Chapter II: The English Period

_Eadgar; invasion of Magnus_ (1)--_English marriage_
(2)--_Alexander I.; rising in Moray_ (3)--_Church reforms_
(4)--_David I._ (5)--_English war_ (6)--_Battle of the
Standard_ (7)--_peace with England_ (8)--_internal
improvements_ (9)--_Malcolm IV._ (10)--_subjection of
Galloway_ (11)--_William the Lion_ (12)--_Convention of
Falaise_ (13)--_homage at Lincoln_ (14)--_independence
of the Church_ (15)--_internal troubles_ (16)--_social
progress_ (17)--_Alexander II._ (18)--_settling of the
border line_ (19)--_state of the North_ (20)--_Alexander
III._ (21)--_his marriage and homage to England_
(22)--_last invasion of the Northmen_ (23)--_literature and
architecture_ (24)--_state of the kingdom_ (25).

=1. Eadgar, 1097-1107. Invasion of Magnus.=--In the beginning of this reign, _Magnus Barefoot_, King of Norway, made good his right to the _Orkneys_ and the Scandinavian Earldom on the mainland. He seized the two earls, and placed his own son _Sigurd_ in their stead. He then sailed for the _Sudereys_, at that time dependencies of the _Kingdom of Man_, wasted them with fire and sword, marked his claim by sailing round each island, and, by way of proving his right to _Kintyre_, is said to have had himself dragged across the isthmus that joins it to the mainland in his ship, with his hand on the tiller. On his death the islands fell back into the hands of the former owners, and their descendants, the _Lords of the Isles_, were afterwards wont to declare themselves vassals of _Norway_, whenever it suited their convenience. In one respect only did this expedition differ from the former piratical descents of the Northmen. This time the sacred island of Iona was respected, and the church, so lately rebuilt, was left uninjured by the special order of the King.

=2. English Marriage.=--The friendly relations with England were maintained and strengthened by the marriage of Eadgar's sister _Eadgyth_, who took the name of _Matilda_, with _Henry the First_, the youngest son of William the Conqueror. She proved nearly as great a blessing to the English as her English mother had been to the Scots, for she taught the King to "love his folk," and was affectionately remembered by them as "_Maud_ the good Queen." On his death-bed Eadgar separated _Strathclyde_ from the rest of the kingdom, and conferred it on his brother _David_ as a return for the wise counsel with which that brother had helped him through his very uneventful reign.

=3. Alexander I., 1107-1124. Northern Rising.=--This King, unlike his easy-tempered brother, had a strong will and unyielding spirit. His reign was consequently a troubled one, as always happened when the Scots King tried to rule instead of being ruled by his turbulent subjects. His first difficulties were of course in the north. The men of _Merne_ and _Moray_ came forth secretly and swiftly, hoping to surprise and murder him; but their tactics, which had proved fatal to Duncan, were upset by Alexander's discovery of the plot and rapid march to meet them. They were thus forced to fight, and thoroughly beaten on the northern shore of the _Moray Firth_, and the signal vengeance taken by the King after his victory, won for him the title of "the _Fierce_." To commemorate his success he founded the monastery of _Scone_.

=4. Church Reforms.=--Alexander deserves to be remembered for the spirit and wisdom with which he upheld the independence of the national church. Anxious to carry out in the same spirit the reforms already begun by his mother, he appointed her confessor _Turgot_, Prior of Durham, to the See of St. Andrews, and asked the _Archbishop of York_ to consecrate him. The Archbishop on this claimed the canonical obedience of all the Scottish bishops, declaring that the whole country was in his province. This demand was clearly unjust; for, though _Lothian_ was undoubtedly so, the Scottish Church was older than his own, and had never been dependent on any foreign See. This difficulty was got over by the consecration of the new bishop by the _Bishop of London_, and Turgot was installed as head of the Church from which his own priory of _Durham_ had originally branched off. Instead of identifying himself with the interests of his new charge, he did all he could to bring the Scottish Church under the authority of the Archbishop of York, so that he and the King soon quarrelled; and as the King refused to let the Bishop go to _Rome_ to lay his case before the _Pope_, he resigned, and went back to Durham, where he shortly afterwards died. To evade the claims of York, the King resolved that his next bishop should be chosen from the southern province. _Eadmer_, a monk of _Canterbury_, the friend and biographer of _Anselm_ the Archbishop, accepted the bishopric. But he proved no better than Turgot, for he persisted in considering himself and his bishopric as dependent on Canterbury; and as the King would on no account agree to this, he too resigned and went away. Though he afterwards repented, and proposed to return, it was then too late, for _Robert, Prior of Scone_, had been appointed in his stead. As Alexander left no children, his brother _David_ succeeded him, so that _Strathclyde_ or _Cumbria_ was re-united to the kingdom.

