Chapter XXXIX: Part III: Plant Life (9)

The leaf comes off at a node and clasps the stalk for a considerable distance, thus making it stronger, especially toward the base. Just where the leaf starts away from the stem there is a little growth called a rain-guard; if water should seep between the stalk and the clasping leaf, it would afford harbor for destructive fungi. The structure of the corn leaf is especially adapted to escape injury from the wind; the strong veins are parallel with a strong but flexible midrib at the center; often, after the wind has whipped the leaves severely, only the tips are split and injured. The edges of the corn leaf are ruffled and, where the leaf leaves the stalk, there is a wide fold in the edge at either side; this arrangement gives play for a sidewise movement without breaking the leaf margins. The leaf is thus protected from the wind, whether it is struck from above or horizontally. The true roots of the corn plant go quite deep into the soil, but are hardly adequate to the holding of such a tall, slender stalk upright in a wind storm; therefore, all about the base of the plant are brace-roots, which serve to hold the stalk erect--like the stay-ropes about a flagpole.

THE EAR OF CORN

The ears of corn are borne at the joints or nodes; and the stalk, where the ear presses against it, is hollowed out so as to hold it snugly; this is very suggestive of a mother holding a baby in her arms. In the following ways, the husks show plainly that they are modified leaves: The husk has the same structure as the leaf, having parallel veins; it comes off the stem like a leaf; it is often green, and therefore does the work of a leaf; it changes to leaf shape at the tip of the ear, thus showing that the husk is really that part of the leaf which usually clasps the stem. If a husk tipped with a leaf is examined, the rain-guard will be found at the place where the two join. As a matter of fact, the ear of corn is on a branch stalk which has been very much shortened, so that the nodes are very close together, and therefore the leaves come off close together. By stripping the husks back one by one, the change from the outside, stiff, green leaf structure to the inner delicate, papery wrapping for the seed, may be seen in all its stages. This is a beautiful lesson in showing how the maize protects its seed, and the husk may well be compared to the clothing of a baby. The pistillate flowers of the corn, which finally develop into the kernels, grow in pairs along the sides of the end portion of the shortened stalk, which is what we call the “cob.” Therefore, the ear will show an even number of rows, and the cob shows distinctly that the rows are paired. The corn-silk is the style of the pistillate flowers; and therefore, in order to secure pollen, it must extend from the ovule, which later develops into a kernel, to the tip of the ear, where it protrudes from the end of the husk. A computation of the number of kernels in a row and on the ear makes a very good arithmetic lesson for the primary pupils, especially as the kernels occur in pairs.

THE GROWTH OF THE CORN

_1, The anthers of corn_; _2, The tip of the corn-silk showing
the stigma_; _3, The pistillate flower, which will develop
into the kernel_.
]

If we cut a kernel of corn crosswise we can see, near the point where it joins the cob, the little plant and the root. Corn should be germinated between wet blotters, in a seed-testing experiment, before observations are made on the growing corn of the fields. When the corn first appears, the corn leaves are in a pointed roll which pierces the soil. Soon they spread apart, but it may be some time before the corn-stalk proper appears. Then it stretches up rapidly, and very soon will be tipped with beautiful pale brown tassels. These tassels merit careful study for they are the staminate flowers. Each floret has two anthers hanging down from it, and each half of each anther is a little bag of pollen-grains; and in order that they shall be shaken down upon the waiting corn-silk below, the bottom of each bag opens wide when the pollen is ripe. The corn-silk, at this stage, is branched at the tip and clothed with fine hairs, so that it may catch a grain of the precious pollen. Then occurs one of the most wonderful pollen stories in all nature, for the pollen-tube must push down through the center of the corn-silk for its whole length, in order to reach the waiting ovule and thus enable it to become a kernel of corn. These young, unfertilized kernels are pretty objects, looking like seed-pearls, each wrapped in furry bracts. If the silk from one of these young flowers does not receive its grain of pollen, then the kernel will not develop and the ear will be imperfect. On the other hand if the pollen from another variety of corn falls upon the waiting stigmas of the silk, we shall find the ear will have upon it a mixture of the two varieties. This is best exemplified when we have the black and white varieties of sweet corn growing near each other.

One reason why corn is such a valuable plant to us is that its growth is so rapid. It is usually not planted until late spring, yet, with some varieties, by September the stalks are twenty feet high. The secret of this is that the corn, unlike many other plants, has many points of growth. While young, the lower part of the stalk lying between every two nodes is a growing center and the tip of the stalk also grows; in most plants, the tip of the stems is the only center of growth. The first two experiments suggested will demonstrate this. When blown down by the wind, the corn has a wonderful way of lifting itself, by inserting growing wedges in the lower sides of the nodes. A corn-stalk blown down by the wind will often show this wedge-shape at every joint, and the result will be an upward curve of the whole stalk. Of course, this cannot be seen unless the stalk is cut lengthwise through the center. Experiment 3 is suggested to demonstrate this.

