Chapter V: Consulship of Cæsar and Bibulus (3)

The establishment of the consular government was, for the peoples subject to Rome, the signal of revolt. In 253, all the peoples of Latium were leagued against Rome; with the victory of Lake Regillus, in 258, that is, fourteen years after the overthrow of the Tarquins, the submission of Latium began, and it was finished by the treaty concluded by Spurius Cassius with the Latins in the year of Rome 268. The Sabines were only finally reduced by the consul Horatius in 305. Fidenæ, which had acknowledged the supremacy of Tarquin, was taken in the year 319, then taken again, after an insurrection, in 328. Anxur (_Terracina_) was only finally subjected after the defeat of the Volsci; and Veii and Falerium only fell under the power of the Romans in the year 358 and 359. Circci, where a Latin colony had been established in the times of the kings, only received a new one in the year 360. Cære was reunited to the Roman territory in the year 364, and it was only at the time of the Gallic invasion that Antium and Ecetra were finally annexed to the Roman territory. In 408, the capture of Satricum, at the entrance of the country of the Volscians, prevented that people from supporting an insurrection which had already begun among the Latins. In 411, the whole plain of Latium was occupied by Roman citizens or allies, but in the mountains there remained Volscian and Latin cities which were independent and secretly enemies. Nevertheless it may be said that, towards that period, the Republic had re-conquered the territory which it possessed under the kings, although Rome had again, in 416, to suppress a last insurrection of the Latins.

[151] Mommsen, _Roman History_, I., p. 241, 2nd edit.

[152] In fourteen years, from 399 to 412, the patricians allowed only six plebeians to arrive at the consulship.

[153] Titus Livius, X. 23.

[154] Titus Livius, X. 9.

[155] “Who does not see clearly that the vice of the dictator (Marcellus) in the eyes of the augurs was that he was a plebeian?” (Titus Livius, VIII. 23.--Cicero, _De Divinatione_, II. 35, 37; _De Legibus_, II. 13.)

[156] The consuls and prætors could only assemble the comitia, command the armies, or give final judgment in civil affairs, after having been invested with the _imperium_ and with the right of taking the auspices (_jus auspiciorum_) by a curiate law.

[157] _Second Oration on the Agrarian Law_, 9.

[158] Titus Livius, IV. 3.

[159] If a citizen refused to give his name for the recruitment, his goods were confiscated; if he did not pay his creditors, he was sold for a slave. Women were forbidden the use of wine. (Polybius, VI. 2.)--The number of guests who could be admitted to feasts was limited. (Athenæus, VI. p. 274.)--The magistrates also, on entering on office, could not accept invitations to dinner, except from certain persons who were named. (Aulus Gellius, II. 24.--Macrobius, II. 13.)--“Marriage with a plebeian or a stranger was surrounded with restrictive measures; it was forbidden with a slave or with a freedman. Celibacy, at a certain age, was punished with a fine.” (Valerius Maximus, II. ix. 1.)--There were regulations also for mourning and funerals. (Cicero, _De Legibus_, II. 24.)

[160] Aulus Gellius, IV. 12.

[161] Plutarch, _Cato the Censor_, 23.

[162] Historians have always assigned as the northern frontier of Italy, under the Republic, the River Macra, in Etruria; but that the limit was farther south is proved by the fact that Cæsar went to Lucca to take his winter quarters; this town, therefore, must have been in his command and made part of Cisalpine Gaul. Under Augustus, the northern frontier of Italy extended to the Macra.

[163] Speech of Cæsar to the Senate, reported by Sallust. (_Conspiracy of Catilina_, li.)

[164] This paragraph, expressing with great clearness the policy of the Roman Senate, is extracted from the excellent _Hist. Romaine_ of M. Duruy, t. I., c. xi.

[165] As, for example, to put the wife in complete obedience to her husband; to give the father absolute authority over his children, etc.

[166] In the origin, the municipia were the allied towns preserving their autonomy, but engaging to render to Rome certain services (_munus_); whence the name of municipia. (_Aulus Gellius_, XVI. 13.)

[167] To be able to enjoy the right of city, it was necessary to be domiciliated at Rome, to have left a son in his majority in the municipium, or to have exercised there a magistracy.

[168] Aul. Gellius, XVI. xiii.--Paulus Diaconus, on the word _Municipium_, p. 127.

[169] In this category were sometimes found municipia of the third degree, such as Cære. (See Festus, under the word _Præfecturæ_, p. 233.)--Several of these towns, such as Fundi, Formiæ, and Arpinum, obtained in the sequel the right of suffrage; they continued, however, by an ancient usage, to be called by the name of _præfecturæ_, which was also applied by abuse to the colonies.

[170] _Socius et amicus_ (Titus Livius, XXXI. 11).--Compare Dionysius of Halicarnassus, VI. 95; X. 21.

[171] With Carthage, for example. (Polybius, III. 22.--Titus Livius, VII. 27; IX. 19, 43.)

[172] Thus with the Latins. “Ut eosdem quos populus Romanus amicos atque hostes habeant.” (Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 8.)

[173] Cicero, _Oration for Balbus_, xvi.

[174] The freedmen were, in fact, either Roman citizens, or Latins, or ranged in the number of the _dediticii_; slaves who had, while they were in servitude, undergone a grave chastisement, if they arrived at freedom, obtained only the assimilation to the _dediticii_. If, on the contrary, the slave had undergone no punishment, if he was more than thirty years of age, if, at the same time, he belonged to his master according to the law of the quirites, and if the formalities of manumission or affranchisement exacted by the Roman law had been observed, he was a Roman citizen. He was only Latin if one of these circumstances failed. (_Institutes_ of Gaius, I. § 12, 13, 15, 16, 17.)

[175] “Valerius sent upon the lands conquered from the Volsci a colony of a certain number of citizens chosen from among the poor, both to serve as a garrison against the enemies, and to diminish at Rome the party of the seditious.” (Year of Rome 260.) (Dionysius of Halicarnassus, VI. 43.)--This great number of colonies, by clearing the population of Rome of a multitude of indigent citizens, had maintained tranquillity (452). (Titus Livius, X. 6.)

[176] Modern authors are not agreed on this point, which would require a long discussion; but we may consider the question as solved in the sense of our text by Madvig, _Opuscula_, I. pp. 244-254.

[177] “There the people (_populus_) named their magistrates; the _duumviri_ performed the functions of consuls or prætors, whose title they sometimes took (_Corpus Inscriptionum Latin._, _passim_); the _quinquennales_ corresponded to the censors. Finally, there were _questors_ and _ediles_. The Senate, as at Rome, was composed of members, elected for life, to the number of a hundred; the number was filled up every five years (_lectio senatus_).” (_Tabula Heracleensis_, cap. x. _et seq._)

[178] A certain number of colonies figure in the list given by Dionysius of Halicarnassus of the members of the confederacy (V. 61).

[179] Pliny, _Natural History_, III. iv. § 7.

[180] Because it named its magistrates, struck money (Mommsen, _Münzwesen_, p. 317), privileges refused to the Roman colonies, and preserved its own peculiar laws according to the principle: “Nulla populi Romani lege adstricti, nisi in quam populus eorum fundus factus est.” (Aulus Gellius, XVI. xiii. 6.--Compare Cicero, _Oration for Balbus_, viii. 21.)

[181] Cicero, _Oration on the Agrarian Law_, ii. 27.

[182] Titus Livius, XXVII. 9.

[183] Florus, I. 16.

[184] Titus Livius, VIII. 13, 14.

[185] Titus Livius, VIII. 14. These towns had the right of city without suffrage; of this number were Capua (in consideration of its knights, who had refused to take part in the revolt), Cumæ, Fundi, and Formiæ.

[186] Velleius Paterculus, I. 15.

