog is discovered. Any species of tree-frog will do; but the Pickering’s hyla, known everywhere as the spring peeper, is the most interesting species to study.

_Observations_--1. How large is the tree-frog? What is its color? Describe the markings.

2. Place the tree-frog on some light-colored surface like a piece of white blotting paper. Note if it changes color after a half hour. Later place it upon some dark surface. Note if it changes color again. How does this power of changing color benefit the tree-frog? Place a tree-frog on a piece of bark. After a time is it noticeable?

3. Describe the eyes. Note how little the tree-frog turns its head to see anything behind it. Describe its actions if its attention is attracted to anything. What color is the pupil? The iris?

4. Note the movement of breathing. Where does this show the most? Examine the delicate membrane beneath the throat. What has this to do with the breathing?

5. What is the tree-frog’s note? At what time of day does it peep? At what time of year? Describe how the frog looks when peeping.

6. How does the tree-frog climb? When it is climbing up a vertical surface study its toes. How many on the front foot? How are they arranged? How many toes on the hind foot? Sketch the front and hind feet. How do the toe-discs look when pressed against the glass? How does it manage to make the discs cling and then let go? Are there any more discs on the under side of the toes? Is there a web between the toes of the hind feet? Of the front feet?

7. Look at a tree-frog very closely and describe its nostrils and its ears.

8. Are the tree-frogs good jumpers? What is the size and length of the hind legs as compared with the body?

9. When and where are the eggs of the tree-frog laid? How do they look?

10. How do the tree-frog tadpoles differ from other tadpoles? Describe them if you have ever seen them. In what situations do they live?

11. Of what use are the tree-frogs to us?

_References_--“The Life History of the Toad,” Cornell Nature Study Volume, S. H. Gage; The Frog Book, Dickerson; Familiar Life of Field and Forest, Mathews; American Natural History, Hornaday; Elementary Zoology, V. L. Kellogg; From River Ooze to Tree-top, Sharp.

THE FROG

_Teacher’s Story_

The stroller along brooksides, is likely to be surprised some day, at seeing a bit of moss and earth suddenly make a high leap and a far one, without apparent provocation. An investigation resolves the clump of moss into a brilliantly green and yellow, striped frog, and then the stroller wonders how he could have overlooked such an obvious creature. But the leopard frog is only obvious when it is out of its environment. The common green frog is quite as well protected since its color is exactly that of green pools. Most frogs spend their lives in or about water, and if caught on land, they make great leaps to reach their native element; the leopard frog and a few other species sometimes wander far afield.

In form, the frog is more slim than the toad, and is not covered with great warts; it is cold and slippery to the touch. The frog’s only chance of escaping its enemies, is through the slipperiness of its body and by making long, rapid leaps. As a jumper, the frog is much more powerful than the toad because its hind legs are so much larger and more muscular, in comparison with its size. The first toe in the front feet of the leopard frog is much swollen, making a fat thumb; the mechanics of the hind legs make it possible for the frog to feather the webbed feet as it swims. On the bottom of the toes are hardened places at the joints, and sometimes others besides, which give the foot a strong hold when pushing for the jump. The toe tips, when they are pressed against the glass, resemble slightly the tree-toads’ discs. The hind foot is very long, while on the front foot the toes radiate almost in a circle. The foot and leg are colored like the back of the body above, and on the under side resemble the under parts.

The frog is likely to be much more brightly colored than the toad, and usually has much of green and yellow in its dress. But the frog lives among green things, while it is to the toad’s advantage to be the color of the soil. Frogs also have the chameleon power of changing color, to harmonize with their environment. I have seen a very green leopard frog change to a slate-gray when placed upon slate-colored rock. The change took place in the green portions. The common green frog will likewise change to slate-color, in a similar situation. A leopard frog changed quickly from dark green to pale olive, when it was placed in the water after having been on the soil.