During drought the corn leaves check the transpiration of water by rolling together lengthwise in tubes, thus offering less surface to the sun and air. The farmer calls this the curling of the corn, and it is always a sign of lack of moisture. If a corn plant with leaves thus curled, be given plenty of water, the leaves will soon straighten out again into their normal shape.

_References_: Corn Plants, Sargent; Cornell Nature-Study Leaflets, Vol. 1; Elements of Agriculture, Warren; The First Book of Farming, Goodrich; Agriculture, Jackson and Dougherty; Rural School Agriculture, Hays; Columbia’s Emblem, Houghton, Mifflin and Co.

LESSON CLXIX

THE MAIZE

_Leading thought_--The Indian corn, or maize, is a plant of much beauty and dignity. It has wonderful adaptations for the development of its seed and for resisting its arch-enemy, the wind.

_Method_--The study may begin in spring when the corn is planted, giving the pupils the outline for observations to be filled out in their note-books during the summer, when they have opportunities for observing the plant; or it may be studied in the autumn as a matured plant. It may be studied in the school room or in the field, or both.

_Observations on the corn plant_--1. Describe the central stem. How many joints, or nodes, has it? Of what use to the plant are these nodes? Are the joints nearer each other at the bottom or the top of the plant?

2. Where do the leaves come off the stem? Describe the relation of the bases of the leaves to the stem. Of what use is this to the plant?

3. Note the little growth on the leaf where it leaves the stalk. Describe how this prevents the rain from seeping down between the stalk and the clasping leaf. What danger would there be to the plant if the water could get into this narrow space?

4. What is the shape of the leaf? Describe the veins. Does the leaf tear easily across? Does it tear easily lengthwise? Of what use to the leaf is this condition?

5. Are the edges of the corn leaf straight or ruffled? How does this ruffled edge permit the leaf to turn without breaking? Describe at length the benefit the corn plant derives from having leaves which cannot be broken across and that can bend readily sidewise as well as up and down.

6. Describe the roots of the corn plant. Describe the brace-roots. Explain their use.

7. Describe all the ways in which the corn plant is strengthened against its enemy, the wind.

_Observation on the ear of corn_--8. Where on the corn plant are the ears borne? Are two ears borne on the same side of the stalk? Remove an ear, and see how the stalk is changed to give it room.

9. Where do the ears come off the stalk in relation to the leaves?

10. Examine the outside husks, and compare them with the green leaves. What is there to suggest that the corn-husk is a leaf changed to protect the seed? Do you think that the husk represents that portion of the leaf which clasps the stalk? Why? Describe how the inner husk differs from the outer in color and texture. Describe how this is a special protection to the growing kernels.

11. After carefully removing the husk, examine the silk and see if there is a thread for every kernel. Is there an equal amount of silk lying between every two rows? Do you know what part of the corn flower is the cornsilk? What part is the kernel?

12. How many rows of kernels are there on an ear? How many kernels in a row? How many on the whole ear? Do any of the rows disappear toward the tip of the ear? If so, do they disappear in pairs? Do you know why? Are the kernels on the tip of the ear and near the base as perfect as those along the middle? Do you know whether they will germinate as quickly and vigorously as the middle ones?

13. Study a cob with no corn on it and note if the rows of kernel-sockets are in distinct pairs. This will, perhaps show best if you break the cob across.

14. Break an ear of corn in two, and sketch the broken end showing the relation of the cob to the kernels.

15. Are there any places on the ear you are studying, where the kernels did not grow or are blasted? What happened to cause this?

16. Describe the requisites for a perfect ear of seed-corn. Why should the plant from which the seed-ear is taken be vigorous and perfect?

_Observations on the growth of corn--Work for the Summer Vacation_--17. How does the corn look when it first comes up? How many leaves are there in the pointed roll which first appears above the ground? How long before the central stalk appears?

18. When do the tassels first appear? What kind of flowers are the corn tassels? Describe the anthers. How many on each flower? Where do the anthers open to discharge their pollen?

19. How large are the ears when the pollen is being shed? Study an ear of corn at this period. Note that the kernel is the ovule, the silk is attached to it and is the long style extending out beyond the husks. Note that the tip, or stigma is branched.

20. What carries the pollen for the corn plant? If you have rows of popcorn and sweet corn or of sweet corn and field corn next to each other why is it that the ears will show a mixture of both kinds?

EXPERIMENT 1

Compare the growth of the corn plant with that of the pigweed. When the corn-stalk first appears above ground, tie two strings upon it, one just above a joint and one below it. Tie two strings the same distance apart on the stem of a pigweed. Measure carefully the distance between these two strings on the two plants. Two weeks later measure the distance between the strings again. What is the result?

EXPERIMENT 2

Measure the distance between two of the nodes or joints near the tip of a certain corn-stalk. Two weeks later measure this distance again and compare the two.

EXPERIMENT 3

When a stalk of corn is still green in August, bend it down and place a stick across it at about half its length. Describe how it tries to lift itself to an erect attitude after two or three weeks. Cut lengthwise across one of the nodes, beyond the point held down by the stick, and see the wedge-shaped growth within the joint which helps to raise the stalk to an upright position.