=5. David I., 1124-1153. Rising in Moray.=--The usual rising in _Moray_ took place in the early part of this reign. The Moray men seized the opportunity for revolt afforded them by David's absence in England, whither he had gone on some business connected with the _Honour of Huntingdon_, an _English_ fief which he had got by his marriage with _Matilda_, daughter and heiress of _Waltheof, Earl of Northhumberland_, who had been put to death by _William the Conqueror_. _Angus_ and _Malcolm_, the representatives of the old _Moray Mormaers_, were descended in the female line from _Lulach_, the son of Gruach, and the northern party wished to place one of them on the throne. The _Constable_ of the kingdom, the first on record, defeated them; but as the rebellion still continued, David in alarm asked and obtained the aid of the barons of the north of England. He was preparing for his northern march, when the Celts took fright, and gave up their chief, who was imprisoned in _Roxburgh Castle_. The district of _Moray_ was declared forfeited, and was divided among the _Norman_ knights whom David had drawn round him when Prince of Strathclyde.

=6. English War.=--In 1135 _Henry the First of England_ died, and David, who had been among the first to swear fealty, for the lands he held in England, to his own niece _Matilda_, daughter and heiress of _Henry_, was now the first to take up arms in defence of her right against _Stephen_. David at once marched into _England_, received the homage of the northern barons, and took possession of all the northern strongholds, except _Bamborough_, in Matilda's name. Stephen came north, but peace was made between them; for though David would not break his oath to Matilda by himself holding any fiefs of Stephen, this difficulty was got rid of by investing David's son Henry with the _Honour of Huntingdon_, which had been hitherto held by David. _Carlisle_ and _Doncaster_ were also conferred on Henry; and though his request to be put in possession of his mother's inheritance of _Northumberland_ was not granted, Stephen promised to take his claim to it into consideration. Henry went south with Stephen, at whose court he took precedence of the English barons. This roused their jealousy, and they straightway left the court in a body. David, highly indignant at this insult, recalled his son, and the next year prepared to invade England again, nor would he agree to any terms of peace, unless Henry were put in immediate possession of Northumberland. In 1138 his army ravaged the northern counties, reduced to ashes the castle of _Norham_, and routed a body of the men of _Lancashire_ who had mustered to resist the invaders at _Clitheroe_ on the _Ribble_. After this success, the victors committed greater outrages than ever.

=7. Battle of the Standard.=--But their excesses, and the fear that David, as the representative of the English line, was trying to win the English crown for himself, at length roused the chivalry of northern England, who, forgetting party feeling, made common cause against the common foe, and assembled round the banner raised by _Walter Espec_, a doughty and gigantic warrior. A few years before they had prepared to help David in suppressing those very _Celts_ whom he was now leading against themselves. Against such men, inspired by such righteous indignation, the mixed multitude of _Scots_, _Picts_ of _Galloway_, _Welshmen_ from _Strathclyde_, _Northmen_ from the _Orkneys_, and _English_ from the _Lothians_, who with a body of _Norman_ knights made up the so-called _Scottish_ host, had but small chance of success. This chance was made still smaller by what proved fatal to the cause of Scotland in many an after fight, the inevitable squabbles between the rival races. The _Celts_ were jealous of the _Norman_ strangers, and clamoured so loudly for their right of leading the van, that David at last gave in to them. His own better judgment would have led him to give the task of breaking the hostile ranks to his well-armed, well-mounted horsemen, leaving it to the infantry to follow up their advantage. The two armies met on a moor, near _Northallerton_, where the English were drawn up round their _Standard_, which was so singular that from it the battle took its name. It was the consecrated wafer hoisted on a ship's mast, with the banners of _St. Peter of York_, _St. John of Beverley_, and _St. Wilfrith of Ripon_, floating round it. Before the battle commenced, a last attempt for peace was made by two Norman barons, whose descendants afterwards played a great part in Scottish history. These were _Robert de Brus_ and _Bernard de Bailleul_. They were friends of David and held lands from him, and they begged him not to fight with the old friends who had formerly stood by him. As he was unmoved by all their entreaties, they renounced their allegiance, and the battle began. The Galloway men made a fierce onslaught on the English, but were driven back and beaten down by the English arrows. They fled, and by their flight spread confusion through the army. The panic was made greater by a cry that the King was slain; and though David did all he could to rally the fugitives round his banner, the ancient dragon of Wessex, he was forced to retire upon _Carlisle_, where his son Henry joined him a few days after. But this defeat did not drive the Scots out of England. David still continued the siege of _Werk_, a strong castle, which at last surrendered.

