Chapter XVII: Part II: Animal Life (10)

The water snake is a bluffer, and, when cornered, it flattens itself and strikes fiercely. But its teeth contain no poison and it can inflict only slight and harmless wounds. When acting as if it would “rather fight than eat,” if given a slight chance to escape, it will flee to the water like a “streak of greased lightning,” as any boy will assure you.

The water snake attains a length of about four feet. The young do not hatch from eggs, but are born alive in August and September; they differ much in appearance from their parents as they are pale gray in color, with jet-black cross-bands.

LESSON LI

THE WATER SNAKE

_Leading thought_--The water snake haunts the banks of streams because its food consists of creatures that live in and about water.

_Method_--If water snakes are found in the locality, encourage the boys to capture one without harming it, and bring it to school for observation. However, as the water snake is very local in its habits, and haunts the same place year after year, it will be better nature-study to get the children to observe it in its native surroundings.

_Observations_--1. Where is the water snake found? How large is the largest one you ever saw?

2. Why does the water snake live near water? What is its food? How does it catch its prey?

3. Describe how the water snake swims. How far does its head project above the water when swimming? How long can it stay completely beneath the water?

4. Describe the markings and colors of the water snake. How do these colors protect it from observation? How do the young look?

5. Does each water snake have a favorite place for sunning itself?

6. Where do the water snakes spend the winter?

* * * * *

_May 12, 1858._

_Found a large water adder by the edge of Farmer’s large
mudhole, which abounds with tadpoles and frogs, on which it
was probably feeding. It was sunning on the bank and would
face me and dart its head toward me when I tried to drive it
from the water. It is barred above, but indistinctly when
out of the water, so that it appears almost uniformly dark
brown, but in the water, broad, reddish brown bars are seen,
very distinctly alternating with very dark-brown ones. The
head was very flat and suddenly broader than the neck behind.
Beneath, it was whitish and reddish flesh-color. It was about
two inches in diameter at the thickest part. The inside of
its mouth and throat was pink. They are the biggest and most
formidable-looking snakes that we have. It was awful to
see it wind along the bottom of the ditch at last, raising
wreaths of mud amid the tadpoles, to which it must be a very
sea-serpent. I afterward saw another, running under Sam
Barrett’s grist-mill, the same afternoon. He said that he saw
a water-snake, which he distinguished from a black snake, in
an apple tree near by, last year, with a young robin in its
mouth, having taken it from the nest. There was a cleft or
fork in the tree which enabled it to ascend._
--THOREAU’S JOURNAL.

THE TURTLE

_Teacher’s Story_

A turtle is at heart a misanthrope; its shell is in itself proof of its owner’s distrust of this world. But we need not wonder at this misanthropy, if we think for a moment of the creatures that lived on this earth, at the time when turtles first appeared. Almost any of us would have been glad of a shell in which to retire, if we had been contemporaries of the smilodon and other monsters of earlier geologic times.

When the turtle feels safe and walks abroad for pleasure, his head projects far from the front end of his shell, and the legs, so wide, and soft that they look as if they had no bones in them, project out at the side, while the little, pointed tail brings up an undignified rear; but frighten him and at once head, legs and tail all disappear, and even if we turn him over, we see nothing but the tip of the nose, the claws of the feet and the tail turned deftly sidewise. When frightened, he hisses threateningly; the noise seems to be made while the mouth is shut, and the breath emitted through the nostrils.

The upper shell of the turtle is called the carapace and the lower shell, the plastron. There is much difference in the different species of turtles in the shape of the upper shell and the size and shape of the lower one. In most species the carapace is sub-globular but in some it is quite flat. The upper shell is grown fast to the backbone of the animal, and the lower shell to the breast bone. The markings and colors of the shell offer excellent subjects for drawing. The painted terrapin has a red-mottled border to the shell, very ornamental; the wood turtle has a shell made up of plates each of which is ornamented with concentric ridges; and the box-turtle has a front and rear trap-door, hinged to the plastron, which can be pulled up against the carapace when the turtle wishes to retire, thus covering it entirely.

The turtle’s head is decidedly snakelike. Its color differs with different species. The wood turtle has a triangular, horny covering on the top of the head, in which the color and beautiful pattern of the shell are repeated; the underparts are brick-red with indistinct yellowish lines under the jaw. The eyes are black with a yellowish iris, which somehow gives them a look of intelligence. The turtle has no eyelids like our own, but has a nictitating membrane which comes up from below and completely covers the eye; if we seize the turtle by the head and attempt to touch its eyes, we can see the use of this eyelid. When the turtle winks, it seems to turn the eyeball down against the lower lid.

The sense of smell in turtles is not well developed, as may be guessed by the very small nostrils, which are mere pin-holes in the snout. The mouth is a more or less hooked beak, and is armed with cutting edges instead of teeth. The constant pulsation in the throat is caused by the turtle swallowing air for breathing.

Photo by Silas Lottridge.]