The eyes of frogs are very prominent, and are beautiful when observed closely. The green frog has a dark bronze iris with a gleaming gold edge around the pupil, and around the outer margin. The eye of the leopard frog is darker; the iris seems to be black, with specks of ruddy gold scattered through it, and there is an outer band of red-gold around the margin. When the frog winks, the nictitating membrane rises from below and covers the whole eye; and when the frog makes a special effort of any sort, it has a comical way of drawing its eyes back into its head. When trying to hide at the bottom of the aquarium, the leopard species lets the eye-lids fall over the eyes, so that they do not shine up and attract pursuers.

The ear is in a similar position to that of the toad, and in the bullfrog, is larger than the eye. In the green frog, it is a dull grayish disc, almost as large as the eye. In the leopard frog, it is not so large as the eye, and has a giltish spot at the center.

The nostrils are small and are closed when below the water, as may be easily seen by a lens. The mouth opens widely, the corners extending back under the eye. The jaws are horny and are armed with teeth, which are for the purpose of biting off food rather than for chewing it. When above water, the throat keeps up a rythmic motion which is the process of breathing; but when below water this motion ceases. The food of frogs is largely composed of insects, that frequent damp places or that live in the water.

The sound-sacs of the frogs, instead of being beneath the throat, as is the case with toads and tree-frogs, are at the side of the throat; and when inflated, may extend from just back of the eyes, out above the front legs. The song is characteristic, and pleasant to listen to, if not too close by. Perhaps exception should be made to the lay of the bullfrog, which like the song of some noted opera singers, is more wonderful than musical; the boom of the bullfrog makes the earth fairly quake. If we seize the frog by the hind leg, it will usually croak and thus demonstrate for us, the position of its sound-sacs.

In addition to the snakes, the frogs have inveterate enemies in the herons which frequent shallow water, and eat them in great numbers. The frogs hibernate in mud and about ponds, burrowing deep enough to escape freezing. In the spring, they come up and sing their spring songs and the mother frogs lay their eggs in masses of jelly on the bottom of the pond, usually where the water is deeper than in the situations where the toads’ eggs are laid. The eggs of the two can always be distinguished, since the toads’ are laid in strings of jelly, while the frogs’ are laid in masses.

It is amusing to watch with a lens, the frog tadpoles seeking for their microscopic food along the glass of the aquarium. There are horny upper and lower jaws, the latter being below and back of the former. The upper jaw moves back and forth slightly and rythmically, but the dropping of the lower jaw opens the mouth. There are three rows of tiny black teeth below the mouth and one row above; at the sides and below these teeth are little, finger-like fringes. Fringes, rows of teeth and jaws all work together, up and down, out and in, in the process of breathing. The nostrils, although minute, are present in the tadpole in its early stages. The pupil of the eye is almost circular and the iris is usually yellow or copper-bronze, with black mottling. The eyes do not wink nor withdraw. The breathing-pore on the left side, is a hole in a slight protuberance.

At first, the tadpoles of the frogs and toads are very much alike; but later, most of the frog tadpoles are lighter in color, usually being olive-green, mottled with specks of black and white. The frog tadpoles usually remain much longer than the toads in the tadpole stage, and when finally they change to adults, they are far larger in size than the toads are, when they attain their jumping legs.

LESSON XLVII

THE FROG

_Leading thought_--The frog lives near or in ponds or streams. It is a powerful jumper and has a slippery body. Its eggs are laid in masses of jelly at the bottom of ponds.

_Method_--The frog may be studied in its native situation by the pupils or it may be brought to the school and placed in an aquarium; however, to make a frog aquarium there needs to be a stick or stone projecting above the water, for the frog likes to spend part of the time entirely out of water or only partially submerged.

_Observations_--1. Where is the frog found? Does it live all its life in the water? When found on land how and where does it seek to escape?

2. Compare the form of the frog with that of the toad. Describe the skin, its color and texture. Compare the skin of the two.