=8. Peace with England.=--Next year, peace was made at _Durham_. Earl Henry was invested with the earldom of _Northumberland_, though Stephen kept _Bamborough_ and _Newcastle_, and David continued to administer the affairs of the northern counties till his death. Two years after this peace he again took up arms in favour of Matilda, and narrowly escaped being taken prisoner when her forces were routed at _Winchester_; and it was by David at his court at Carlisle that her son _Henry of Anjou_ was knighted. The close of David's life was embittered by the death of his only son _Henry_, a just man and a brave soldier, whose loss was universally lamented. He had married _Ada de Warenne_, daughter of the _Earl of Surrey_, and left three sons, _Malcolm_, _William_, and _David_, the two eldest of whom reigned in succession. His eldest daughter _Ada_ married _Florence Count of Holland_, and got the promise of _Ross_, a great tract of the Highlands, as her dowry. After the death of his son David sent his eldest grandson through the provinces to be acknowledged as his successor, and within a few months he died at Carlisle, and was buried beside his parents at Dunfermline.

=9. Internal Improvements.=--David was both a good man and a great king. He upheld the honour of his kingdom abroad, and did so much for the welfare of his people at home, that most of the social and political institutions of the later kingdom were afterwards ascribed to him. It is true that he introduced a foreign baronage, for he encouraged many Norman barons to come to his court, and by the lands which he gave them induced them to settle in the country. He thus gave great offence to the native chiefs; but he did not forget the interests of the Commons, for he increased the number of the royal burghs and granted many privileges and immunities to the burghers. The life of David has been written by his friend and admirer, _Æthelred_ the _Abbot of Rievaulx_. He has drawn an attractive picture of an able and virtuous prince, kindly and courteous alike to high and low; ever ready to listen to the complaints of all his subjects and to set wrong right, and never turning his face away from any poor man. He tells us how the King himself dealt out justice to his subjects, and in his progress through the several districts of his kingdom, used, on set days, in person to hear the suits and to redress the wrongs of the poor and oppressed among his people. Six bishoprics--_Dunblane_, _Brechin_, _Aberdeen_, _Ross_, _Caithness_, and _Glasgow_--were either founded or restored by him; and many abbeys date their foundation from his reign. He carried on the work of church reform by inducing the Culdees to conform to more regular ways, on pain of being turned out of their monasteries. His reign lasted twenty-nine years, during which time the country continued to advance steadily in wealth, fertility, and civilization. There is little doubt that, had his successor possessed the same abilities, the future boundary of the kingdom would have been the _Tees_ instead of the _Tweed_.

=10. Malcolm IV., 1153-1165.=--Malcolm was not quite twelve years old when he came to the throne: the fact that he retained possession of it proves that the principle of hereditary succession was gaining ground, and that his grandfather David had put down the unruly spirit of the northern clans and had more firmly established a regular government.