The turtle’s legs, although so large and soft, have bones within them, as the skeleton shows. The claws are long and strong; there are five claws on the front and four on the hind feet. Some species have a distinct web between the toes; in others, it is less marked, depending upon whether the species lives mostly in water or out of it. The color of the turtle’s body varies with the species; the body is covered with coarse, rough skin made up of various-sized plates.

The enemies of turtles are the larger fishes and other turtles. Two turtles should never be kept in the same aquarium, since they eat each others’ tails and legs with great relish. They feed upon insects, small fish, or almost anything soft-bodied which they can find in the water; they are especially fond of earthworms. The species which frequent the land, feed upon tender vegetation and also eat berries. In an aquarium, a turtle should be fed earthworms, chopped fresh beef, lettuce leaves and berries. The wood turtle is especially fond of cherries.

The aquarium should always have in it a stone or some other object projecting above the water, so that the turtle may climb out, if it chooses. In winter, turtles bury themselves in the ooze at the bottom of ponds and streams. Their eggs have white leathery shells, are oblong in shape, and are buried by the mother in the sand or soil near a stream or pond. The long life of turtles is a well authenticated fact, dates carved upon their shells show them to have attained the age of thirty or forty years.

The following are, perhaps, the most common species of turtles:

(a) _The Snapping Turtle_--This sometimes attains a shell 14 inches long and a weight of forty pounds. It is a vicious creature and inflicts a severe wound with its sharp, hooked beak; it should not be used for a nature-study lesson unless the specimen is very young.

(b) _The Mud Turtle_--The musk turtle and the common mud turtle both inhabit slow streams and ponds; they are truly aquatic and only come to shore to deposit their eggs. They cannot eat, unless they are under water, and they seek their food in the muddy bottoms. The musk turtle when handled, emits a very strong odor; it has on each side of the head two broad yellow stripes. The mud turtle has no odor. Its head is ornamented with greenish yellow spots.

(c) _The Painted Terrapin, or Pond Turtle_--This can be determined by the red mottled border of its shell. It makes a good pet, if kept in an aquarium by itself, but will destroy other creatures. It will eat meat or chopped fish, and is fond of earthworms and soft insects.

(d) _The Spotted Turtle_--This has the upper shell black with numerous round yellow spots upon it. It is common in ponds and marshy streams and its favorite perch is, with many of its companions, upon a log. It feeds under water, eating insect larvæ, dead fish and vegetation. It likes fresh lettuce.

(e) _The Wood Terrapin_--This is our most common turtle; it is found in damp woods and wet places, since it lives largely upon the land. Its upper shell often reaches a length of six and one-half inches and is made up of many plates, ornamented with concentric ridges. This is the turtle upon whose shell people carve initials and dates and then set it free. All the fleshy parts of this turtle, except the top of the head and the limbs, are brick-red. It feeds on tender vegetables, berries and insects. It makes an interesting pet and will soon learn to eat from the fingers of its master.

(f) _The Box-Turtle_--This is easily distinguished from the others, because the front and rear portions of the lower shell are hinged so that they can be pulled up against the upper shell. When this turtle is attacked, it draws into the shell and closes both front and back doors, and is very safe from its enemies. It lives entirely upon land and feeds upon berries, tender vegetation and insects. It lives to a great age.

(g) _The Soft-shelled Turtle_--These are found in streams and canals. The upper shell looks as if it were of one piece of soft leather, and resembles a griddle-cake. Although soft-shelled, these turtles are far from soft-tempered, and must be handled with care.

LESSON LII

THE TURTLE

_Leading thought_--The turtle’s shell is for the purpose of protecting its owner from the attack of enemies. Some turtles live upon land and others in water.

_Method_--A turtle of any kind, in the schoolroom, is all that is needed to make this lesson interesting.

Photo by J. T. Lloyd.]

_Observations_--1. How much can you see of the turtle when it is walking? If you disturb it what does it do? How much of it can you see then? Can you see more of it from the lower side than the upper? What is the advantage to the turtle of having such a shell?

2. Compare the upper shell with the lower as follows: How are they shaped differently? What is their difference in color? Would it be a disadvantage to the turtle if the upper shell were as light colored as the lower? Why? Make a drawing of the upper and the lower shell showing the shape of the plates of which they are composed. Where are the two grown together?

3. Is the border of the upper shell different from the central portion in color and markings? Is the edge smooth or scalloped?

4. How far does the turtle’s head project from the front of the shell? What is the shape of the head? With what colors and pattern is it marked? Describe the eyes. How are they protected? How does the turtle wink? Can you discover the little eyelid which comes up from below to cover the eye?

5. Describe the nose and nostrils. Do you think it has a keen sense of smell?

6. Describe the mouth. Are there any teeth? With what does it bite off its food? Describe the movement of the throat. Why is this constant pulsation?

7. What is the shape of the leg? How is it marked? How many claws on the front feet? Are any of the toes webbed? On which feet are the webbed toes? Why should they be webbed? Describe the way a turtle swims. Which feet are used for oars?