3. Describe the colors and markings of the frog on the upper and on the under side. How do these protect it from observation from above? From below? How do we usually discover that we are in the vicinity of a frog?

4. Describe the frog’s ears, eyes, nostrils and mouth.

5. Compare its “hands and feet” with those of the toad. Why the difference in the hind legs and feet?

6. How does the frog feel to your hand? Is it easy to hold him? How does this slipperiness of the frog benefit it?

7. On what does the frog feed? What feeds on it? How does it escape its enemies?

8. What sounds does the frog make? Where are its sound sacs located? How do they look when they are inflated?

9. Is the frog a good swimmer? Is it a better jumper than the toad? Why?

10. Where are the frog’s eggs laid? How do they look?

11. Can you tell the frog tadpoles from those of the toad? Which remains longer in the tadpole stage? Study the frog tadpoles, following the questions given in Lesson XLIV.

12. What happens to the frog in winter?

* * * * *

_FESTINA LENTE_

_Once on a time there was a pool
Fringed all about with flag-leaves cool
And spotted with cow-lilies garish,
Of frogs and pouts the ancient parish.
Alders the creaking redwings sink on,
Tussocks that house blithe Bob o’ Lincoln,
Hedged round the unassailed seclusion,
Where muskrats piled their cells Carthusian;
And many a moss-embroidered log,
The watering-place of summer frog,
Slept and decayed with patient skill,
As watering-places sometimes will.
Now in this Abbey of Theleme,
Which realized the fairest dream
That ever dozing bull-frog had,
Sunned, on a half-sunk lily pad,
There rose a party with a mission
To mend the polliwog’s condition,
Who notified the selectmen
To call a meeting there and then.
“Some kind of steps,” they said, “are needed;
They don’t come on so fast as we did:
Let’s dock their tails; if that don’t make ’em
Frogs by brevet, the Old One take ’em!
That boy, that came the other day
To dig some flag-root down this way,
His jack-knife left, and ’tis a sign
That Heaven approves of our design:
’Twere wicked not to urge the step on,
When Providence has sent the weapon.”
Old croakers, deacons of the mire,
That led the deep batrachian choir,
“Uk! Uk! Caronk!” with bass that might
Have left Lablache’s out of sight,
Shook nobby heads, and said “No, go!
You’d better let ’em try to grow:
Old Doctor Time is slow, but still
He does know how to make a pill.”
But vain was all their hoarsest bass,
Their old experience out of place,
And spite of croaking and entreating
The vote was carried in marsh-meeting.
“Lord knows,” protest the polliwogs,
“We’re anxious to be grown-up frogs;
But don’t push in to do the work
Of Nature till she prove a shirk;
’Tis not by jumps that she advances,
But wins her way by circumstances;
Pray, wait awhile, until you know
We’re so contrived as not to grow;
Let Nature take her own direction,
And she’ll absorb our imperfection;
You mightn’t like ’em to appear with,
But we must have the things to steer with.”
“No,” piped the party of reform,
“All great results are ta’en by storm;
Fate holds her best gifts till we show
We’ve strength to make her let them go;
The Providence that works in history,
And seems to some folks such a mystery,
Does not creep slowly on, incog.,
But moves by jumps, a mighty frog;
No more reject the Age’s chrism,
Your queues are an anachronism;
No more the future’s promise mock,
But lay your tails upon the block,
Thankful that we the means have voted
To have you thus to frogs promoted.”
The thing was done, the tails were cropped,
And home each philotadpole hopped,
In faith rewarded to exult,
And wait the beautiful result.
Too soon it came; our pool, so long
The theme of patriot bull-frog’s song,
Next day was reeking, fit to smother,
With heads and tails that missed each other,--
Here snoutless tails, there tailless snouts;
The only gainers were the pouts._

_MORAL_

_From lower to the higher next,
Not to the top is Nature’s text;
And embryo Good, to reach full stature,
Absorbs the Evil in its nature._
--LOWELL.