EXPERIMENT 4

During the August drought, note that the corn leaves are rolled. Give a corn plant with rolled leaves plenty of water and note what happens. Why?

THE COTTON PLANT

_Teacher’s Story_

There are some plants which have made great chapters in the histories of nations, and cotton is one of them. The fibre of cotton was used for making clothing so long ago, that its discovery is shrouded in the myths of prehistoric times. But we believe it first came into use in India, for in this land we find certain laws concerning cotton which were codified 800 B. C.; and allusions to the fine, white raiment of the peoples of India are frequent in ancient history. Cotton was introduced into Egypt from India at an early date; it was in common use there 150 B. C. But not until our Civil War laid fallow the cotton fields of the United States, did Egypt realize the value of its crop; and although much money was lost there in agricultural speculation after our own product was again put on the market, yet cotton has remained since that time one of Egypt’s most valuable exports.

When Columbus discovered America he found cotton growing in the West Indies, and the chief articles of clothing of the native Mexicans were made of cotton. Cloths of cotton were also found in ancient tombs of Peru, proving it was used there long before the white man set his foot upon those shores. When Magellan made his famous voyage around the world in 1500, he found the cotton fibre in use in Brazil.

It is a strange fact that the only region of the world between the parallels of 40° north and 40° south latitude, where cotton did not grow as a native or cultivated plant when America was discovered, was the region of our Gulf States, which now produces more cotton than any other. The first mention of cotton as a crop in the American colonies is in the report published in 1666. At the time of the Revolutionary War the cotton industry was thoroughly established. It is one of the significant facts of history that the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793, which revolutionized the cotton industry and brought it to a much more profitable basis, wrought great evil to the United States, since it revived the profits of slave-holding. The institution of slavery was sinking out of sight by its own weight; Washington showed that it was the most expensive way to work land, and Jefferson failed to liberate his own slaves simply because he believed that liberty would come to all slaves inevitably, since slave-holding was such an expense to the plantation owners. But the cotton gin, which removed the seeds rapidly--theretofore done by slow and laborious hand process--suddenly made the raising of cotton so profitable that slaves were again employed in its production with great financial benefits. And thus it came about that the cotton plant innocently wielded a great influence in the political, as well as the industrial life of our country.

The cotton plant has a taproot, with branches which go deep into the soil. The stem is nearly cylindrical, the branches often spreading and sometimes irregular; the bark is dark and reddish; the wood is white. In Egypt, and probably in other arid countries, the stalks are gathered for fuel in winter.

The leaves are alternate, with long petioles. The upper leaves are deeply cut, some having five, some seven, some three, and some even nine lobes; strong veins extend from the petiole along the center of each lobe; the leaves near the ground may not be lobed at all. Where the petiole joins the stem, there is a pair of long, slender, pointed stipules, but they often fall off early. A strange characteristic of the cotton leaves is that they bear nectar-glands; these may be seen on the under side and along the main ribs of the leaf; they appear as little pits in the rib; some leaves may have none, while others may have from one to five. It has been thought that perhaps these glands might attract bees, wasps or ants, which would attack the caterpillars eating the leaves, but this has not been proved. However, many friendly insects get their nectar at these leaf-wells, and here is an opportunity for some young naturalist of the South to investigate this matter and discover what insects come to these glands at all times of day and what they do.

The flower bud is partially hidden beneath the clasping bracts of the involucre. These bracts are three or four in number, and they have the edges so deeply lobed that they seem branched. By pushing back the bracts we can find the calyx, which is a shallow cup with five shallow notches in its rim. The petals are rolled in the bud like a shut umbrella. The open flower has five broadly spreading petals; when the bud first opens in the morning, the petals are whitish or pale yellow with a purplish spot at the base, by noon they are pale pink, by the next day they are a deep purplish red and they fall at the end of the second day. There are nectar-glands also in the flower at the base of the calyx, and the insects are obliged to thrust their tongues between the bases of the petals to reach the nectar, only long-tongued bees, moths and butterflies are able to attain it.

_1, The cotton flower cut in half, showing the stamen-tube at
the center, up through which extends the style of the pistil.
Note the bracts and calyx._

_2, A young boll, with calyx at its base and set in the
involucral bracts._
]

There are many stamens which have their filaments united in a tube extending up into the middle of the flower and enlarging a little at the tip; below the enlarged base of this tube is the ovary which later develops into the cotton-boll; within the stamen-tube extends the long style, and from its tip are thrust out from three to five stigmas like little pennants from the top of a chimney; and sometimes they are more or less twisted together. The young boll is covered and protected by the fringed bracts, which cover the bud and remain attached to the ripened boll. The calyx, looking like a little saucer, also remains at the base of the boll. The boll soon assumes an elongated, oval shape, with long, pointed tip, it is green outside and covered with little pits, as large as pin points. There are, extending back from the pointed tip, three to five creases or sutures, which show where the bell will open. If we open a nearly ripened boll, we find that half way between each two sutures where the boll will open, there is a partition extending into the boll dividing it into compartments. These are really carpels, as in the core of an apple, and their leaf origin may be plainly seen in the venation. The seeds are fastened by their pointed ends along each side of the central edge of the partition, from which they break away very easily. The number of seeds varies, usually two or three along each side; the young seeds are wrapped in the young cotton, which is a stringy, soft white mass. The cotton fibres are attached to the covering of the seed around the blunt end, and usually the pointed end is bare. When the boll opens, the cotton becomes very fluffy and if not picked will blow away; for this cotton fibre is a device of the wild cotton for disseminating its seeds by sending them off on the wings of the wind. Heavy winds at the cotton-picking time, are a menace to the crop and often occasion serious loss.