8. Describe the tail. How much can be seen from above when the turtle is walking? What becomes of it, when the turtle withdraws into its shell?

9. How much of the turtle’s body can you see? What is its color? Is it rough or smooth?

10. What are the turtle’s enemies? How does it escape from them? What noise does the turtle make when frightened or angry?

11. Do all turtles live for part of the time in water? What is their food and where do they find it? Write an account of all the species of turtles that you know.

12. How do turtle eggs look? Where are they laid? How are they hidden?

_Supplementary reading_--“Turtle Eggs for Agassiz,” Dalles Lore Sharp, Atlantic Monthly, Feb., 1910.

V. MAMMAL STUDY

For some inexplicable reason, the word animal, in common parlance, is restricted to the mammals. As a matter of fact, the bird, the fish, the insect and the snake have as much right to be called animals as has the squirrel or the deer. And while I believe that much freedom in the matter of scientific nomenclature is permissible in nature-study, I also believe that it is well for the child to have a clearly defined idea of the classes into which the animal kingdom is divided; and I would have him gain this knowledge by noting how one animal differs from another rather than by studying the classification of animals in books. He sees that the fish differs in many ways from the bird and that the toad differs from the snake; and it will be easy for him to grasp the fact that the mammals differ from all other animals in that the young are nourished by milk produced for this purpose in the breasts of the mother; when he understands this, he can comprehend how such diverse forms as the whale, the cow, the bat, and human beings are akin.

THE COTTON-TAIL RABBIT

_Teacher’s Story_

“_The Bunnies are a feeble folk whose weakness is their
strength.
To shun a gun a Bun will run to almost any length._”
--OLIVER HERFORD.

It is well for Molly Cotton-tail and her family that they have learned to shun more than guns for almost every predatory animal and bird makes a dinner of them on every possible occasion. But despite these enemies, moreover, with the addition of guns, men and dogs, the cotton-tail lives and flourishes in our midst. A “Molly” raised two families last year in a briar-patch back of our garden on the Cornell Campus, where dogs of many breeds abound; and after each fresh fall of snow this winter we have been able to trace our bunny neighbors in their night wanderings around the house, beneath the spruces and in the orchard. The track consists of two long splashes, paired, and between and a little behind them, two smaller ones; the rabbit uses its front feet as a boy uses a vaulting pole and lands both hind feet on each side and ahead of them; owing to the fact that the bottoms of the feet are hairy the print is not clear-cut. When the rabbit is not in a hurry it has a peculiar lope, but when frightened it makes long jumps. The cotton-tails are night wanderers and usually remain hidden during the day. In summer, they feed on clover or grass or other juicy herbs and show a fondness for sweet apples and fresh cabbage; in our garden last summer Molly was very considerate. She carefully pulled all the grass out of the garden-cress bed, leaving the salad for our enjoyment. In winter, the long, gnawing teeth of the cotton-tail are sometimes used to the damage of fruit trees and nursery stock since the rabbits are obliged to feed upon bark in order to keep alive.

The long, strong hind legs and the long ears tell the whole bunny story. Ears to hear the approach of the enemy, and legs to propel the listener by long jumps to a safe retreat. The attitude of the ears is a good indication of the bunny’s state of mind; if they are set back to back and directed backward, they indicate placidity, but a placidity that is always on guard; if lifted straight up they signify attention and anxiety; if one is bent forward and the other backward the meaning is: “Now just where did that sound come from?” When running or when resting in the form, the ears are laid back along the neck. When the cotton-tail stands up on its haunches with both ears erect, it looks very tall indeed.

Not only are the ears always alert, but also the nose; the nostrils are partially covered and in order to be always sure of getting every scent they wabble constantly, the split upper lip aiding in this performance; when the rabbit is trying to get a scent it moves its head up and down in a sagacious, apprehensive manner.

The rabbit has an upper and lower pair of incisors like other rodents, but on the upper jaw there is a short incisor on each side of the large teeth; these are of no use now but are inherited from some ancestor which found them useful. There are at the back of each side of the upper jaw six grinding teeth, and five on each side of the lower jaw. The split upper lip allows the free use of the upper incisors. The incisors are not only used for taking the bark from trees, but also for cutting grass and other food. The rabbit has a funny way of taking a stem of grass or clover at the end and with much wabbling of lips, finally taking it in, meanwhile chewing it with a sidewise motion of the jaws. The rabbits’ whiskers are valuable as feelers, and are always kept on the _qui vive_ for impressions; when two cotton-tails meet each other amicably, they rub whiskers together. The eyes are large and dark and placed on the bulge at the side of the head, so as to command the view both ways. Probably a cotton-tail winks, but I never caught one in the act.

The strong hind legs of the rabbit enable it to make prodigious jumps, of eight feet or more; this is a valuable asset to an animal that escapes its enemies by running. The front feet are short and cannot be turned inward like those of the squirrel, to hold food. There are five toes on the front feet, and four on the hind feet; the hair on the bottom of the feet is a protection, much needed by an animal which sits for long periods upon the snow. When sleeping, the front paws are folded under and the rabbit rests on the entire hind foot, with the knee bent, ready for a spring at the slightest alarm; when awake, it rests on the hind feet and front toes; and when it wishes to see if the coast is clear, it rises on its hind feet, with front paws drooping.