THE NEWT, EFT OR SALAMANDER

_Teacher’s Story_

After a rain in spring or summer, we see these little orange-red creatures sprawling along roads or woodland paths, and since they are rarely seen except after rain, the wise people of old, declared they rained down, which was an easy way for explaining their presence. But the newts do not rain down, they rain up instead, since if they have journeys to make they must needs go forth when the ground is wet, otherwise they would dry up and die. Thus, the newts make a practice of never going out except when it rains. A closer view of the eft shows plenty of peculiarities in its appearance to interest us. Its colors are decidedly gay, the body color being orange, ornamented with vermilion dots along each side of the back, each red dot margined with tiny black specks; but the eft is careless about these decorations and may have more spots on one side than on the other. Besides these vermilion dots, it is also adorned with black specks here and there, and especially along its sides, looks as if it had been peppered. The newt’s greatest beauty lies in its eyes; these are black, with elongated pupils, almost parallel with the length of the head, and bordered above and below with bands of golden, shining iris which give the eyes a fascinating brilliancy. The nostrils are mere pin-holes in the end of the snout.

The legs and feet look queerly inadequate for such a long body, since they are short and far apart. There are four toes on the front feet and five on the hind feet, the latter being decidedly pudgy. The legs are thinner where they join the body and wider toward the feet. The eft can move very rapidly with its scant equipment of legs. It has a misleading way of remaining motionless for a long time and then darting forward like a flash, its long body falling into graceful curves as it moves. But it can go very slowly when exploring; it then places its little hands cautiously and lifts its head as high as its short arms will allow, in order to take observations. Although it can see quite well, yet on an unusual surface, like glass, it seems to feel the way by touching its lower lip to the surface as if to test it. The tail is flattened at the sides and is used to twine around objects in time of need; and I am sure it is also used to push the eft while crawling, for it curves this way and that vigorously, as the feet progress, and obviously pushes against the ground. Then, too, the tail is an aid when, by some chance, the eft is turned over on its back, for with its help, it can right itself speedily. The eft’s method of walking is interesting; it moves forward one front foot and then the hind foot on the other side; after a stop for rest, it begins just where it left off when it again starts on. Its beautiful eyes seem to serve the newt well indeed, for I find that, when it sees my face approaching the moss jar, it climbs promptly over to the other side. There are no eyelids for the golden eyes, but the eft can pull them back into its head and close the slit after them, thus making them very safe.

The eft with whose acquaintance I was most favored, was not yet mature and was afraid of earthworms; but he was very fond of plant-lice and it was fun to see the little creature stalking them. A big rose plant-louse would be squirming with satisfaction as it sucked the juice of the leaf, when the eft would catch sight of it and become greatly excited, evidently holding his breath since the pulsating throat would become rigid. There was a particularly alert attitude of the whole front part of the body and especially of the eyes and the head; then the neck would stretch out long and thin, the orange snout approach stealthily within half an inch of the smug aphid, and then there was a flash as of lightning, something too swift to see coming out of the eft’s mouth and swooping up the unsuspecting louse. Then there would be a gulp or two and all would be over. If the aphid happened to be a big one, the eft made visible effort to swallow it. Sometimes his eftship would become greatly excited when he first saw the plant-louse, and he would sneeze and snort in a very comical way, like a dog, when eager for game.

The following is the history of this species as summarized from Mrs. S. H. Gage’s charming “Story of Little Red Spot.” The egg was laid in some fresh water pond or the still borders of some stream where there is a growth of water weed. The egg, which is about the size of a small pea, is fastened to a water plant. It is covered with a tough but translucent envelope, and has at the center a little yellowish globule. In a little less than a month the eft hatches, but it looks very different from the form with which we are most familiar. It has gray stripes upon its sides and three tiny bunches of red gills on each side, just back of its broad head. The tail is long and very thin, surrounded by a fin; it is an expert swimmer and breathes water as does a fish. After a time, it becomes greenish above and buff below, and by the middle of August it develops legs and has changed its form so that it is able to live upon land; it no longer has gills or fin; soon the coat changes to the bright orange hue which makes the little creature so conspicuous.