The mechanism of the opening of the cotton-boll is very interesting; along the central edge of each partition and extending up like beaks into the point of the boll, is a stiff ridge, about the basal portion of which the seeds are attached; as the boll becomes dry, this ridged margin becomes as stiff as wire and warps outward; at the same time, the outside of the boll is shriveling. This action tears the boll apart along the sutures and exposes the seeds with their fluffy balloons to the action of the wind. The ripe, open, empty boll is worth looking at; the sections are wide apart and each white, delicate, parchment-like partition, or carpel, has its wire edge curved back gracefully. The outside of the boll is brown and shriveled, but inside it is still white and shows that it had a soft lining for its “seed babies.”

The amount of the cotton crop per acre varies with the soil and climate; the amount that can be picked per day also depends upon the cotton as well as the picker. Children have been known to pick one hundred pounds per day, and a first-class picker from five hundred to six hundred pounds, or even eight hundred; one man has made a record of picking sixty pounds in an hour. Cotton is one of the most important crops grown in America, and there are listed more than one hundred and thirty varieties which have originated in our country.

_References_--The various bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture and of the experiment stations of the Southern States. The most complete of these is Bulletin No. 33, Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, published in 1896.

LESSON CLXX

COTTON

Photo by J. H. Comstock.]

_Leading thought_--Cotton has had a great influence upon our country politically as well as industrially. Its fibre was used by the ancients, and it is to-day one of the most important crops in the regions where it is grown.

_Method_--A cotton plant with blossoms and ripe bolls upon it may be brought into the schoolroom or studied in the field.

_Observations_--1. How many varieties of cotton do you know? Which kind is it you are studying?

2. What sort of root has the cotton plant? Does it go deep into the soil?

3. How high does the plant grow? Are the stems tough or brittle? What is the color of the bark? Of the wood? Do you know of a country where cotton stalks are used for fuel? Do the stem and branches grow erect or very spreading?

4. Are the leaves opposite or alternate? Are the petioles as long as the leaves? Are there any stipules where the petioles join the main stem? How many forms of leaves can you find on the same stem? How do the upper differ from the lower leaves? Describe or sketch one of the large upper leaves, paying especial attention to the veins and the shape of the lobes.

5. Look at the lower side of a leaf and find, if you can, a little pit on the midrib near its base. How many of these pits can you find on the veins of one leaf? What is the fluid in these pits? Taste it and see if it is sweet. Watch carefully a growing plant and describe what insects you find feeding on this nectar. Note if the wasps and ants, feeding on this nectar, attack the caterpillars of the cotton worm which destroy the leaf. Where are the nectar-glands of plants usually situated?

6. Study the flower bud; what covers it? How many of these bracts cover the flower bud? What is their shape and how do their edges look? Push back the bracts and find and describe the calyx. How are the petals folded in the bud?

7. Take the open flower; how many petals are there, and what is their shape? At what time of day do the flowers open? What color are the petals when the flowers first open? What is their color later in the day? What is their color the next day? When do the petals fall?

8. Describe the stamens; how are they joined? How are the anthers situated on the stamen-tube? Is the stamen-tube perfectly straight or does it bend at the tip?

9. Peel off carefully the stamen-tube and describe what you find within it. How many stigmas come out of the tip of the tube? Find the ovary below the stamen-tube. Which part of the flower grows into the cotton-boll?

10. Take a boll nearly ripe; what covers it? Push away the bracts; can you find the calyx still present? What is the shape of the boll? What is its color and texture? Can you see the creases where it will open? How many are there of these?

11. Open a nearly ripe boll very carefully. How many partitions are there in it? Where are they in relation to the openings? Gently push back the cotton from the seeds without loosening them, and describe how the seeds are connected with the partitions. Is the seed attached by its pointed or blunt end?

12. How many seeds in each chamber in the cotton boll? Where on the seed does the cotton grow? How does the cotton blanket wrap about the seed? If the cotton is not picked what happens to it? Of what use to the wild cotton plant are seeds covered with cotton?

13. What makes the cotton-boll open? Describe an open and empty boll outside and inside.

14. How much cotton is considered a good crop per acre in your vicinity? How much cotton can a good picker gather in a day?

15. Write English themes on the following topics: “The history of the cotton plant from ancient times until to-day,” “How the cotton plant has affected American history.”

* * * * *

“_Queen-consort of the kingly maize,
The fair white cotton shares his throne,
And o’er the Southland’s realm she claims
A just allegiance, all her own._”
--MINNIE CURTIS WAIT.