[187] Titus Livius, VIII. 14.

[188] Titus Livius, VIII. 14, _et seq._--Valerius Maximus, VI. ii. 1.

[189] Florus, I. 16.

[190] Titus Livius, VIII. 26; XXI. 49; XXII. 11.

[191] “Eam solam gentem restare.” (Titus Livius, VIII. 27.)

[192] Cicero, _de Officiis_, iii. 30.

[193] Titus Livius, IX. 24, 28.

[194] Diodorus Siculus, XX. 36.--Titus Livius, IX. 29.

[195] Diodorus Siculus, XIX. 101.

[196] Titus Livius, IX. 31.

[197] Diodorus Siculus, XX. 35.

[198] Now _Lago di Vadimone_ or _Bagnaccio_, situated on the right bank and three miles from the Tiber, between that river and the Lake Ciminius, about the latitude of _Narni_.

[199] Titus Livius, IX. 43.--Cicero, _Oration for Balbus_, 13.--Festus, under the word _Præfecturæ_, p. 233.

[200] Titus Livius, IX. 45.--Diodorus Siculus, XX. 101.

[201] Titus Livius, IX. 45; X. 3, 10.

[202] Appian, _Samnite Wars_, § vii., p. 56, edit. Schweighæuser.

[203] Diodorus Siculus, XIX. 10.

[204] Titus Livius, X. 11, _et seq._

[205] Titus Livius, X. 22, _et seq._--Polybius, II. 19.--Florus, I. 17.

[206] Volsiniæ, Perusia, and Arretium. (Titus Livius, X. 37.)

[207] Orosius, III. 22.--Zonaras, VII. 2.--Eutropius, II. 9.

[208] Velleius Paterculus, I. 14.--Festus, under the word _Præfecturæ_, p. 233.

[209] Dionysius of Halicarnassus, _Excerpta_, p. 2335, edit. Schweighæuser.

[210] Polybius, II. 19, 24.

[211] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XII., XIII., XIV.--Plutarch, _Pyrrhus, et seq._--Florus, I. 18.--Eutropius, II. 11, _et seq._--Zonaras, VIII. 2.

[212] Valerius Maximus, III. vii. 10.

[213] Appian (_Samnite Wars_, X. iii., p. 65) says that Pyrrhus advanced as far as Anagnia.

[214] Cicero, _Oration for Balbus_, xxii.

[215] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XIV.--Orosius, IV. 3.

[216] Florus, I. 20.

[217] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XV.--_Fasti Capitolini_, an. 487.

[218] ROMAN COLONIES.--Third period: 416-488.

_Antium_ (416). A maritime colony (Volsci). _Torre d’Anzo_ or
_Porto d’Anzo_.

_Terracina_ (425). A maritime colony (Aurunci). (_Via Appia._)
_Terracina._

_Minturnæ_ (459). A maritime colony (Aurunci). (_Via Appia._) Ruins
near _Trajetta_.

_Sinuessa_ (459). A maritime colony (Campania). (_Via Appia._) Near
_Rocca di Mondragone_.

_Sena Gallica_ (465). A maritime colony (Umbria, _in agro
Gallico_). (_Via Valeria._) _Sinigaglia._

_Castrum Novum_ (465). A maritime colony (Picenum). (_Via
Valeria._) _Giulia Nuova._

LATIN COLONIES.

_Cales_ (420). Campania. (_Via Appia._) _Calvi._

_Fregellæ_ (426). Volsci. In the valley of the Liris. _Ceprano_(?).
Destroyed in 629.

_Luceria_ (440). Apulia. _Lucera._

_Suessa Aurunca_ (441). Aurunci. (_Via Appia._) _Sessa._

_Pontiæ_ (441). Island opposite Circeii. _Ponza._

_Saticula_ (441). On the boundary between Samnium and Campania.
_Prestia_, near _Santa Agata de’ Goti_. Disappeared early.

_Interamna_ (Lirinas) (442). Volsci. _Terame._ Not inhabited.

_Sora_ (451). On the boundary between the Volsci and the Samnites.
_Sora._ Already colonised in a previous period.

_Alba Fucensis_ (451). Marsi. (_Via Valeria._) _Alba_, a village
near _Avezzano_.

_Narnia_ (455). Umbria. (_Via Flaminia._) _Narni._ Strengthened in
555.

_Carseoli_ (456). Æqui. (_Via Valeria._) _Cerita_, _Osteria del
Cavaliere_, near _Carsoli_.

_Venusia_ (463). Frontier between Lucania and Apulia. (_Via
Appia._) _Venosa._ Re-fortified in 554.

_Adria_ (or _Hatria_) (465). Picenum. (_Via Valeria_ and
_Salaria_). _Adri._

_Cosa_ (481). Etruria or Campania. _Ansedonia_(?), near
_Orbitello_. Re-fortified in 557.

_Pæstum_ (481). Lucania, _Pesto_. Ruins.

_Ariminum_ (486). Umbria, _in agro Gallico_. (_Via Flaminia._)
_Rimini._

_Beneventum_ (486). Samnium. (_Via Appia._) _Benevento._

[219] Campanians: _Stellatina_. Etruscans: _Tromentina_, _Sabatina_, _Arniensis_, in 367 (Titus Livius, VI. 5). Latins: _Mœcia_, and _Scaptia_, in 422 (Titus Livius, VIII. 17). Volsci: _Pomptina_, and _Publilia_, in 396 (Titus Livius, VII. 15). Ausones: _Ufentina_ and _Falerna_, in 436 (Titus Livius, IX. 20). Æqui: _Aniensis_ and _Terentina_, in 455 (Titus Livius, X. 9). Sabines: _Velina_ and _Quirina_, in 513 (Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XIX.).

[220] At the beginning of each consular year, the magistrates or deputies of the towns were obliged to repair to Rome, and the consuls there fixed the contingent which each of them was to furnish according to the list of the census. These lists were drawn up by the local magistrates, who sent them to the Senate, and were renewed every five years, except in the Latin colonies, where they seem to have taken for a constant basis the number of primitive colonists.

[221] The country of the Samnites, among others, was completely cut up by these domains.

[222] Titus Livius places in the mouth of the consul Decius, in 452, these remarkable words: “Jam ne _nobilitatis_ quidem suæ plebeios pœnitere” (Titus Livius, X. 7); and later still, towards 538, a tribune expresses himself thus: “Nam _plebeios nobiles_ jam eisdem initiatos esse sacris, et contemnere plebem, ex quo contemni desierint a patribus, cœpisse.” (Titus Livius, XXII. 34.)

[223] Titus Livius, XIV. 48.

[224] We have the proof of this in the condemnation of those who transgressed the law of Stolo. (Titus Livius, X. 13.)

[225] Valerius Maximus, IV. iii. 5.--Plutarch, _Cato_, iii.

[226] Valerius Maximus, IV. iii. 6.

[227] Valerius Maximus, IV. iii. 9.

[228] Titus Livius, IX. 46.

[229] “The goods of the debtor, not his body, should be responsible for the debt. Thus all the captured citizens were free, and it was forbidden for ever to put in bonds a debtor.” (Titus Livius, VIII. 28.)

[230] Ignorance of the calendar, and of the method of fixing the festivals, left to the pontiffs alone the knowledge of the days when it was permitted to plead.

[231] “The lawyers, for fear that their services might become useless in judicial proceedings, invented certain formulæ, in order to make themselves necessary.” (Cicero, _Pro Murena_, xi.)

[232] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XI.--Pliny, XVI. x. 37.

[233] Cicero, _Brutus_, C. xiv.--Zonaras, _Annales_, VIII. 2.

[234] “You see here all the principal senators who set you the example. They will partake with you the fatigues and perils of war, although the laws and their age exempt them from carrying arms.” (_Speech of the Dictator Postumius to his troops_; Dionysius of Halicarnassus, VI. 9.)