The newt usually keeps hidden among moss, or under leaves, or in decaying wood, or other damp and shady places; but after a rain, when the whole world is damp, it feels confidence enough to go out in the open, and hunt for food. For two and a half years it lives upon land and then returns to the water. When this impulse comes upon it, it may be far from any stream; but it seems to know instinctively where to go. Soon after it enters the water, it is again transformed in color, becoming olive-green above and buff below, although it still retains the red spots along the back, as mementos of its land life; and it also retains its pepper-like dots. Its tail develops a fin which extends along its back and is somewhat ruffled. In some mysterious way it develops the power to again breathe the air which is mixed with water.

The male has the hind legs very large and flat; the female is lighter in color and has more delicate and smaller legs. It is here in the water that the efts find their mates and finish careers which must have surely been hazardous. During its long and varied life, the eft often sheds its skin like the snake; it has a strange habit of swallowing its cast-off coat.

LESSON XLVIII

THE NEWT, EFT, OR “SALAMANDER”

_Leading thought_--The newts change their form three times to fit different modes of life. They are born in the water and at first have fins and gills like fishes. They then live on land, and have lungs for breathing air and lose their fins; later they go back to the water and again develop the power of breathing the oxygen contained in water, and also a fin.

Drawn by Anna Stryke.]

_Method_--The little, orange eft or red-spotted salamander may be kept in an aquarium which has in it an object, as a stone or a clump of moss which projects above the water. For food it should be given small earthworms or leaves covered with plant lice. In this way it may be studied at leisure.

_Observations_--1. Look at the eft closely. Is it all the same color? How many spots upon its back and what colors are they? Are there the same number of spots on both sides? Are there any spots or dots besides these larger ones? How does the eft resemble a toad?

2. Is the head the widest part of the body? Describe the eyes, the shape and color of the pupil and of the iris. How does the eft wink? Do you think it can see well?

3. Can you see the nostrils? How does the throat move and why?

4. Are both pairs of legs the same size? How many toes on the front feet? How many toes on the hind feet? Does the eft toe-in with its front feet like a toad?

5. Does it move more than one foot at a time when walking? Does it use the feet on the same side in two consecutive steps? After putting forward the right front foot what foot follows next? Can it move backward?

6. Is the tail as long as the head and body together? Is the tail round or flat at the sides? How is it used to help the eft when traveling? Does the tail drag or is it lifted, or does it push by squirming?

7. How does the eft act when startled? Does it examine its surroundings? Do you think it can see and is afraid of you?

8. Why do we find these creatures only during wet weather? Why do people think they rain down?

9. What does the eft eat? How does it catch its prey? Does it shed its skin? How many kinds of efts have you seen?

10. From what kind of egg does the eft hatch? When is this egg laid? How does it look? On what is it fastened?

11. How many times during its life does the orange eft change color? What part of its life is spent upon land? What changes take place in its form when it leaves the water for life upon land, and what changes take place in its structure when it returns to the water?

IV. REPTILE STUDY

_Yet when a child and barefoot; I more than once, at morn,
Have passed, I thought, a whiplash unbraided in the sun,
When, stooping to secure it, it wrinkled, and was gone._
--EMILY DICKINSON.

If the teacher could bring herself to take as much interest as did Mother Eve in that “subtile animal,” as the Bible calls the serpent, she might, through such interest, enter the paradise of the boyish heart instead of losing a paradise of her own. How many teachers, who have an aversion for snakes, are obliged to teach small boys whose pet diversion is capturing these living ribbons and bringing them into the schoolroom stowed away not too securely in pockets! In one of the suburban Brooklyn schools, boys of this ilk sought to frighten their teacher with their weird prisoners. But she was equal to the occasion, and surprised them by declaring that there were many interesting things to be studied about snakes, and forthwith sent to the library for books which discussed these reptiles; and this was the beginning of a nature-study club of rare efficiency and enterprise.