The cotton-tail has a color well calculated to protect it from observation; it is brownish-gray on the back and a little lighter along the sides, grayish under the chin and whitish below; the ears are edged with black, and the tail when raised shows a large, white fluff at the rear. The general color of the rabbit fits in with natural surroundings; since the cotton-tail often escapes its enemies by “freezing,” this color makes the scheme work well. I once saw a marsh hare, on a stone in a brook, freezing most successfully. I could hardly believe that a living thing could seem so much like a stone; only its bright eyes revealed it to us.

The rabbit cleans itself in amusing ways. It shakes its feet, one at a time, with great vigor and rapidity to get off the dirt and then licks them clean. It washes its face with both front paws at once. It scratches its ear with the hind foot, and pushes it forward so that it can be licked; it takes hold of its fur with its front feet to pull it around within reach of the tongue.

The cotton-tail does not dig a burrow, but sometimes occupies the deserted burrow of a woodchuck or skunk. Its nest is called a “form,” which simply means a place beneath a cover of grass or briars, where the grass is beaten down or eaten out for a space large enough for the animal to sit. The mother makes a soft bed for the young, using grass and her own hair for the purpose; and she constructs a coarse felted coverlet, under which she tucks her babies with care, every time she leaves them. Young rabbits are blind at first, but when about three weeks old, are sufficiently grown to run quite rapidly. Although there may be five or six in a litter, yet there are so many enemies that only a few escape.

Fox, mink, weasel, hawk, owl and snake all relish the young cotton-tail if they can get it. Nothing but its runways through the briars can save it. These roads wind in and out and across, twisting and turning perplexingly; they are made by cutting off the grass stems, and are just wide enough for the rabbit’s body. However, a rabbit has weapons and can fight if necessary; it leaps over its enemy, kicking it on the back fiercely with its great hind feet. Mr. Seton tells of this way of conquering the black snake, and Mr. Sharp saw a cat completely vanquished by the same method. The rabbit can also bite, and when two males are fighting, they bite each other savagely. Mr. E. W. Cleeves told me of a Belgian doe which showed her enmity to cats in a peculiar way. She would run after any cats that came in sight, butting them like a billy-goat. The cats soon learned her tricks, and would climb a tree as soon as they caught sight of her. The rabbit’s sound of defiance, is thumping the ground with the strong hind foot. Some have declared that the front feet are used also for stamping; although I have heard this indignant thumping more than once, I could not see the process. The cotton-tail is a hare, while the common domestic rabbit is a true rabbit. The two differ chiefly in the habits of nesting; the hares rest and nest in forms, while the rabbit makes burrows, digging rapidly with the front feet.

Not the least of tributes to the rabbit’s sagacity, are the negro folk-stories told by Uncle Remus, wherein Bre’r Rabbit, although often in trouble, is really the most clever of all the animals. I have often thought when I have seen the tactics which rabbits have adopted to escape dogs, that we in the North have under-rated the cleverness of this timid animal. In one instance at least that came under our observation, a cotton-tail led a dog to the verge of a precipice, then doubled back to safety, while the dog went over, landing on the rocks nearly three hundred feet below.

LESSON LIII

THE COTTON-TAIL RABBIT

_Leading thought_--The cotton-tail thrives amid civilization; its color protects it from sight; its long ears give it warning of the approach of danger; and its long legs enable it to run by swift, long leaps. It feeds upon grasses, clover, vegetables and other herbs.

_Method_--This study may be begun in the winter, when the rabbit tracks can be observed and the haunts of the cotton-tail discovered. If caught in a box trap, the cotton-tail will become tame if properly fed and cared for, and may thus be studied at close range. The cage I have used for rabbits as thus caught, is made of wire screen, nailed to a frame, making a wire-covered box, two feet high and two or three feet square, with a door at one side and no bottom. It should be placed upon oil-cloth or linoleum, and thus may be moved to another carpet when the floor needs cleaning. If it is impossible to study the cotton-tail, the domestic rabbit may be used instead.

_Observations_--1. What sort of tracks does the cotton-tail make in the snow? Describe and sketch them. Where do you find these tracks? How do you know which way the rabbit was going? Follow the track and see if you can find where the rabbit went. When were these tracks made, by night or by day? What does the rabbit do during the day? What does it find to eat during the winter? How are its feet protected so that they do not freeze in the snow?

2. What are the two most noticeable peculiarities of the rabbit? Of what use are such large ears? How are the ears held when the rabbit is resting? When startled? When not quite certain about the direction of the noise? Explain the reasons for these attitudes. When the rabbit wishes to make an observation to see if there is danger coming, what does it do? How does it hold its ears then? How are the ears held when the animal is running?

3. Do you think the rabbit has a keen sense of smell? Describe the movements of the nostrils and explain the reason. How does it move its head to be sure of getting the scent?