[235] Titus Livius, X., XII. 49.

[236] Valerius Maximus, II. viii. 4, 7.

[237] Plutarch, _Flamininus_, xxviii.

[238] Aur. Victor, _Ill. Men_, xxxvi. and xxvii.

[239] Titus Livius, IX. 10

[240] “A sedition was already rising between the patricians and the people, and the terror of so sudden a war (with the Tiburtini) stifled it.” (Titus Livius, VII. 12.)--“Appius Sabinus, to prevent the evils which are an inevitable consequence of idleness, joined with want, determined _to occupy the people in external wars, in order that, gaining their living for themselves_, by finding on the lands of the enemy abundant provisions which were not to be had in Rome, they might render at the same time some service to the State, instead of troubling at an unseasonable moment the senators in the administration of affairs. He said that a town which, like Rome, disputed empire with all others, and was hated by them, could not want a decent pretext for making war; that, if they would judge the future by the past, they would see clearly that all the seditions which had hitherto torn the Republic _had never arrived except in time of peace_, when people no longer feared anything from without.” (Dionysius of Halicarnassus, IX. 43.)

[241] Claudius made war thus in Umbria, and took the town of Camerinum, the inhabitants of which he sold for slaves. (See Valerius Maximus, VI. v. § 1.--Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XV.)--Camillus, after the capture of Veii, caused the free men to be sold by auction. (Titus Livius, V. 22.)--In 365, the prisoners, the greater part Etruscans, were sold in the same manner. (Titus Livius, VI. 4.)--The auxiliaries of the Samnites, after the battle of Allifæ (447), were sold as slaves to the number of 7,000. (Titus Livius, IX. 42.)

[242] “The military port alone contained two hundred and twenty vessels.” (Appian, _Punic Wars_, VIII. 96, p. 437, ed. Schweighæuser.)

[243] Appian, _Punic Wars_, VIII. 95, p. 436.

[244] Strabo, XVII. iii. § 15.

[245] Appian, _Punic Wars_, VIII. 130, p. 490.

[246] 5,820,000 francs [£232,800]. (Appian, _Punic Wars_, CXXVII. 486.) Following the labours of MM. Letronne, Böckh, Mommsen, &c., we have admitted for the sums indicated in the course of the present work the following reckonings:--

The _as_ of copper = 1/10 deniers = 5 centimes.
The _sestertius_ = 0.975 grammes = 19 centimes.
The _denarius_ = 3.898 grammes = 75 centimes.
The _great sestertius_ = 100,000 sestertii = 19,000 francs [£760].
The Attic or Euboic _talent_, of 26 kilogrammes,
196 grammes = 5,821 francs [£232 16s.].
The _mina_, of 436 grammes = 97 francs.
The _drachma_, of 4.37 grammes = 97 centimes.
The _obolus_, of 0.73 grammes = 16 centimes.

The Æginetic talent was equivalent to 8,500 Attic drachmas (37 kilogrammes, 2 gr.) = 8,270 francs [£330 16s.]. The Babylonic silver talent is of 33 kilogrammes, 42 = 7,426 francs [£297]. (See, for details, Mommsen, _Römisches Münzwesen_, pp. 24-26, 55. Hultsch, _Griechische und Römische Metrologie_, pp. 135-137.)

[247] Nearly 700,000 francs [£28,000]. (Athenæus, XII. lviii. 509, ed. Schweighæuser.)

[248] Strabo, XVII. iii. § 15.

[249] Scylax of Caryanda, _Periplus_, p. 51 _et seq._, ed. Hudson.

[250] See the work of Heeren, _Ideen über die Politik, den Verkehr, und den Handel der vornehmsten Völker der alten Welt_, Part I., Vol. II., secs. v. and vi., p. 163 _et seq._, 188 _et seq._ 3rd edit.

[251] Athenæus informs us that Polemon had composed an entire treatise on the mantles of the divinities of Carthage. (XII. lviii. 541.)

[252] Herodotus, VII. 145.--Polybius, I. 67.--Titus Livius, XXVIII. 41.

[253] Reckoning, after Titus Livius, her troops at the time of the second Punic War, we find a force of 291,000 foot and 9,500 horse. (Titus Livius, Books XXI. to XXIX.)

[254] Carthage, under certain circumstances, could make daily a hundred and forty shields, three hundred swords, five hundred lances, and a thousand darts for catapults. (Strabo, XVII. iii. § 15.)

[255] Strabo, XVII. iii. § 15.

[256] In 513, 3,200 Euboic talents (18,627,200 francs [£745,088]); in 516, 1,200 talents (6,985,200 francs [£279,408]); in 552, 10,000 talents (58,210,000 francs [£2,328,400]). Scipio, the first Africanus, brought, besides this, 123,000 pounds weight of gold from this town. (Polybius, I. 62, 63, 88; XV. 18.--Titus Livius, XXX. 37, 45.)

[257] Aristotle, _Politics_, VII. iii. § 5.--Polybius, I. 72.

[258] Diodorus Siculus, XX. 17.

[259] Pliny, _Natural History_, V. iii. 24.

[260] Scylax of Caryanda, _Periplus_, p. 49. edit. Hudson.

[261] Polybius, XII. 3.

[262] Titus Livius, XXXIV. 62.

[263] 58,200 francs (£2,328). (Titus Livius, XXII. 31.)

[264] Sallust, _Jugurtha_, xix.

[265] Pliny, citing this fact, throws doubt upon it. (_Natural History_, V. i. 8.)--See the _Periplus_ of Hanno, in the collection of the minor Greek geographers.

[266] Strabo, III. v. § 3.

[267] Strabo, III. ii. § 1.

[268] Pliny, _Natural History_, III. iii. 30.--Strabo, III. ii. § 8.

[269] Strabo, III. ii. § 3.--Pliny, III. i. 3; XXXIII. vii. 40.

[270] Above 25,000 francs [£1,000]. (Strabo, III. ii. § 10.)

[271] 767,695 pounds of silver and 10,918 pounds of gold, without reckoning what was furnished by certain partial impositions, sometimes very heavy, such as those of Marcolica, one million of sestertii (230,000 francs [£9,200]), and of Certima, 2,400,000 sestertii (550,000 francs [£22,000]). (See Books XXVIII. to XLVI. of Titus Livius.) Such were the resources of Spain, even in the smallest localities, that in 602, C. Marcellus imposed on a little town of the Celtiberians (_Ocilis_) a contribution of thirty talents of silver (about 174,600 francs [£6,984]); and this contribution was regarded by the neighbouring cities as most moderate. (Appian, _Wars of Spain_, VI. xlviii. 158, ed. Schweighæuser.) Posidonius, cited by Strabo (III. iv., p. 135), relates that M. Marcellus extorted from the Celtiberians a tribute of six hundred talents (about 3,492,600 francs [£139,704]).

[272] A fabulous people, spoken of by Homer. (Athenæus, I. xxviii. 60, edit. Schweighæuser.)

[273] Diodorus Siculus, V. 34, 35.

[274] Pliny, _Natural History_, XIX. i. 10.

[275] In the time of Hannibal, this town was one of the richest in the peninsula. (Appian, _Wars of Spain_, xii. 113.)

[276] Strabo, III. iv. § 2.

[277] Polybius, XXXIV., _Fragm._, 8.

[278] The medimnus of barley (52 litres) sold for one drachma (97 centimes); the medimnus of wheat, 9 oboli (about 1 franc 45 centimes). (The medium value of 52 litres in France is 10 francs.) A metretes of wine (39 litres) was worth one drachma (97 centimes); a hare, one obolus (16 centimes); a goat, one obolus (16 centimes); a lamb, from 3 to 4 oboli (50 to 60 centimes); a pig of a hundred pounds weight, 5 drachmas (4 francs 85 centimes); a sheep, 2 drachmas (1 franc 95 centimes); an ox for drawing, 10 drachmas (9 francs 70 centimes); a calf, 5 drachmas (4 francs 85 centimes); a _talent_ (26 kilogrammes) of figs, 3 oboli (45 centimes).