THE STRAWBERRY

_Teacher’s Story_

Of all the blossoms that clothe our open fields, one of the prettiest is that of the wild strawberry. And yet so influenced is man by his stomach that he seldom heeds this flower except as a promise of a crop of strawberries. It is comforting to know that the flowers of the field “do not care a rap” whether man notices them or not; insect attentions are what they covet, and they are surely as indifferent to our indifference as it is to them.

The field strawberry’s five petals are little cups of white held up protectingly around a central treasure of anthers and pistils; each petal has its base narrowed into a little stem, which the botanists call a claw. When the blossom first opens, the anthers are little, flat, vividly lemon-yellow discs, each disc consisting of two clamped together sternly and determinedly as if they meant never to open and yield their gold dust. At the very center of the flower is a little, greenish yellow cone, which if we examine with a lens, we can see is made up of many pistils set together, each lifting up a little, circular, eager stigma high as ever it can reach. Whether all the stigmas receive pollen or not determines the formation of a good strawberry.

The sepals are slender and pointed and seem to be ten in number, every other one being smaller and shorter than its neighbors; but the five shorter ones are not sepals but are bracts below the calyx. The sepals unite at their bases so that the strawberry has really a lobed calyx instead of separate sepals. The blossom stem is soft, pinkish and silky and wilts easily. There are several blossoms borne upon one stem and the central one opens first.

The strawberry leaf is beautiful; each of its three leaflets is oval, deeply toothed, and has strong regular veins extending from the midrib to the tip of each tooth. In color it is rich, dark green and turns to wine-color in autumn. It has a very pretty way of coming out of its hairy bud scales, each leaflet folded lengthwise and the three pressed together. Its whole appearance then, is infantile in the extreme, it is so soft and helpless looking. But it soon opens out on its pink, downy stem and shows the world how beautiful a leaf can be.

_Perfect flower below._]

If a comparison of the wild and cultivated strawberries is practicable, it makes this lesson more interesting. Much tillage and food have caused the cultivated blossoms to double, and they may often have seven or eight petals. And while the wild flowers are usually perfect, many cultivated varieties have the pollen and pistils borne in different flowers, and they depend upon the bees to carry their pollen. The blossom stem of the garden strawberry is round, smooth and quite strong, holding its branching panicle of flowers erect, and it is usually shorter than the leaf stems among which it nestles. The flowers open in a series, so that ripe and green fruit, flowers and buds may often be found on the same stem. As the strawberry ripens, the petals and stamens wither and fall away; the green calyx remains as the hull, which holds in its cup the pyramid of pistils which swell and ripen into the juicy fruit. To the botanists the strawberry is not a berry, that definition being limited to fruits having a juicy pulp and containing many seeds, like the currant or grape. The strawberry is a fleshy fruit bearing its seed in shallow pits on its surface. These seeds are so small that we do not notice them when eating the fruit, but each one is a tiny nut, almond-shaped, and containing within its tough, little shell a starchy meat to sustain the future plant which may grow from it. It is by planting these seeds that growers obtain new varieties.

The root of the strawberry is fibrous and threadlike. When growers desire plants for setting new strawberry beds they are careful to take only such as have light colored and fresh-looking roots. On old plants the roots are rather black and woody and are not so vigorous.

The stem of the strawberry is partially underground and so short as to be unnoticeable. However, the leaves grow upon it alternately one above another, so that the crown rises as it grows. The base of each leaf has a broad, clasping sheath which partly encircles the plant and extends upward in a pair of earlike stipules.

The runners begin to grow after the fruiting season has closed; they originate from the upper part of the crown; they are strong, fibrous and hairy when young. Some are short between joints, others seem to reach far out as if seeking for the best location before striking root; a young plant will often have several leaves before putting forth roots. Each runner may start one or more new strawberry plants. After the young plant has root growth so as to be able to feed itself, the runner ceases to carry sap from the main stem and withers to a mere dry fiber. The parent plant continues to live and bear fruit, for the strawberry is a perennial, but the later crops are of less value. Gardeners usually renew their plots each year, but if intending to harvest a second year’s crop, they cut off the runners as they form.

LESSON CLXXI

THE STRAWBERRY

_Leading thought_--The strawberry plant has two methods of perpetuating itself, one by the seeds which are grown on the outside of the strawberry fruits, and one by means of runners which start new plants wherever they find place to take root.

_Method_--It would be well to have a strawberry plant, with roots and runners attached, for an observation lesson by the class. Each pupil should have a leaf, including the clasping stipules and sheath at its base. Each one should also have a strawberry blossom and bud, and if possible a green or ripe fruit.

_Observations_--1. What kind of root has the strawberry? What is its color?

2. How are the leaves of the strawberry plant arranged? Describe the base of the leaf and the way it is attached to the stem. Has each leaflet a pedicel or stem of its own? How many leaflets are there? Sketch a strawberry leaf, showing the edges and form of the leaflets, and the veins.

3. From what part of the plant do the runners spring? When do the runners begin to grow? Does the runner strike root before forming a new plant or does the little plant grow on the runner and draw sustenance from the parent plant?