4. What peculiarity is there in the upper lip? How would this be an aid to the rabbit when gnawing? Describe the teeth; how do these differ from those of the mouse or squirrel? Of what advantage are the gnawing teeth to the rabbit? How does it eat a stem of grass? Note the rabbit’s whiskers. What do you think they are used for?

5. Describe the eyes. How are they placed so that the rabbit can see forward and backward? Do you think that it sleeps with its eyes open? Does it wink?

6. Why is it advantageous to the rabbit to have such long, strong, hind legs? Compare them in size with the front legs. Compare the front and hind feet. How many toes on each? How are the bottoms of the feet protected? Are the front feet ever used for holding food like the squirrel’s? In what position are the legs when the rabbit is resting? When it is standing? When lifted up for observation?

7. How does the cotton-tail escape being seen? Describe its coat. Of what use is the white fluff beneath the tail? Have you ever seen a wild rabbit “freeze”? What is meant by freezing and what is the use of it?

8. In making its toilet how does the rabbit clean its face, ears, feet, and fur?

9. What do the cotton-tails feed upon during the summer? During the winter? Do they ever do much damage?

10. Describe the cotton-tail’s nest. What is it called? Does it ever burrow in the ground? Does it ever use a second-hand burrow? Describe the nest made for the young by the mother. Of what is the bed composed? Of what is the coverlet made? What is the special use of the coverlet? How do the young cotton-tails look? How old are they before they are able to take care of themselves?

11. What are the cotton-tail’s enemies? How does it escape them? Have you ever seen the rabbit roads in a briar patch? Do you think that a dog or fox could follow them? Do rabbits ever fight their enemies? If so, how? How do they show anger? Do they stamp with the front or the hind foot?

12. Tell how the cotton-tail differs in looks and habits from the common tame rabbit. How do the latter dig their burrows? How many breeds of tame rabbits do you know?

13. Write or tell stories on the following topics: “A Cotton-tail’s Story of its Own Life Until it is a Year Old;” “The Jack-rabbit of the West;” “The Habits of the White Rabbit or Varying Hare;” “The Rabbit in Uncle Remus’ Tales.”

_Supplementary reading_--“Raggylug” and “Little War Horse,” Thompson-Seton; Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers, Burroughs; Watchers in the Woods, Sharp; American Animals, Stone & Cram; Familiar Life in Field and Forest, Mathews; Sharp Eyes, Gibson; Neighbors with Claws and Hoofs, Johonnot; True Tales of Birds and Beasts, Jordan; Uncle Remus Stories, especially The Tar Baby, which emphasizes the fact that the rabbits’ runways are in the protecting briar-patch.

Photo by Silas Lottridge.]

THE MUSKRAT

_Teacher’s Story_

“_Having finished this first course of big-neck clams, they
were joined by a third muskrat, and, together, they filed
over the bank and down into the meadow. Shortly two of them
returned with great mouthfuls of the mud-bleached ends of
calamus-blades. Then followed the washing._

_They dropped their loads upon the plank, took up the stalks,
pulled the blades apart, and soused them up and down in the
water, rubbing them with their paws until they were as clean
and white as the whitest celery one ever ate. What a dainty
picture! Two little brown creatures, humped on the edge of a
plank, washing calamus in moonlit water!_”
--DALLAS LORE SHARP.

Tracking is a part of every boy’s education who aspires to a knowledge of wood lore; and a boy with this accomplishment is sure to be looked upon with great admiration by other boys, less skilled in the interpretation of that writing made by small feet, on the soft snow or on the mud of stream margins. To such a boy, the track of the muskrat is well known, and very easily recognized.

The muskrat is essentially a water animal, and therefore its tracks are to be looked for along the edges of ponds, streams or in marshes. Whether the tracks are made by walking or jumping, depends upon the depth of the snow or mud; if it is deep, the animal jumps, but in shallow snow or mud, it simply runs along. The tracks show the front feet to be smaller than the hind ones. The muskrat track is, however, characterized by the tail imprint. When the creature jumps through the snow, the mark of the tail follows the paired imprints of the feet; when it walks, there is a continuous line made by this strong, naked tail. This distinguishes the track of the muskrat from that of the mink, as the bushy tail of the latter does not make so distinct a mark. Measuring the track, is simply a device for making the pupils note its size and shape more carefully. The tracks may be looked for during the thaws of March or February, when the muskrats come out of the water to seek food.

In appearance the muskrat is peculiar. The body is usually about a foot in length and the tail about eight inches. The body is stout and thickset, the head is rounded and looks like that of a giant meadow mouse; the eyes are black and shining; the ears are short and close to the head; the teeth, like those of other rodents, consist of a pair of front teeth on each jaw, then a long, bare space and four grinders on each side. There are long sensitive hairs about the nose and mouth, like the whiskers of mice.