[279] Strabo, III. ii. § 1.

[280] Appian, _Wars of Spain_, i. 102.--Pompey, in the trophies which he raised to himself on the coast of Catalonia, affirmed that he had received the submission of eight hundred and seventy-seven _oppida_. (Pliny, _Natural History_, III. iii. 18.)--Pliny reckoned two hundred and ninety-three in Hispania Citerior, and a hundred and seventy-nine in Bætica. (_Natural History_, III. iii. 18.)--We may, moreover, form an idea of the number of inhabitants by the amount of troops raised to resist the Scipios. In adding together the numbers furnished by the historians, we arrive at the fearful total of 317,700 men killed or made prisoners. (Titus Livius, XXX. _et. seq._)--In 548, we see two nations of Spain, the Ilergetes and the Ausetani, joined with some other petty tribes, put on foot an army of 30,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry. (Titus Livius, XXIX. 1.)--We remark fifteen to twenty others whose forces are equal or superior. After the battle of Zama, Spain furnished Hasdrubal with 50,000 footmen and 4,500 horsemen. (Titus Livius, XXVIII. 12, 13.)--Cato has no sooner appeared with his fleet before Emporiæ, than an army of 40,000 Spaniards, who could only have been collected in the surrounding country, is ready prepared to resist him. (Appian, _Wars of Spain_, 40, p. 147.)--In Lusitania itself, a country of which the population was much less, we see Servius Galba and Lucullus killing 12,500 men. (Appian, _Wars of Spain_, 58, 59, p. 170 _et. seq._)--Although laid waste and depopulated by these two generals, the country, at the end of a few years, furnished again to Viriathus considerable forces.

[281] Titus Livius, XXII. 20.

[282] Strabo, IV. i. § 11; ii. § 14; iii. § 3.

[283] See what M. Amedée Thierry says, _Hist. des Gaul._, II. 134 _et seq._ 3d edit.

[284] Pliny, XXI. 31.

[285] Diodorus Siculus, V. 26.--Athenæus, IV. xxxvi. 94.

[286] Demosthenes, _Thirty-second Oration against Zenothemis_, 980, edit. Bekker.

[287] Strabo, IV. vi. § 2, 3.

[288] Diodorus Siculus, V. xxxix.

[289] See Titus Livius, XXXII. to XLII.

[290] See Strabo, V. i. § 10, 11.

[291] Strabo, V. i. § 12.

[292] Gold was originally very abundant in Gaul; but the mines whence it was extracted, and the rivers which carried it, must have been soon exhausted, for the quality of the Gaulish gold coins becomes more and more abased as the date of their fabrication approaches that of the Roman conquest.

[293] Strabo, V. i. § 7.--Titus Livius, X. 2.

[294] Pliny, _Natural History_, III. xvi. 119.--Martial, _Epigr._, IV. xxv.--_Antonine Itinerary_, 126.

[295] Pliny, _Natural History_, XXXVII. iii. § 11.

[296] Small vessels, quick sailers, and rapid in their movements, excellent for piracy; also called _liburnæ_, from the name of the people who employed them.

[297] Polybius, II. 5.

[298] Titus Livius, XLI. 2, 4, 11.

[299] Polybius, II. 8.

[300] Titus Livius, XXXIX. 5.

[301] Pliny, XXXV. 60.

[302] Polybius, XXII. 13.

[303] Polybius, XXX. xv. § 5.--Titus Livius, XLV. 34.

[304] Plutarch, _Flamininus_, 2.

[305] Polybius, V. 9.

[306] Aristides, _Panathen._, p. 149.

[307] Pausanias, _Attica_, xxviii.

[308] Plutarch, _Sylla_, 20.

[309] Pausanias, _Laconia_, xi. We must further mention the famous temple of bronze of Minerva, the two gymnasia, and the Platanistum, a spacious place where the competitions of the youths took place, (Pausanias, _Laconia_, xiv.)

[310] Stephanus of Byzantium, under the word Λακεδαἱμων, p. 413.

[311] Pausanias, _Laconia_, xxi.

[312] Titus Livius, XXXIV. 29.

[313] Pausanias, _Arcadia_, xlv.

[314] Pausanias, _Arcadia_, xli. Thirty-six columns out of thirty-eight are still standing.

[315] Pliny, _Natural History_, XIX. i. 4.

[316] Pausanias, _Elis_, II. 23 and 24.

[317] Pausanias, _Elis_, I. ii.

[318] Strabo, VIII. § 10, 19.

[319] Pausanias, _Corinth_, xxviii. 1.

[320] Pausanias, _Corinth_, xxvii.

[321] “Goods were not obliged to make the circuit by Corinth; a direct road crossed the isthmus in the narrowest part, and they had even established there a system of rollers on which vessels of small tonnage were transported from one sea to the other.” (Strabo, VIII. ii. § 3.--Polybius, IV. 19.)

[322] Pausanias, _Attica_, ii.

[323] Cicero, _De Republica_, II. 4.--Strabo, VIII. vi. § 20.

[324] Strabo, VIII. vi. § 23.--Pliny, _Natural History_, XXXV. x. § 36.

[325] Arrian, _Expedition of Alexander_, I. xvi. 4.--Velleius Paterculus, I. 40.--Plutarch, _Alexander_, 16.

[326] Athenæus, VI. 272.

[327] Titus Livius, XXXII. 16.

[328] Titus Livius, XLV. 18, 29.

[329] Titus Livius, XLII. 12.

[330] “These were, in money, 100 talents (582,000 francs [£23,280]), and in wheat, 100,000 artabæ (52,500 hectolitres); and also considerable quantities of ship-building timber, tar, lead, and iron.” (Polybius, V. 89.)

[331] About 1,164,000 francs [£46,560]. Perseus had promised him twice as much. (Titus Livius, XLII. 67.)

[332] Titus Livius, XLIV. 42.

[333] Titus Livius, XLIV. 41.

[334] Titus Livius, XLV. 82.

[335] Titus Livius, XLV. 33.

[336] It lasted three days: the first was hardly sufficient to pass in review the 250 chariots laden with statues and paintings; the second day, it was the turn of the arms, placed on cars, which were followed by 3,000 warriors carrying 750 urns full of money; each, borne by four men, contained three talents (the whole amounting to more than 13 millions of francs [£520,000]). After them came those who carried vessels of silver, chased and wrought. On the third day appeared in the triumphal procession those who carried the gold coins, with 77 urns, each of which contained three talents (the total about 17 millions [£680,000]); next came a consecrated cup, of the weight of ten talents, and enriched with precious stones, made by order of the Roman general. All this preceded the prisoners, Perseus and his household; and, lastly, came the car of the triumphant general. (Plutarch, _Paulus Æmilius_, 32, 33.)

[337] Titus Livius, XLV. 40.

[338] Polybius, IV. 38, 44, 45.

[339] Aristotle, _Politics_, VI. 4, § 1.--Ælian, _Various Histories_, III. 14.

[340] Strabo, VII. vi. § 2; XII. iii. § 11.

[341] Cicero, _Oration for the Law Manilia_, vi.

[342] Plutarch, _Sylla_, xxv.

[343] Especially the fish called _pelamydes_, objects of research throughout Greece. (Strabo, VII. vi. § 2; XII. iii. § 11, § 19.)

[344] Strabo, XII. iii. § 19.

[345] Strabo, XII. iii. § 13. Gadilonitis extended to the south-west of Amisus (_Samsoun_).