4. What happens to the runners after the new plants have become established? Does the parent plant survive or die after it sends out many runners?

5. Describe the strawberry blossom. How many parts are there to the hull or calyx? Can you see that five of these are set below the other five?

6. How many petals has it? Does the number differ in different flowers? Has the wild strawberry as many petals as the cultivated ones?

7. Study with a lens the small green button at the center of the flower. This is made up of pistils so closely set that only their stigmas may be seen. Do you find this button of pistils in the same blossom with the stamens? Does the wild blossom have both stamens and pistils in the same flower?

8. Describe the stamens. What insects carry pollen for the strawberry plants?

9. Are the blossoms arranged in clusters? Do the flowers all open at the same time? What parts of the blossom fall away and what parts remain when the fruit begins to form?

10. Are the fruits all of the same shape and color? Is the pulp of the same color within as on the surface? Has the fruit an outer coat or skin? What are the specks on its surface?

11. How many kinds of wild strawberries do you know? How many kinds of cultivated strawberries do you know?

12. Describe how you should prepare, plant and care for a strawberry bed.

THE PUMPKIN

_Teacher’s Story_

If the pumpkin were as rare as some orchids, people would make long pilgrimages to look upon so magnificent a plant. Although it trails along the ground, letting Mother Earth help it support its gigantic fruit, yet there is no sign of weakness in its appearance; the vine stem is strong, ridged, spiny and purposeful. And the spines upon it are surely a protection under some circumstances, for I remember distinctly when, as children, bare-footed and owning the world, we “played Indian” and found our ambush in the long rows of ripening corn, we skipped over the pumpkin vines, knowing well the punishment they inflicted on the unwary feet.

From the hollow, strongly angled stem arise in majesty the pumpkin leaves, of variously lobed patterns, but all formed on the same decorative plan. The pumpkin leaf is as worthy of the sculptor’s chisel as is that of the classic _acanthus_; it is palmately veined, having from three to five lobes, and its broad base is supported for a distance on each side of the angled petiole by the two basal veins. The leaves are deep green above, paler below and are covered on both sides with minute bristles, and their edges are finely toothed. The bristly, angled stem which lifts it aloft is a quite worthy support for so beautiful a leaf. And, during our childhood, it was also highly esteemed as a trombone, for it added great richness of quality to our orchestral performances, balancing the shrillness of the basswood whistle and the sharp buzzing of the dandelion-stem pipe.

Photo by Verne Morton.]

Growing from a point nearly opposite a leaf, may be seen the pumpkin’s elaborate tendril. It has a stalk like that of the leaf, but instead of the leaf blade it seems to have the three to five naked ribs curled in long, small coils very even and exact. Perhaps, at some period in the past, the pumpkin vines lifted themselves by clinging to trees, as do the gourd vines of to-day. But the pumpkin was cultivated in fields with the maize by the North American Indians, long before the Pilgrim Fathers came to America, to make its fruit into pies. Since the pumpkin cannot sustain itself in our Northern climate without the help of man, it was evidently a native of a warmer land; and, by growing for so long a time as a companion of the corn, it has learned to send its long stems out for many feet, resting entirely upon the ground. But, like a conservative, elderly maiden lady, it still wears corkscrew curls in memory of a fashion, long since obsolete. Occasionally, we see the pumpkin vines at the edge of the field pushing out and clambering over stone piles, and often attempting to climb the rail fences, as if there still remained within them the old instinct to climb.

But though its foliage is beautiful, the glory of the pumpkin is its vivid yellow blossom and, later, its orange fruit. When the blossom first starts on its career as a bud, it is enfolded in a bristly, ribbed calyx with five stiff, narrow lobes, which close up protectingly about the green, cone-shaped bud, a rib of the cone appearing between each two lobes of the calyx. If we watch one of these buds day after day, we find that the green cone changes to a yellow color and a softer texture as the bud unfolds, and then we discover that it is the corolla itself; however, these ribs which extend out to the tip of the corolla-lobes remain greenish below, permanently. The expanding of the flower bud is a pretty process; each lobe, supported by a strong midrib, spreads out into a five-pointed star, each point being very sharp and angular because, folded in along these edges in one of the prettiest of Nature’s hems, is the ruffled margin of the flower. Not until the sun has shone upon the star for some little time of a summer morning, do these turned-in margins open out; and, late in the afternoon or during a storm, they fold down again neatly before the lobes close up; if a bee is not lively in escaping she may, willy-nilly, get a night’s lodging, for these folded edges literally hem her in.

1, Staminate flower beginning to close; note the folded edges of the lobes. 2, Pistillate flower nearly closed. 3, Staminate flower closed and in its last stage.]

The story of the treasure at the heart of this starry, bell-shaped flower is a double one, and we had best begin it by selecting a flower that has below it a little green globe--the ovary--which will later develop into a pumpkin. At the heart of such a flower there stand three stigmas, that look like liliputian boxing-gloves; each is set on a stout, postlike style, which has its base in a great nectar-cup, the edges of which are slightly incurved over its welling sweetness. In order to reach this nectar, the lady bee must stand on her head and brush her pollen-dusted side against the greedy stigmas. Professor Duggar has noted that in dry weather the margins of this nectar-cup contract noticeably, and that in wet weather the stigmas close down as if the boxing-gloves were on closed fists.