The muskrat’s hind legs are much larger and stronger than the front ones; and too, the hind feet are much longer than the front feet and have a web between the toes; there are also stiff hairs which fill the space between the toes, outside the web, thus making this large hind foot an excellent swimming organ. The front toes are not webbed and are used for digging. The claws are long, stout and sharp. The tail is long, stout and flattened at the sides; it has little or no fur upon it but is covered with scales; it is used as a scull and also as a rudder when the muskrat is swimming.

The muskrat’s outer coat consists of long, rather coarse hairs; its under coat is of fur, very thick and fine, and although short, it forms a waterproof protection for the body of the animal. In color, the fur is dark brown above with a darker streak along the middle of the back; beneath, the body is grayish changing to whitish on the throat and lips, with a brown spot on the chin. In preparing the pelts for commercial use, the long hairs are plucked out leaving the soft, fine under coat, which is dyed and sold under the name of “electric seal.”

The muskrat is far better fitted by form, for life in the water than upon the land. Since it is heavy-bodied and short-legged, it cannot run rapidly but its strong, webbed hind feet are most efficient oars, and it swims rapidly and easily; for rudder and propeller the strong, flattened tail serves admirably, while the fine fur next the body is so perfectly waterproof that, however much the muskrat swims or dives, it is never wet. It is a skillful diver and can stay under water for several minutes; when swimming, its nose and sometimes the head and the tip of the tail appear on the surface of the water.

The food of muskrats is largely roots, especially those of the sweet flag and the yellow lily. They also feed on other aquatic plants and are fond of the fresh-water shell-fish. Mr. Sharp tells us, in one of his delightful stories, how the muskrats wash their food by sousing it up and down in water many times before eating it. Often, a muskrat chooses some special place upon the shore which it uses for a dining-room, bringing there and eating pieces of lily root or fresh-water clams, and leaving the debris to show where it habitually dines. It does most of its hunting for food at night, although sometimes it may be seen thus employed during the day.

The winter lodge of the muskrat is a most interesting structure. A foundation of tussocks of rushes, in a stream or shallow pond, is built upon with reeds plastered with mud, making a rather regular dome which may be nearly two or three feet high; or, if many-chambered, it may be a grand affair of four or five feet elevation; but it always looks so much like a natural hummock that the eye of the uninitiated never regards it as a habitation. Always beneath this dome and above the water line, is a snug, covered chamber carpeted with a soft bed of leaves and moss, which has a passage leading down into the water below, and also has an air-hole for ventilation. In these cabins, closely cuddled together, three or four in a chamber, the muskrats pass the winter. After the pond is frozen they are safe from their enemies and are always able to go down into the water and feed upon the roots of water plants. These cabins are sometimes built in the low, drooping branches of willows or on other objects.

Drawn by A. MacKinnon, a boy of 13 years.]

Whether the muskrat builds itself a winter lodge or not, depends upon the nature of the shore which it inhabits; if it is a place particularly fitted for burrows, then a burrow will be used as a winter retreat; but if the banks are shallow, the muskrats unite in building cabins. The main entrance to the muskrat burrow is always below the surface of the water, the burrow slanting upward and leading to a nest well lined, which is above the reach of high water; there is always an air hole above, for ventilating this nest, and there is also often a passage, with a hidden entrance, leading out to dry land.

The flesh of the muskrat is delicious, and therefore the animal has many enemies; foxes, weasels, dogs, minks and also hawks and owls prey upon it. It escapes the sight of its enemies as does the mouse, by having the color of its fur not noticeable; when discovered, it escapes its enemies by swimming, although when cornered, it is courageous and fights fiercely, using its strong incisors as weapons. In winter, it dwells in safety when the friendly ice protects it from all its enemies except the mink; but it is exposed to great danger when the streams break up in spring, for it is then often driven from its cabin by floods, and preyed upon while thus helplessly exposed. The muskrat gives warning of danger to its fellows by splashing the water with its strong tail.

It is called muskrat because of the odor, somewhat resembling musk, which it exhales from two glands on the lower side of the body between the hind legs; these glands may be seen when the skin is removed, which is the too common plight of this poor creature, since it is hunted mercilessly for its pelt.

Photo by Silas Lottridge.]

The little muskrats are born in April and there are usually from six to eight in a litter. Another litter may be produced in June or July and a third in August or September. It is only thus, by rearing large families often, that the muskrats are able to hold their own against the hunters and trappers and their natural enemies.

_References_--Wild Animals, Stone & Cram; A Watcher in the Woods, Sharp; Wild Life, Ingersoll, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 396, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

LESSON LIV

THE MUSKRAT

_Leading thought_--The muskrat, while a true rodent, is fitted for life in the water more than for life upon the land. Its hind feet are webbed for use as oars and its tail is used as a rudder. It builds lodges of mud, cat-tails and rushes in which it spends the winter.