[346] Polybius, V. 44, 55.--Ezekiel xxvii. 13, 14.

[347] Xenophon, _Retreat of the Ten Thousand_, V. v. 34.--Homer, _Iliad_, II. 857.

[348] Strabo, XII. iii. § 19.

[349] There passed in the procession a statue of gold of the King of Pontus, six feet high, with his shield set with precious stones, twenty stands covered with vases of silver, thirty-two others full of vases of gold, with arms of the same metal, and with gold coinage; these stands were carried by men followed by eight mules loaded with golden beds, and after whom came fifty-six others carrying ingots of silver, and a hundred and seven carrying all the silver money, amounting to 2,700,000 drachmas (2,619,000 francs [£104,760]). (Plutarch, _Lucullus_, xxxvii.)

[350] Plutarch, _Lucullus_, xxiii.

[351] Strabo, XII. iii. § 13, 14.

[352] Appian, _War against Mithridates_, lxxviii.

[353] Plutarch, _Lucullus_, xiv.

[354] See what is reported by Plutarch (_Lucullus_, xxix.) of the riches and objects of art of every species with which Tigranocerta was crammed.

[355] Appian, _Wars of Mithridates_, xiii. p. 658; xv. p. 662; xvii. p. 664.

[356] Appian, _Wars of Mithridates_, xvii. 664. Lesser Armenia furnished 1,000 horsemen. Mithridates had a hundred and thirty chariots armed with scythes.

[357] Strabo, XII. iv. § 2.--Stephanus Byzantinus, under the word Νικομἡδειον.--Pliny, _Natural History_, V. xxxii. 149.

[358] Strabo, XII. iii. § 6.

[359] Appian, _Wars of Mithridates_, xvii.

[360] Strabo, XII. v. § 7.

[361] Strabo (XII. v. § 3) tells us that Pessinus was the greatest mart of the province.

[362] Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 23.

[363] Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 26.

[364] Diodorus Siculus, XVIII. 16.

[365] Strabo, XII. ii. § 10.

[366] About 3,500,000 francs [£140,000]. (Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 37.) See Appian, _Wars of Syria_, xlii.--“Demetrius obtained soon afterwards a thousand talents (5,821,000 francs [£232,840]) from Olophernes for having established him on the throne of Cappadocia.” (Appian, _Wars of Syria_, xlvii.)

[367] Strabo, XII. ii. 7, 8.

[368] Falkener, _Ephesus_: London, 1862.

[369] _Natural History_, V. xxx. 126.

[370] It was thence that the fleets of the kings of Pergamus put to sea. (Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 40; XLIV. 28.)

[371] The name of Pergamus is preserved in our modern languages in the word “parchment” (_pergamena_), which was used to designate the skin which was prepared in that town to serve as paper, after the Ptolemies had prohibited the exportation of Egyptian papyrus.

[372] Attalus I., King of Pergamus, gave to the Sicyonians 11,000 medimni of wheat. (Titus Livius, XXXII. 40.)--Eumenius II. lent 80,000 to the Rhodians. (Polybius, XXXI. xvii. 2.)

[373] Strabo, XII. viii. § 11.

[374] Athenæus, XV. xxxviii. 513, ed. Schweighæuser.

[375] The Sea of Marmora took its name from these quarries of marble.

[376] Κυξικηνοἱ στατἡρες, whence the word _sequins_.

[377] Strabo, XIII. i. § 23.

[378] Strabo, XV. iii. § 22.

[379] Titus Livius, XXXII. 16; XXXVI. 43.

[380] Titus Livius, XXXVII. 8.

[381] The petty king Moagetes, who reigned at Cibyra, in Phrygia, gave a hundred talents and 10,000 medimni of corn (Polybius, XXII. 17.--Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 14 and 15); Termessus, fifty talents; Aspendus, Sagalassus, and all the cities of Pamphylia, paid the same (Polybius, XXII. 18 and 19); and the towns of this part of Asia contributed, at the first summons of the Roman general, for about 600 talents (3,500,000 francs [£140,000]); they also delivered to him about 60,000 medimni of corn.

[382] Titus Livius, XXXIX. 6.

[383] Manlius, although he had been despoiled on his way home of a part of his immense booty by the mountaineers of Thrace, displayed, at his triumph, crowns of gold to the weight of 212 pounds, 220,000 pounds of silver, 2,103 pounds of gold, more than 127,000 Attic tetradrachms, 250,000 cistophori, and 16,320 gold coins of Philip. (Titus Livius, XXXIX. 7.)

[384] Appian, _Wars of Mithridates_, lxiii.

[385] Arrian, _Campaigns of Alexander_, I. xx. § 3.--Diodorus, XVII. 23.

[386] Strabo, XIV. ii. 565.

[387] Strabo, XIV. i. § 6.

[388] Pliny, _Natural History_, V. 31.

[389] Strabo, XIV. iii. § 6.

[390] Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 39.

[391] Scylax, _Periplus_, 39, ed. Hudson.--Dio Cassius, XLVII. 34.

[392] Herodotus, I. 176.

[393] Pliny, _Natural History_, V. 28.

[394] Strabo, XIV. v. § 2.

[395] Strabo, XIV. v. § 2.

[396] Tarsus had still naval arsenals in the time of Strabo (XIV. v. § 12 _et seq._).

[397] Arrian, _Anabasis_, II. 5.

[398] Polybius, XXII. 7.

[399] Seleucus founded sixteen towns of the name of _Antiochia_, five of the name of _Laodicea_, nine of the name of _Seleucia_, three of the name of _Apamea_, one of the name of _Stratonicea_, and a great number of others which equally received Greek names. (Appian, _Wars of Syria_, lvii. 622.)--Pliny (_Natural History_, VI. xxvi. 117) informs us that it was the Seleucides who collected into towns the inhabitants of Babylonia, who before only inhabited villages (_vici_), and had no other cities than Nineveh and Babylon.

[400] Pliny (_Natural History_, VI. 26, 119) mentions one of these towns which was 70 stadia in circuit, and in his time was reduced to a mere fortress.

[401] Strabo, XVI. ii. § 5.--Pausanias, VI. ii. § 7.

[402] John Malalas, _Chronicle_, VIII. 200 and 202, ed. Dindorf.

[403] Strabo, XVI. ii. § 4.

[404] Strabo, XVI. ii. § 6.

[405] Strabo, XVI. ii. § 10.

[406] It was raised on a terrace a thousand feet long by three hundred feet broad, and was built with stones 70 feet long.

[407] The empire of Seleucus comprised seventy-two satrapies. (Appian, _Wars of Syria_, lxii. 630.)

[408] Polybius, X. 27. Ecbatana paid to Antiochus III. a tribute of 4,000 talents (Attic talents = 23,284,000 francs [£931,360]), the produce of the casting of silver tiles which roofed one of its temples. Alexander the Great had already carried away those of the roof of the palace of the kings.

[409] The country of Gerra, among the Arabians, paid 500 talents to Antiochus (Attic talents = 2,910,500 francs [£116,420]). (Polybius, XIII. 9.)--There was formerly a great quantity of gold in Arabia. (Job xxviii. 1, 2.--Diodorus Siculus, II. 50.)

[410] Strabo, XVI. iii. § 3.

[411] Strabo, XI. ii. 426 _et seq._

[412] Pliny, _Natural History_, VI. 11.

[413] Polybius, V. 54. If, as is probable, Babylonian talents are intended, this would make about 7,426,000 francs [£297,040], Seleucia, on the Tigris, was very populous. Pliny (_Natural History_, VI. 26) estimates the number of its inhabitants at 600,000. Strabo (XVI. ii. § 5) tells us that Seleucia was even greater than Antioch. This town, which had succeeded Babylon, appears to have inherited a part of its population.