Photo by Verne Morton.]

_1, Base of pistillate blossom_; _o, ovary which develops into
the pumpkin_; _n, nectar-cup_; _st., stigmas_. _2, Base of a
staminate blossom_; _n, opening into the nectar-cup_; _an,
anthers joined, forming a knob_. _3, Pumpkin tendril._
]

The other half of the pumpkin-blossom story is to be found in the flowers which have no green globes below them, for these produce the pollen. Such a flower has at its center a graceful pedestal with a broad base and a slender stem, which upholds a curiously folded, elongate knob, that looks like some ancient or primitive jewel wrought in gold. The corrugations on its surface are the anther-cells, which are curiously joined and curved around a central oblong support; by cutting one across, we can see plainly the central core, bordered by cells filled with pollen. But where is the nectar well in the smooth cup of this flower? Some have maintained that the bees visit this flower for the sake of the pollen, but I am convinced that this is not all of the story. In the base of the pedestal which supports the anther knob there appear, after a time, three inconspicuous openings; and if we watch a bee, we shall see that she knows these openings are there and eagerly thrusts her tongue down through them. If we remove the anthers and the pedestal, we shall find below the latter, a treasure cave; it is carpeted with the softest of buff velvet, and while it does not reek with nectar, as does the cup which encompasses the styles of the pistil, yet it secretes enough of the sweet fluid so that we can taste it distinctly. Thus, although the bees find pollen in this flower they also find there, nectar. The pumpkin is absolutely dependent upon the work of bees and other insects for carrying its pollen from the blossom that bears it to the one which needs it, as this is the only way that the fruit may be developed.

And after the pollen has been shed and delivered, the flower closes, this time with an air of finality. The fading corolla looks as if its lobes had been twisted about by the thumb and finger to secure tightness; and woe betide the bee caught in one of these prisons, unless she knows how to cut through its walls or can find within, sustenance to last until the withered flower falls. The young pumpkin is at first held up by its stiff stem but later rests upon the ground.

The ripe pumpkin is not only a colossal but also a beautiful fruit. The glossy rind is brilliant orange and makes a very efficient protection for the treasures within it. The stem is strong, five-angled and stubborn, and will not let go its hold until the fruit is over-ripe. It then leaves a star-shaped scar to match the one at the pther end of the fruit, where once the blossom sat enthroned. The pumpkin in shape is like a little world flattened at the poles, and with the lines of longitude creased into its surface. But the number of these longitudinal creases varies with individual pumpkins, and seems to have no relation to the angles of the stem or the three chambers within.

_Section of a pumpkin just after the blossom has fallen. Note
how the seeds are borne._
]

If we cut a small green pumpkin across, we find the entire inside solid. There are three fibrous partitions extending from the center, dividing the pulp into thirds; at its outer end each partition divides, and the two ends curve in opposite directions. Within these curves the seeds are borne. A similar arrangement is seen in the sliced cucumber. As the pumpkin ripens, the partitions surrounding the seeds become stringy and very different from the “meat” next to the rind, which makes a thick, solid outer wall about the central chamber, where, within its “groined arches” are contained six rows of crowded seeds, attached by their pointed tips and supported by a network of yellow, coarse fibers--like babies supported in hammocks. All this network, making a loose and fibrous core, allows the seeds to fall out in a mass when the pumpkin is broken. If we observe where the cattle have been eating pumpkins we find these masses of seeds left and trampled into the mud, where, if our winter climate permitted, they could grow into plants next year.

_The squash plant breaking out of the seed-coats._
]

The pumpkin seed is attached by its pointed end; it is flat, oblong and has a rounded ridge at its edge, within which is a delicate “beading.” The outside is very mucilaginous; but when wiped dry, we can see that it has an outer, very thin, transparent coat; a thicker white, middle coat; while the meat of the seed is covered with a greenish, membranous coat. The meat falls apart lengthwise and flatwise, the two halves forming later the seed-leaves and containing the food laid up by the “pumpkin mother” for the nourishment of the young plant. Between these two halves, at the pointed end, is the germ, which will develop into a new plant.

When sprouting, the root pushes out through the pointed end of the seed and grows downward. The shell of the seed is forced open by a little wedge-shaped projection, while the seed-leaves are pulled from their snug quarters. In watching one of these seeds sprout, it is difficult not to attribute to it conscious effort, while it is sturdily pulling hard to release its seed-leaves. If it fails to do this, the seed shell clamps the seed-leaves together like a vise, and the little plant is crippled.

Both squashes and pumpkins figure in the spicy Thanksgiving pies, but the chief value of the pumpkin crop in America is as food for milch cows; it causes a yield of milk so rich, that the butter made from it is as golden as its flesh. But the Hallow-e’en jack o’lantern appeals to the children. In this connection, a study of expression might be made interesting; the turning of the corners of the mouth up or down, and the angles of the eyebrows, making all the difference between a jolly grin and an “awful face.”