There are abroad in the land, many errors concerning snakes. Most people believe that they are all venomous, which is far from true. The rattlesnake still holds its own in rocky, mountainous places and the moccasin haunts the bayous of the southern coast; however, in most localities, snakes are not only harmless but are beneficial to the farmer. The superstition that if a snake is killed, its tail will live until sun-down, is general and has but slender foundation in the fact that snakes, being lower in their nerve-organization than mammals, the process of death is a slow one. Some people firmly believe that snakes spring or jump from the ground to seize their prey, which is quite false since no snake jumps clear of the ground as it strikes, nor does it spring from a perfect coil. Nor are snakes slimy, quite to the contrary, they are covered with perfectly dry scales. But the most general superstition of all is that, when a snake thrusts out its tongue, it is an act of animosity; the fact is, the tongue is a sense organ and is used as an insect uses its feelers or antennæ, and the act is also supposed to aid the creature in hearing; thus when a snake thrusts out its tongue, it is simply trying to find out about its surroundings and what is going on.

Snakes are the only creatures able to swallow objects larger than themselves. This is rendered possible by the elasticity of the body walls, and the fact that snakes have an extra bone hinging the upper to the lower jaw, allowing them to spread widely; the lower jaw also separates at the middle of its front edge and spreads apart sidewise. In order to force a creature into a “bag” so manifestly too small, a special mechanism is needed; the teeth supply this by pointing backward, and thus assist in the swallowing. The snake moves by literally walking on the ends of its ribs, which are connected with the crosswise plates on its lower side; each of these crosswise plates has the hind edge projecting down so that it can hold to an object. Thus, the graceful, noiseless progress of the snake, is brought about by many of these crosswise plates worked by the movement of the ribs.

Some species of snakes simply chase their prey, striking at it and catching it in the open mouth, while others, like the black snake, wind themselves about their victims crushing them to death. Snakes can live a long time without food; many instances on record show that they have been able to exist a year or more without anything to eat. In our northern climate they hibernate in winter, going to sleep as soon as the weather becomes cold and not waking up until spring. As snakes grow, they shed their skins; this occurs only two or three times a year. The crested fly-catcher adorns its nest with these phantom snakes.

_References_--The Reptile Book, by Ditmars, gives interesting accounts of our common snakes; Mathew’s Familiar Life of Field and Forest is also valuable. To add interest to the snake lessons let the children read “Kaas Hunting” and “Rikki Tikki Tavi” from Kipling’s Jungle Books.

THE GARTER, OR GARDEN, SNAKE

_Teacher’s Story_

_A chipmunk, or a sudden-whirring quail,
Is startled by my step as on I fare.
A gartersnake across the dusty trail,
Glances and -- is not there._
--RILEY.

Garter snakes can be easily tamed, and are ready to meet friendly advances half way. A handsome yellow-striped, black garter lived for four years beneath our piazza and was very friendly and unafraid of the family. The children of the campus made it frequent visits, and never seemed to be weary of watching it; but the birds objected to it very much, although it never attempted to reach their nests in the vine above. The garter snakes are the most common of all, in our Northeastern States. They vary much in color; the ground color may be olive, brown or black, and down the center of the back is usually a yellow, green or whitish stripe, usually bordered by a darker band of ground-color. On each side is a similar stripe, but not so brightly colored; sometimes the middle stripe, and sometimes the side stripes are broken into spots or absent; the lower side is greenish white or yellow. When fully grown this snake is about three feet in length.

The garters are likely to congregate in numbers in places favorable for hibernation, like rocky ledges or stony side-hills. Here each snake finds a safe crevice, or makes a burrow which sometimes extends a yard or more under ground. During the warm days of Indian summer, these winter hermits crawl out in the middle of the day and sun themselves, retiring again to their hermitages when the air grows chilly toward night; and when the cold weather arrives, they go to sleep and do not awaken until the first warm days of spring; then, if the sun shines hot, they crawl out and bask in its welcome rays.