[414] In 565, Antiochus III. gives 15,000 talents (Euboic talents = 87,315,000 francs [£3,492,600]). (Polybius, XXI. 14.--Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 37.) In the treaty of the following year, the Romans stipulated for a tribute of 12,000 Attic talents of the purest gold, payable in twelve years, each talent of 80 pounds Roman (69,852,000 francs [£2,794,080]). (Polybius, XXII. 26, § 19.) In addition to this, Eumenes was to receive 359 talents (2,089,739 francs [£83,589]), payable in five years (Polybius, XXII. 26, § 20).--Titus Livius (XXXVIII. 38) says only 350 talents.

[415] The father of Antiochus, Seleucus Callinicus, sent to the Rhodians 200,000 medimni of wheat (104,000 hectolitres). (Polybius, V. 89.) In 556, Antiochus gave 540,000 measures of wheat to the Romans. (Polybius, XXII. 26, § 19.)

[416] According to Strabo (XV. 3), wheat and barley produced there a hundredfold, and even twice as much, which is hardly probable.

[417] Strabo, XVI. 2.

[418] Athenæus, XII. 35, p. 460, ed. Schweighæuser.

[419] Polybius, XXXI. 3.--There were seen in these festivals a thousand slaves carrying silver vases, the least of which weighed 1,000 drachmas; a thousand slaves carrying golden vases and a profusion of plate of extraordinary richness. Antiochus received every day at his table a crowd of guests whom he allowed to carry away with them in chariots innumerable provisions of all sorts. (Athenæus, V. 46, p. 311, ed. Schweighæuser.)

[420] Polybius, V. 79.

[421] Titus Livius, XXXVII. 37.

[422] Strabo, XVI. 2.

[423] Polybius, V. 70.

[424] Titus Livius, XXXIII. 41.--Polybius, V. 59.--Strabo, XVI. 2.

[425] Strabo, XVI. 2.

[426] Strabo, XIV. 5.

[427] In 558, Antiochus sent to sea a hundred covered vessels and two hundred light ships. (Titus Livius, XXXIII. 19.)--It is the greatest Syrian fleet mentioned in these wars. At the battle of Myonnesus, the fleet commanded by Polyxenus was composed of ninety decked ships (574). (Appian, _Wars of Syria_, 27.)--In 563, before the final struggle against the Romans, that prince had forty decked vessels, sixty without decks, and two hundred transport ships. (Titus Livius, XXXV. 43.)--Finally, the next year, a little before the battle of Magnesia, Antiochus possessed, not including the Phœnician fleet, a hundred vessels of moderate size, of which seventy had decks. (Titus Livius, XXXVI. 43; XXXVII. 8.)--This navy was destroyed by the Romans.

[428] Herodotus, II. 177.--Diodorus Siculus, I. 31.

[429] A measure great enough to make thirty loaves. (Franz, _Corpus Inscript. Græcarum_, III. 303.--Polybius, V. 79.)

[430] Böckh, _Staatshaushaltung der Athener_, I. xiv. 15.

[431] Flavius Josephus, _Jewish Antiquities_, XII. 4.

[432] Athenæus, V. p. 203.

[433] Appian (_Preface_, § 10).--We may, nevertheless, judge from the following data of the enormity of the sums accumulated in the treasuries of the kings of Persia. Cyrus had gained, by the conquest of Asia, 34,000 pounds weight of gold coined, and 500,000 of silver. (Pliny, XXXIII. 15.)--Under Darius, son of Hystaspes, 7,600 Babylonian talents of silver (the Babylonian talent = 7,426 francs [£297]) were poured annually into the royal treasury, besides 140 talents devoted to the pay of the Cilician cavalry, and 360 talents of gold (14,680 talents of silver), paid by the Indies. (Herodotus, III. 94.)--This king had thus an annual revenue of 14,500 talents (108 millions of francs [£4,320,000]). Darius carried with him in campaign two hundred camels loaded with gold and precious objects. (Demosthenes, _On the Symmories_, p. 185, xv. p. 622, ed. Müller.)--Thus, according to Strabo, Alexander the Great found in the four great treasuries of that king (at Susa, Persia, Pasargades, and Persepolis) 180,000 talents (about 1,337 millions of francs [£53,480,000]).

[434] Polybius, V. 89.

[435] Strabo, XVII. 1.

[436] Strabo, XVII. 1.

[437] Strabo, XVI. 4; XVII.

[438] Strabo, XVII. 1.

[439] Diodorus Siculus, III. 43.

[440] Appian, _Preface_, § 10.--In 537, at Raphia, the Egyptian army amounted to 70,000 foot, 5,000 cavalry, and 73 elephants. (Polybius, V. 79; see also V. 65.)--Polybius, who gives us these details, adds that the pay of the officers was one mina (97 francs [£3 17_s._ 7_d._]) a day. (XIII. ii.)

[441] Theocritus, _Idylls_, XVII. lines 90-102.--Athenæus (V. 36, p. 284) and Appian, _Preface_, § 10, give the details of this fleet.--Ptolemy IV. Philopator went so far as to construct a ship of forty ranges of rowers, which was 280 cubits long and 30 broad. (Athenæus, V. 37, p. 285.)

[442] Herodotus, IV. 199. The plateau of Barca, now desert, was then cultivated and well watered.

[443] The most important object of commerce of the Cyrenaica was the _silphium_, a plant the root of which sold for its weight in silver. A kind of milky gum was extracted from it, which served as a panacea with the apothecaries and as a seasoning in the kitchen. When, in 658, Cyrenaica was incorporated with the Roman Republic, the province paid an annual tribute in silphium. Thirty pounds of this juice, brought to Rome in 667, were regarded as a miracle; and when Cæsar, at the beginning of the civil war, seized upon the public treasury, he found in the treasury chest 1,500 pounds of silphium locked up with the gold and silver. (Pliny, XIX. 3.)

[444] Diodorus Siculus, III. 49.--Herodotus, IV. 169.--Athenæus, XV. 22, p. 487; 38, p. 514.--Strabo, XVII. iii. 712.--Pliny, _Natural History_, XVI. 33; XIX. 3.

[445] Pindar, _Pythian Odes_, IV. 2.--Athenæus, III. 58, p. 392.

[446] Diodorus Siculus, XVII. 49.

[447] Aristotle, _Politics_, VII. 2, § 10.

[448] Josephus, _Jewish Antiquities_, XIII. 12, § 2, 3.

[449] Ælian, _History of Animals_, V. lvi.--Eustathius, _Comment. on Dionysius Periegetes_, 508, 198, edit. Bernhardy.

[450] Strabo, XIV. 6.--Pliny, _Natural History_, XXXIV. 2.

[451] Virgil, _Æneid_, I. 415.--Statius, _Thebais_, V. 61.

[452] Strabo, X. 4.

[453] Polybius, XIII. 8.

[454] Cretan mercenaries are found in the service of Flamininus in 557 (Titus Livius, XXXIII. 3), in that of Antiochus in 564 (Titus Livius, XXXVII. 40), in that of Perseus in 583 (Titus Livius, XLII. 51), and in the service of Rome in 633.

[455] _Iliad_, II. 656.

[456] Polybius, XXX. 7, year of Rome 590.

[457] Strabo, XIV. 2. The town of _Rhoda_ in Spain, establishments in the Baleares, _Gela_ in Sicily, _Sybaris_ and _Palæopolis_ in Italy, were Rhodian colonies.

[458] This happened especially at the epoch when the famous Colossus of Rhodes fell, and when the town was violently shaken by an earthquake. Hiero, tyrant of Syracuse, Ptolemy, king of Egypt, Antigonus Doson, king of Macedonia, and Seleucus, king of Syria, sent succours to the Rhodians. (Polybius, V. 88, 89.)