LESSON CLXXII

THE PUMPKIN

_Leading thought_--The pumpkin and squash were cultivated by the American Indians in their cornfields long before Columbus discovered the new world. The flowers of these plants depend entirely upon insects for carrying their pollen, and are unable to develop their fruit without this aid.

_Method_--This work may be done in the garden or field in September or early October; or a vine bearing both kinds of flowers, leaves and tendrils may be brought to the schoolroom for observation. The lesson on the pumpkin fruit may be given later. A small green pumpkin should be studied with the ripe one, and also with the blossoms, so as to show the position of the seeds during development. This lesson can be modified to fit the cucumber, the melon and the squash.

_The Pumpkin Vine and Flowers_

_Observations_--1. How many different forms of flowers do you find on a pumpkin vine? What are the chief differences in their shape?

2. Look first at the flowers with the long slender stems: What is the shape and color of the blossom? How many lobes has it? Is each lobe distinctly ribbed or veined? Is the flower smooth on the inner and the outer surface? Are the edges of the lobes scalloped or ruffled?

Photo by Verne Morton.]

3. What do you see at the bottom of the golden vase of this flower? This yellow club, or knob, is formed by the joining of three anthers, one of which is smaller than the others. Do all the pumpkin flowers have this knob at the center? Look at the base of the standard which bears the anther-knob, and note if there are some openings; how many? Cut off the anther pedestal, and describe what is hidden beneath it. Note if the bees find the openings to the nectar-well and probe there for the nectar. Do they become dusted with pollen while seeking the nectar?

4. What color is the pollen which is clinging to the anther? Is it soft and light, or moist and sticky? Do you think that the wind would be able to lift it from its deep cup and carry it to the cup of another flower?

5. Describe the calyx behind this pollen-bearing flower. How many lobes has it? Are the lobes slender and pointed?

6. Find one of the flowers which has below it a little green globe, which will later develop into a pumpkin. How does this flower differ from the one that bears the pollen?

7. Describe or sketch the pistil which is at the bottom of this flower vase. Into how many lobes does it divide? Do these three stigmas face outward, or toward each other? Are the styles which uphold the stigmas short or long? Describe the cup in which they stand. Break away a bit of this little yellow cup and taste it. Why do you think the pumpkin flowers need such a large and well-filled nectary? Could insects get the nectar from the cup without rubbing against the stigmas, the pollen with which they became so thoroughly dusted when they visited the staminate flowers?

8. Cut through the center of one of the small green pumpkins. Can you see into how many sections it is divided? Does the number of seed-clusters correspond with the number of stigmas in the flower? Make a sketch of a cross-section, showing where the seeds are placed.

9. What insects do you find visiting the pumpkin flowers?

10. Carefully unfold a flower bud which is nearly ready to open, and note how it is folded. Then notice late in the afternoon how the flower closes. What part is folded over first? What next? How does it look when closed?

11. Describe the stems of the pumpkin vine; how are they strengthened and protected? Sketch or describe a pumpkin leaf.

12. Describe one of the tendrils of the pumpkin vine. Do you think that these tendrils could help the vine in climbing? Have you ever found a pumpkin vine climbing up any object?

_The Pumpkin Fruit_

_Observations_--1. Do you think the pumpkin is a beautiful fruit? Why? Describe its shape and the way it is creased. Describe the rind, its color and its texture, and tell how it protects the fruit. Describe the stem; does it cling to the pumpkin? How many ridges in the stem where it joins the vine? How many where it joins the pumpkin? Which part of the stem is larger? Does this give it a firmer hold?

Photo by Verne Morton.]

2. Cut in halves crosswise a small green pumpkin and a ripe one. Which is the most solid? Can you see how the seeds are borne in the green pumpkin? How do they look in the ripe pumpkin? What is next to the rind in the ripe fruit? What part of the pumpkin do we use for pies?

3. Can you see in the ripe pumpkin where the seeds are borne? How are they suspended? How many rows of seeds lengthwise of the pumpkin? Of what use could it be to the pumpkin to have the seeds thus suspended within it by these threads or fibers? What is left of a pumpkin after the cattle have eaten it? Might the seeds thus left plant themselves?

4. Is the pumpkin seed attached at the round, or the pointed, end? Describe the pumpkin seed its shape and its edges? How does it feel when first taken from the pumpkin? How many coats has the seed?

5. Describe the meat of the seed? Does it divide naturally into two parts? Can you see the little germ? Have you ever tried roasting and salting pumpkin and squash seeds, to prepare them for food as almonds and peanuts are prepared?

6. Plant a pumpkin seed in damp sand and give it warmth and light. From which end does it sprout? What comes first, the root or the leaves? What part of the seed forms the seed-leaves?

7. Describe how the pumpkin sprout pries open the shell to its seed, in order to get its seed-leaves out. What happens if it does not pull them out? Which part of the seedling pumpkin appears above ground first?

8. How do the true leaves differ in shape from the seed-leaves. What is the use of the seed-leaves to the plant?

* * * * *