After the warm weather comes, the snakes scatter to other localities more favorable for finding food, and thus these hibernating places are deserted during the summer. The banks of streams, and the edges of woods are places which furnish snakes their food, which consists of earthworms, insects, toads, salamanders, frogs, etc. The young are born late in July and are about six inches long at birth; one mother may have in her brood from eleven to fifty snakelings; she stays with them during the fall to protect them, and there are many stories about the way the young ones run down the mother’s throat in case of attack; but, as yet, no scientist has seen this act, or placed it on record. The little snakes shift for their own food, catching small toads, earthworms and insects. If it finds food in plenty, the garter snake will mature in one year. Hawks, crows, skunks, weasels and other predacious animals seem to find the garter snake attractive food.

LESSON XLIX

THE GARTER, OR GARDEN, SNAKE

_Leading thought_--The garter snake is a common and harmless little creature and has many interesting habits which are worth studying.

_Method_--A garter snake may be captured and placed in a box with a glass cover and thus studied in detail in the schoolroom, but the lesson should begin with observations made by the children on the snakes in their native haunts.

_Observations_--1. What are the colors and markings of your garter snake? Do the stripes extend along the head as well as the body? How long is it?

2. Describe its eyes, its ears, its nostrils and its mouth.

3. If you disturb it how does it act? Why does it thrust its tongue out? What shape is its tongue?

4. In what position is the snake when it rests? Can you see how it moves? Look upon the lower side. Can you see the little plates extending crosswise? Do you think it moves by moving these plates? Let it crawl across your hand, and see if you can tell how it moves.

5. What does the garter snake eat? Did you ever see one swallow a toad? A frog? Did it take it head first or tail first?

6. Where does the garter spend the winter? How early does it appear in the spring?

7. At what time of year do you see the young snakes? Do the young ones run down the throat of the mother for safety when attacked? Does the mother snake defend her young?

8. What enemies has the garter snake?

* * * * *

“_No life in earth or air or sky;
The sunbeams, broken silently,
On the bared rocks around me lie,--_

_Cold rocks with half-warmed lichens scarred,
And scales of moss; and scarce a yard
Away, one long strip, yellow-barred._

_Lost in a cleft! ’Tis but a stride
To reach it, thrust its roots aside,
And lift it on thy stick astride!_

_Yet stay! That moment is thy grace!
For round thee, thrilling air and space,
A chattering terror fills the place!_

_A sound as of dry bones that stir,
In the dead valley! By yon fir
The locust stops its noon-day whir!_

_The wild bird hears; smote with the sound.
As if by bullet brought to ground
On broken wing, dips, wheeling round!_

_The hare, transfixed, with trembling lip,
Halts breathless, on pulsating hip,
And palsied tread, and heels that slip._

_Enough, old friend!--’tis thou. Forget
My heedless foot, nor longer fret
The peace with thy grim castanet!_”
FROM “CROTALUS” (THE RATTLESNAKE), BRET HARTE.

THE MILK SNAKE, OR SPOTTED ADDER

_Teacher’s Story_

_The grass divides as with a comb, a spotted shaft is seen,
And then it closes at your feet, and opens farther on._
--EMILY DICKINSON.

This is the snake which is said to milk cows, a most absurd belief; it would not milk a cow if it could, and it could not if it would. It has never yet been induced to drink milk when in captivity; and if it were very thirsty, it could not drink more than two teaspoonfuls of milk at most; thus in any case, its depredations upon the milk supply need not be feared. Its object, in frequenting milk houses and stables, is far other than the milking of cows, for it is an inveterate hunter of rats and mice and is thus of great benefit to the farmer. It is a constrictor, and squeezes its prey to death in its coils.