[459] We see, in fact, with what care the Rhodians spared their allies on the coast of the Pontus Euxinus. (Polybius, XXVII. 6.)

[460] Polybius, IV. 38.

[461] Strabo, VII. 4.

[462] Titus Livius, XXXIII. 18.

[463] During the siege of Rhodes, Demetrius had formed the design of delivering to the flames all the public buildings, one of which contained the famous painting of Ialysus, by Protogenes. The Rhodians sent a deputation to Demetrius to ask him to spare this masterpiece. After this interview, Demetrius raised the siege, sparing thus at the same time the town and the picture. (Aulus Gellius, XV. 31.)

[464] In 555, twenty ships; in 556, twenty vessels with decks; in 563, twenty-five ships with decks, and thirty-six vessels. This last fleet of thirty-six vessels was destroyed, and yet the Rhodians were able to send to sea again, the same year, twenty vessels. In 584 they had forty vessels. (Titus Livius, XXXI. 46; XXXII. 16; XXXVI. 45; XXXVII. 9, 11, 12; XLII. 45.)

[465] Pliny, XXXIV. 17.

[466] Strabo, XIV. 2.

[467] Athenæus, XII. 35, p. 461.

[468] Titus Livius, XXIII. 34.

[469] Titus Livius, XXIII. 40.

[470] Titus Livius, XLI. 12, 17, 28.--The number of 80,000 men whom the Sardinians lost in the campaign of T. Gracchus, in 578 and 579, was given by the official inscription which was seen at Rome in the temple of the goddess Matuta. (Titus Livius, XLI. 28.)

[471] Festus, p. 322, edit. O. Müller.--Titus Livius, XLI. 21.

[472] See Heeren, vol. IV. sect. I. chap. ii.--Polybius, I. 79.--Strabo, V. ii. 187.--Diodorus Siculus, V. 15.--Titus Livius, XXIX. 36.

[473] Titus Livius, XXX. 38.

[474] Strabo, V. 2.

[475] Diodorus Siculus, V. 14.--The Corsicans having revolted, in 573, had 2,000 slain. (Titus Livius, XL. 34.)--In 581, they lost 7,000 men, and had more than 1,700 prisoners. (Titus Livius, XLII. 7.)

[476] Strabo, V. 2.

[477] Pliny, _Natural History_, III. 6.

[478] Diodorus Siculus, V. 13.--In 573, the Corsicans were taxed by the Romans at 1,000,000 pounds of wax, and at 200,000 in 581. (Titus Livius, XL. 34; XLII. 7.)

[479] Cicero, _Second Oration against Verres_, II. ii. 74.--The oxen furnished hides, employed especially for the tents; the sheep, an excellent wool for clothing.

[480] Cicero, _Second Oration against Verres_, II. III. 70.

[481] Titus Livius, XXV. 31.

[482] Polybius, I. 17, 18.

[483] Polybius, IX. 27.--Strabo, VI. 2.

[484] See what is said by Titus Livius (XXIX. 26) and Polybius (I. 41, 43, 46).--Florus, II. 2.

[485] See the work of the Duke of Serra di Falco, _Antichità della Sicilia_.

[486] Thus the Jupiter of the Capitol and the Italic Juno, at least in their official worship, were the protectors of virtuous morals and punished the wicked, while the Phœnician Moloch and Hercules, worshipped at Carthage, granted their favours to those who made innocent blood run upon their altars. (Diodorus Siculus, XX. 14.)--See the remarkable figures of Moloch holding a gridiron destined for human sacrifices. (Alb. della Marmora, _Sardinian Antiquities_, pl. 23, 53, tom. ii. 254.)

[487] Polybius, I. 7, 11.

[488] Polybius, I. 16.--Zonaras, VIII. 16 _et seq._

[489] We have seen before that Rome, after the capture of Antium (_Porto d’Anzo_), had already a navy, but she had no galleys of three ranks or five ranks of oars. Nothing, therefore, is more probable than the relation of Titus Livius, who states that the Romans took for a model a Carthaginian quinquireme wrecked on their coast. In spite of the advanced state of science, we have not yet obtained a perfect knowledge of the construction of the ancient galleys, and, even at the present day, the problem will not be completely solved until chance furnishes us with a model.

[490] The Romans employed the triremes of Tarentum, Locri, Elea, and Naples to cross the Strait of Messina. The use of quinquiremes was entirely unknown in Italy.

[491] Polybius, I. 20, 21.

[492] Each vessel carried 300 rowers and 120 soldiers, or 420 men, which makes, for the Carthaginian fleet, 147,000 men, and, for the Roman fleet, 138,600. (Polybius, I. 25 and 26.)

[493] Nearly thirteen millions of francs [£520,000]. (Polybius, I. 62.)

[494] Polybius, I. 36.

[495] Valerius Maximus, V. i. 2.

[496] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XIX.

[497] Polybius, III. 10, 27, 28.

[498] The Sardinians owed their civilisation to the Phœnicians; the Sicilians had received theirs from the Greeks. This difference explains the attachment of the first for Carthage, and the repulsion of the others for the Punic rule.

[499] Polybius, II. 4, 5, 10.

[500] Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_.

[501] Florus, II. 5.--Appian, _Wars of Illyria_, 7.

[502] Polybius, II. 11 _et seq._

[503] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XX., year of Rome 533.--Orosius, IV. xiii.

[504] Polybius, III. 16 _et seq._

[505] A people situated between the Rhone and the Alps. (Polyb., II. 22, 34.)

[506] “It was not Rome alone that the Italians, terrified by the Gaulish invasion, believed they had thus to defend; they understood that it was their own safety which was in danger.” (Polybius, II. 23.)

[507] The following, according to Polybius (II. 24), was the number of the forces of Italy:--

FOOT. HORSE.
Two consular armies, each of two legions,
of 5,200 foot and 300 cavalry 20,800 1,200
Allied troops 30,000 2,000
Sabines and Etruscans 50,000 more than 4,000
Umbrians and Sarsinates, inhabitants of
the Apennines 20,000 --
Cenomani and Veneti 30,000 --
At Rome 20,000 1,500
Allies (of the reserve) 30,000 2,000
Latins 80,000 5,000
Samnites 70,000 7,000
Iapygians and Messapians 50,000 16,000
Lucanians 30,000 3,000
Marsi, Marrucini, Frentani, and Vestini 20,000 4,000
In Sicily and at Tarentum, two legions of
4,200 foot and 200 horse 8,400 400
Roman and Campanian citizens 250,000 23,000
------- ------
699,200 69,100

[508] See the Memoir of Zumpt, _Stand der Bevölkerung im Alterthum_. Berlin, 1841.

[509] Polybius, III. 30.

[510] Titus Livius, XXI. 7.

[511] Appian, _Wars of Spain_, 10.

[512] Polybius, III. 90.--“The allies had till then remained firm in their attachment.” (Titus Livius, XXII. 61.)--“This fidelity which they have preserved towards us in the midst of our reverses.” (_Speech of Fabius_, Titus Livius, XXII. 39.)

[513] There were among the Roman troops Samnite cavalry. (Titus Livius, XXVII. 43.)

[514] Titus Livius, XXII. 49; XXIII. 12.--“In the second Punic war, the use of rings had already become common; otherwise it would have been impossible for Hannibal to send three _modii_ of rings to Carthage.” (Pliny, XXXIII. 6.)--We read in Appian: “The tribunes of the soldiers wear the gold ring, their inferiors have it of ivory.” (_Punic Wars_, VIII. cv.)

[515] “The Greek towns, inclined to maintain their alliance with Rome.” (Titus Livius, XXIV. 1.)--Even in Bruttium, the small town of Petelia defended itself against Hannibal with the greatest energy; the women fought like the men. (Appian, VII. 29.)