_Method_--It might be well to begin this work by asking for observations on the tracks of the muskrat which may be found about the edges of almost any creek, pond or marsh. If there are muskrat lodges in the region they should be visited and described. For studying the muskrat’s form a live muskrat in captivity is almost necessary. If one is trapped with a “figure four” it will not be injured and it may be made more or less tame by feeding it with sweet apples, carrots and parsnips. The pupils can thus study it at leisure although they should not be allowed to handle the creature as it inflicts very severe wounds and is never willing to be handled. If a live muskrat cannot be obtained perhaps some hunter in the neighborhood will supply a dead one for this observation lesson.

While studying the muskrat the children should read all the stories of beavers which are available as the two animals are very much alike in their habits.

_Observations_--1. In what locality have you discovered the tracks of the muskrat? Describe its general appearance. Measure the muskrat’s track as follows: (a) Width and length of the print of one foot; (b) the width between the prints of the two hind feet; (c) the length between the prints made by the hind feet in several successive steps or jumps.

2. Was the muskrat’s track made when the animal was jumping or walking? Can you see in it a difference in the size of the front and hind feet? Judging from the track, where do you think the muskrat came from? What do you think it was hunting for?

3. What mark does the tail make in the snow or mud? Judging by its imprint, should you think the muskrat’s tail was long or short, bare or brushy, slender or strong?

4. How long is the largest muskrat you ever saw? How much of the whole length is tail? Is the general shape of the body short and heavy or long and slender?

5. Describe the muskrat’s eyes, ears and teeth. For what are the teeth especially fitted? Has the muskrat whiskers like mice and rats?

6. Compare the front and hind legs as to size and shape. Is there a web between the toes of the hind feet? What does this indicate? Do you think that the muskrat is a good swimmer?

7. Describe the muskrat fur. Compare the outer and under coat. What is its color above and below? What is the name of muskrat fur in the shops?

8. Describe the tail. What is its covering? How is it flattened? What do you think this strong, flattened tail is used for?

9. Do you think the muskrat is better fitted to live in the water than on land? How is it fitted to live in the water in the following particulars: Feet? Tail? Fur?

10. How much of the muskrat can you see when it is swimming? How long can it stay under water when diving?

11. What is the food of the muskrat? Where does it find it? How does it prepare the food for eating? Does it seek its food during the night or day? Have you ever observed the muskrat’s dining room? If so, describe it.

12. Describe the structure of the muskrat’s winter lodge, or cabin, in the following particulars: Its size. Where built? Of what material? How many rooms in it? Are these rooms above or below the water level? Of what is the bed made? How is the nest ventilated? How is it arranged so that the entrance is not closed by the ice? Is such a home built by one or more muskrats? How many live within it? Do the muskrats always build these winter cabins? What is the character of the shores where they are built?

13. Describe the muskrat’s burrow in the bank in the following particulars: Is the entrance above or below water? Where and how is the nest made? Is it ventilated? Does it have a back door leading out upon the land?

14. What are the muskrat’s enemies? How does it escape them? How does it fight? Is it a courageous animal? How does the muskrat give warning to its fellows when it perceives danger? At what time of year is it comparatively safe? At what time is it exposed to greatest danger?

15. Why is this animal called muskrat? Compare the habits of muskrats with those of beaver and write an English theme upon the similarity of the two.

16. At what time of year do you find the young muskrats? How many in a litter?

17. Read Farmers’ Bulletin No. 396 of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture and write an English theme on the destructive habits of muskrats and the economic uses of these animals.

_Supplementary reading_--Familiar Wild Animals, Lottridge; Little Beasts of Field and Wood, Cram; Squirrels and other Fur-bearers, Burroughs; “The Builders” in Ways of Wood Folk, Long.

Drawn by Anna Stryke.]

THE HOUSE MOUSE

_Teacher’s Story_

_Somewhere in the darkness a clock strikes two;
And there is no sound in the sad old house,
But the long veranda dripping with dew,
And in the wainscot--a mouse._
--BRET HARTE.

Were mouse-gray a less inconspicuous color, there would be fewer mice; when a mouse is running along the floor, it is hardly discernible, it looks so like a flitting shadow; if it were black or white or any other color, it would be more often seen and destroyed. Undoubtedly, it is owing to the fact that its soft fur has this shadowy color, that this species has been able to spread over the world.

At first glance one wonders what possible use a mouse can make of a tail which is as long as its body, but a little careful observation will reveal the secret. The tail is covered with transverse ridges and is bare save for sparse hairs, except toward the tip. Dr. Ida Reveley first called my attention to the fact that the house mouse uses its tail in climbing. I verified this interesting observation, and found that my mouse used the tail for aid when climbing a string. He would go up the string, hand over hand, like a sailor, then in trying to stretch to the edge of his jar, he invariably wound his tail about the string two or three times, and hanging to the string with the hind feet and tail, would reach far out with his head and front feet. Also, when clinging to the edge of the cover of the jar, he invariably used his tail as a brace against the side of the glass, so that it pressed hard for more than half its length. Undoubtedly the tail is of great service when climbing up the sides of walls.