The ground color of the milk snake is pale gray, but it is covered with so many brown or dark gray saddle-shaped blotches, that they seem rather to form the ground-color; the lower side is white, marked with square black spots and blotches. The snake attains a length of about three feet when fully grown. Although it is called commonly the spotted adder, it does not belong to the adders at all, but to the family of the king snakes.

During July and August, the mother snake lays from seven to twenty eggs; they are deposited in loose soil, in moist rubbish, in compost heaps, etc. The egg is a symmetrical oval in shape and is about one and one-eighth inches long by a half inch in diameter. The shell is soft and white, like kid leather, and the egg resembles a puffball. The young hatch nearly two months after the eggs are laid, meanwhile the eggs have increased in size so that the snakelings are nearly eight inches long when they hatch. The saddle-shaped blotches on the young have much red in them. The milk snake is not venomous; it will sometimes, in defence, try to chew the hand of the captor, but the wounds it can inflict are very slight and heal quickly.

LESSON L

THE MILK SNAKE, OR SPOTTED ADDER

_Leading thought_--The milk snake is found around stables where it hunts for rats and mice but never milks the cows.

_Method_--Although the snake acts fiercely, it is perfectly harmless and may be captured in the hands and placed in a glass-covered box for a study in the schoolroom.

_Observations_--1. Where is the milk snake found? Why is it called milk snake? Look at its mouth and see if you think it could possibly suck a cow. See if you can get the snake to drink milk.

2. What does it live upon? How does it kill its prey? Can the milk snake climb a tree?

3. Where does the mother snake lay her eggs? How do the eggs look? How large are they? How long are the little snakes when they hatch from the egg? Are they the same color as the old ones?

4. Describe carefully the colors and markings of the milk snake and explain how its colors protect it from observation. What are its colors on the under side?

5. Have you ever seen a snake shed its skin? Describe how it was done. How does the sloughed-off skin look? What bird always puts snake skins around its nest?

* * * * *

_I have the same objection to killing a snake that I have to
the killing of any other animal, yet the most humane man I
know never omits to kill one._

* * * * *

_Aug. 5, 1853._

_The mower on the river meadows, when he comes to open his hay
these days, encounters some overgrown water adder, full of
young_ (_?_) _and bold in defense of its progeny, and tells
a tale when he comes home at night which causes a shudder
to run through the village--how it came at him and he ran,
and it pursued and overtook him, and he transfixed it with a
pitchfork and laid it on a cock of hay, but it revived and
came at him again. This is the story he tells in the shops at
evening. The big snake is a sort of fabulous animal. It is
always as big as a man’s arm and of indefinite length. Nobody
knows exactly how deadly is its bite but nobody is known to
have been bitten and recovered. Irishmen introduced into these
meadows for the first time, on seeing a snake, a creature
which they have seen only in pictures before, lay down their
scythes and run as if it were the Evil One himself and cannot
be induced to return to their work. They sigh for Ireland,
where they say there is no venomous thing that can hurt you._
--THOREAU’S JOURNAL.

THE WATER SNAKE

_Teacher’s Story_

Every boy that goes fishing, knows the snake found commonly about mill-dams and wharves or on rocks and bushes near the water. The teacher will have accomplished a great work, if these boys are made to realize that this snake is a more interesting creature for study, than as an object to pelt with stones.

The water snake is a dingy brown in color, with cross-bands of brownish or reddish brown which spread out into blotches at the side. Its color is very protective as it lies on stones or logs in its favorite attitude of sunning itself. It is very local in its habits, and generally has a favorite place for basking and returns to it year after year on sunny days.

This snake lives mostly upon frogs and salamanders and fish; however, it preys usually upon fish of small value, so it is of little economic importance. It catches its victims by chasing, and seizing them in its jaws. It has a very keen sense of smell and probably traces its prey in this manner, something as a hound follows a fox. It is an expert swimmer, usually lifting the head a few inches above the water when swimming, although it is able to dive and remain below the water for a short time.