[516] Eutropius, III. 6.

[517] Titus Livius, XXVI. 1.

[518] Titus Livius, XXIV. 14.

[519] “The Oppian law, proposed by the tribune C. Oppius, under the consulship of Q. Fabius and Tiberius Sempronius (539), in the height of the second Punic war, forbad the women to have for their use more than half an ounce of gold, to wear dresses of different colours, &c., to be driven or carried about Rome, within a radius of seven miles, in a chariot drawn by horses, except to attend the public sacrifices.” This law, being only temporary, was revoked, in spite of the opposition of P. Cato, in 559. (Titus Livius, XXXIV. 1, 6.)

[520] Valerius Maximus, I. i. 15.

[521] “It was in his cavalry that Hannibal placed all his hopes.” (Polybius, III. 101.)--“Hannibal’s cavalry alone caused the victories of Carthage and the defeats of Rome.” (Polybius, IX. 3.)--“The loss of 500 Numidians was felt more by Hannibal than any other check, and from that time he had no longer the superiority in cavalry which had previously given him so much advantage” (543). (Titus Livius, XXVI. 38.)

[522] “Hannibal remembered how he had failed before Placentia.” (Titus Livius, XXVII. 39.)

[523] Titus Livius, XXIII. 15 and 18.--Hannibal reduced by famine the fortresses of Casilinum and Nuceria; as to the citadel of Tarentum, it resisted five years, and could not be taken by force. (Titus Livius, XXVII. 25.)

[524] “Hannibal descends towards Naples, having at heart to secure a maritime place to receive succours from Africa.” (Titus Livius, XXIII. 15.)

[525] Polybius, III. 106.

[526] Appian, _Wars of Hannibal_, 26.

[527] Plutarch, _Marcellus_, 11, 33.

[528] Titus Livius, XXVII. 49.

[529] Appian, _Wars of Hannibal_, 54.

[530] In 536, Rome had at sea 220 quinquiremes and 20 small vessels (Titus Livius, XXI. 17), with which she protected efficiently the coasts of Sicily and Italy. (Titus Livius, XXI. 49, 51.)--In 537, Scipio, with 35 vessels, destroyed a Carthaginian fleet at the mouth of the Ebro (Titus Livius, XXII. 19), and the consul Servilius Geminus effected a landing in Africa with 120 vessels, in order to prevent Carthage from sending reinforcements to Hannibal. (Titus Livius, XXII. 31.)--In 538, the fleet of Sicily is reinforced with 25 ships. (Titus Livius, XXII. 37.)--In 539, Valerius Lævinus had 25 vessels to protect the coast of the Adriatic, and Fluvius the same number to watch the coast of Ostia (Titus Livius, XXIII. 32) after which the Adriatic fleet, raised to 55 sails, is sent to act as a check upon Macedonia. (Titus Livius, XXIII. 38.)--The same year, the fleet of Sicily, under Titus Otacilius, defeats the Carthaginians. (Titus Livius, XXIII. 41.)--In 540 Rome has 150 vessels (Titus Livius, XXIV. 11) this year and the following, the Roman fleet defends Apollonia, attacked by the King of Macedonia, and lands troops which ravage the territory of Utica. The effective strength of the Roman fleet appears not to have varied until 543, the epoch at which Greece again required the presence of 50 Roman ships and Sicily 100. (Titus Livius, XXVI. 1.)--In 544, 20 vessels were stationed in the waters of Rhegium, to secure the passage of provisions between Sicily and the garrison of Tarentum. (Titus Livius, XXVI. 39.)--In 545, 30 sails are detached from the fleet of Sicily to cruise before that town. (Titus Livius, XXVII. 22.)--In 546, Carthage was preparing a formidable fleet of 200 sails (Titus Livius, XXVII. 22); Rome opposes it with 280 ships: 30 defend the coast of Spain, 50 guard Sardinia, 50 the mouths of the Tiber, 50 Macedonia, 100 are stationed in Sicily, ready to make a descent in Africa, and the Carthaginian fleet is beaten before Clupea. (Titus Livius, XXVII. 29.)--Lastly, in 547, a second victory gained by Valerius Lævinus renders the sea entirely free. (Titus Livius, XXVIII. 4.)

[531] “The Carthaginians, occupied only with the care of maintaining themselves in Spain, sent no succour to Hannibal, as though he had had nothing but successes in Italy.” (Titus Livius, XXVIII. 12.)

[532] Titus Livius, XXIII. 13 and 41.

[533] Appian, _Wars of Hannibal_, liv.

[534] In 540, Rome had on foot eighteen legions; in 541, twenty legions; in 542 and 543, twenty-three legions; in 544 and 546, twenty-one; in 547, twenty-three; in 551, twenty; in 552, sixteen; in 553, fourteen; in 554, the number is reduced to six. (Titus Livius, XXIV. 11-44; XXV. 3; XXVI. 1, 28; XXVII. 22, 36; XXX. 2, 27, 41; XXXI. 8.)

[535] “The Romans raised their infantry and cavalry only in Rome and Latium.” (Titus Livius, XXII. 37.)

[536] Titus Livius, XXIII. 23.

[537] Q. Metellus said “that the invasion of Hannibal had re-awakened the slumbering virtue of the Roman people.” (Valerius Maximus, VII. ii. 3.)

[538] The Senate demanded of thirty colonies men and money. Eighteen gave both with eagerness, namely, Signia, Norba, Saticulum, Brundusium, Fregellæ, Luceria, Venusia, Adria, Firmum, Ariminum, Pontia, Pæstum, Cosa, Beneventum, Isernia, Spoletum, Placentia, and Cremona. The twelve colonies which refused to give any succours, pretending that they had neither men nor money, were: Nepete, Sutrium, Ardea, Cales, Alba, Carseoli, Cora, Suessa, Setia, Circeii, Narnia, Interamna. (Titus Livius, XXVII. 9.)

[539] “The quarrels and struggles between the two parties ended in the second Punic war.” (Sallust, _Fragments_, I. vii.)

[540] “Four tribes referred it to the Senate to grant the right of suffrage to Formiæ, Fundi, and Arpinum; but they were told in reply that to the people alone belonged the right of suffrage.” (Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 36.)

[541] “The annual change of generals was disastrous to the Romans. They recalled all those who had experience in war, as though they had been sent not to fight, but only to practice.” (Zonaras, _Annales_, VIII. 16.)

[542] Titus Livius, XXII. 29.

[543] Titus Livius, XXVII. 5, 7.

[544] Titus Livius, XXXII. 28.

[545] Titus Livius, XXXI. 4, 49.

[546] Titus Livius, XXIV. 49.--Polybius, III. 75.

[547] Zonaras, _Annales_, VIII. 16.

[548] Titus Livius, XXXIX. 3.

[549] Plutarch, _Marcellus_, 28.

[550] Titus Livius, XXIII. 30.

[551] Titus Livius, XXXIV. 54.

[552] “Et equites Romanos milites et negociatores.” (Sallust, _Jugurtha_, 65.)

[553] “In 342, a senator and two knights were charged, during a famine, with the provisioning of Rome.” (Titus Livius, IV. 3.)

[554] _Seminarium senatus._ (Titus Livius, XLII. 61.)

[555] Titus Livius, XXIII. 49.--Valerius Maximus, V. vi. 8.

[556] Titus Livius, XXI. 63; XXV. 3.

[557] Valerius Maximus, IV. viii. 2.

[558] Valerius Maximus, IV. v. 1.

[559] They had no deliberative voice, because, according to the public Roman law, no acting magistrate could vote. (See Mommsen, i. 187.)

[560] “Now you have still the comitia by centuries, and the comitia by tribes. As for the comitia by curiæ, they are observed only for the auspices.” (Cicero, _Second Oration on the Agrarian Law_, 9.)