The tail is also of some use, when the mouse jumps directly upwards. The hind legs are very much longer and stronger than the front legs. The hind feet are also much longer and larger than the front feet; and although the mouse, when it makes its remarkable jumps, depends upon its strong hind legs, I am sure that often the tail is used as a brace to guide and assist the leap. The feet are free from hairs but are downy; the hind foot has three front toes, a long toe behind on the outside and a short one on the inside. The claws are fairly long and very sharp so that they are able to cling to almost anything but glass. When exploring, a mouse stands on its hind feet, folding its little front paws under its chin while it reaches up ready to catch anything in sight; it can stretch up to an amazing height. It feeds upon almost anything which people like to eat and, when eating, holds its food in its front paws like a squirrel.

The thin, velvety ears are flaring cornucopias for taking in sound; the large, rounded outer ear can be moved forward or back to test the direction of the noise. The eyes are like shining, black beads; and if a mouse can wink, it does it so rapidly as not to be discernible. The nose is long, inquisitive, and always sniffing for new impressions. The whiskers are delicate and probably sensitive. The mouth is furnished with two long, curved gnawing teeth at the front of each jaw, then a bare space, and four grinding teeth on each side, above and below, like the teeth of woodchucks and other rodents. The gnawing teeth are very strong and enable the mouse to gnaw through board partitions and other obstacles.

The energy with which the mouse cleans itself is inspiring to behold. It nibbles its fur and licks it with fervor, reaching around so as to get at it from behind, and taking hold with its little hands to hold firm while it cleans. When washing its face and head, it uses both front feet, licking them clean and rubbing them both simultaneously from behind the ears down over the face. It takes its hind foot in both front feet and nibbles and licks it. It scratches the back of its head with its hind foot.

Young mice are small, downy, pink and blind when born. The mother makes for them a nice, soft nest of pieces of cloth, paper, grass, or whatever is at hand; the nest is round like a ball and at its center is nestled the family. Mice living in houses, have runways between the plaster and the outside, or between ceiling and floor. In winter they live on what food they can find, and upon flies or other insects hibernating in our houses. The house mice sometimes live under stacks of corn or grain in the fields, but usually confine themselves to houses or barns. They are thirsty little fellows and they like to make their nests within easy reach of water. Our house mice came from ancestors which lived in Asia originally; they have always been great travelers and they have followed men wherever they have gone, over the world. They came to America on ships with the first explorers and the Pilgrim fathers. They now travel back and forth, crossing the ocean in ships of all sorts. They also travel across the continent on trains. Wherever our food is carried they go; and the mouse, which you see in your room one day, may be a thousand miles away within a week. They are clever creatures, and learn quickly to connect cause and effect. For two years, I was in an office in Washington, and as soon as the bell rang for noon, the mice would appear instantly, hunting waste-baskets for scraps of lunch. They had learned to connect the sound of the bell with food.

Notice tail-track.]

Of all our wild mice, the white-footed or deer mouse is the most interesting and attractive. It is found almost exclusively in woods and is quite different in appearance from other mice. Its ears are very large; its fur is fine and beautiful and a most delicate gray color. It is white beneath the head and under the sides of the body. The feet are pinkish, the front paws have short thumbs, while the hind feet are very much longer and have a long thumb looking very much like an elfin hand in a gray-white silk glove. On the bottom of the feet are callous spots which are pink and serve as foot pads. It makes its nest in hollow trees and stores nuts for winter use. We once found two quarts of shelled beech nuts in such a nest. It also likes the hips of the wild rose and many kinds of berries; it sometimes makes its summer home in a bird’s nest, which it roofs over to suit itself. The young mice are carried, hanging to the mother’s breasts. As an inhabitant of summer cottages, white-foot is cunning and mischievous; it pulls cotton out of quilts, takes covers off of jars, and as an explorer, is equal to the squirrel. I once tried to rear some young deer mice by feeding them warm milk with a pipette; although their eyes were not open, they invariably washed their faces after each meal, showing that neatness was bred in the bone. This mouse has a musical voice and often chirps as sweetly as a bird. Like the house mouse it is more active at night.

The meadow mouse is the one that makes its run-ways under the snow, making strange corrugated patterns over the ground which attract our attention in spring. It has a heavy body, short legs, short ears and short tail. It is brownish or blackish in color. It sometimes digs burrows straight into the ground, but more often makes its nest beneath sticks and stones or stacks of corn. It is the nest of this field mouse which the bumblebee so often takes possession of, after it is deserted. The meadow mouse is a good fighter, sitting up like a woodchuck and facing its enemy bravely. It needs to be courageous, for it is preyed upon by almost every creature that feeds upon small animals; the hawks and owls especially are its enemies. It is well for the farmer that these mice have so many enemies, for they multiply rapidly and would otherwise soon overrun and destroy the grain fields. This mouse is an excellent swimmer.

A part of winter work, is to make the pupils familiar with the tracks of the meadow mice and how to distinguish them from other tracks.

The bow trap.

1. A smooth splint or a peeled twig. 2. Splint bowed and tied at D, the bait inserted at C. 3. The inverted bowl balanced on splint bow.

Figure 4, trap.]