=11. Subjection of Galloway.=--The principal event of Malcolm's reign was the subjection of _Galloway_, which was now reduced to direct dependence on the Crown. A rising, the object of which was to dethrone Malcolm and to set up his brother _William_ in his stead, had been planned by some of the nobles while Malcolm was in _Aquitaine_, helping _Henry the Second_ of England in his war with France. Soon after his return in 1160, they surrounded the city of Perth where he was holding his court, and tried to take him prisoner. But they were dispersed and routed, and though the chiefs fled to _Galloway_, Malcolm followed them and reduced the district. _Fergus_, the _Lord of Galloway_, ended his days in the monastery of _Holyrood_. A few years later another dangerous enemy rose against Malcolm. This was _Somerled_, the Lord of Argyle, who ruled the western coast with the power, though without the title, of King. He landed near _Renfrew_ on the _Clyde_, with a large force, but was almost immediately slain by treachery, and after his death his followers dispersed and returned to their several islands without doing any serious mischief. An increase of power was thus won for the Crown within the limits of the kingdom, but on the other hand the northern counties of England, which had been held by David, were lost, for Henry of England obliged Malcolm to give up all claim to them at _Chester_, where the two Kings met in 1157. At the same time Malcolm was invested with the _Honour of Huntingdon_ on the same terms as those on which it had been held by David.

=12. William the Lion, 1165-1214.=--_William_ surnamed _the Lion_ succeeded his brother Malcolm. He was eager to regain the earldom of _Northumberland_, which his father had held and which his brother had lost. As Henry of England refused it to him, he aided the sons of that monarch in their rebellion against their father, and, when Henry was absent in France, he invaded his kingdom and took several strongholds. But by his own imprudence he was surprised and captured, with the best of his nobles, while tilting in a meadow close by the walls of _Alnwick_, and was sent for greater security to _Falaise_, in Normandy, July 1174.

=13. Convention of Falaise.=--In the end of the year William regained his freedom by signing a treaty called the "_Convention of Falaise_," the hard terms of which were most humiliating, both to him and to Scotland. He was in future to hold his kingdom on the same terms of vassalage as those by which he now held Lothian, and as a token of further dependence his barons and clergy were also to do homage to the English King, who was to be put in possession of the principal strongholds. His brother _David, Earl of Huntingdon_, and twenty-one other barons were to remain as hostages till the strongholds were given up, and on their release each was to leave his son or next heir as a warrant of good faith. The homage was performed in the following year, when William met Henry at _York_; and the King of Scots, with his earls, barons, free-tenants, and clergy, became the liegemen of the _King of England_ in St. Peter's Minster. The clergy swore to lay the kingdom under an interdict, and the laity to hold by their English over-lord, should William prove unfaithful to him. This treaty remained in force till the death of _Henry_ in 1189, when _Richard_ of England, who was in want of money for his crusade, released William, for the sum of 10,000 marks, from these extorted obligations and restored the strongholds, though he refused to give up to him the coveted earldom.

=14. Homage at Lincoln.=--When _John_ succeeded his brother on the throne of England, William did such homage to him as the King of Scots had been wont to render to the King of England before the treaty of Falaise. He met John at _Lincoln_, whither he was escorted by a brilliant retinue of English barons. But there was no kindly feeling between the two Kings. John tried to build a castle at _Tweedmouth_ in order to spoil the trade of _Berwick_, the largest trading city in Scotland, but the Scots drove away the builders and levelled the castle, and for some time both Kings kept threatening armies on the Border.

=15. Independence of the Church.=--At a great Council held at _Northampton_ in 1176, the _Archbishop of York_ claimed Scotland as a part of his province, and called on the Scottish clergy to acknowledge their dependence. They protested and appealed to the Pope, who forbade the Archbishop to press his claim. _Clement III._ in 1188 confirmed their claim of independence, on the ground that the Church of Scotland was in immediate dependence on the _Holy See_.

=16. Internal Troubles.=--During William's captivity, Galloway revolted. All the King's officers were either slain or expelled, and as, after the submission at Falaise, _Gilbert_ the chief of Galloway considered himself a vassal of England, he let the Lothians have no peace till his death in 1185. William's nephew _Roland_ then seized Galloway, drove out his opponents, and rebuilt the Royal castles. William used his influence to induce Henry to confirm Roland in possession, and thereby gained a devoted and faithful ally. It was mainly by his aid that William was enabled to put down a formidable rising in the north.

=17. Social Progress.=--During this reign the free towns began to rise into notice. Their privilege of trade and right to govern themselves was recognized by a charter granted to the city of Aberdeen, in which William confirmed his burghers north of the _Mount_, in their right of holding their own court or "free anse," as they had done in the time of his grandfather David. Thus we see that the towns of the north of Scotland were united for mutual support a century before the rise of the great continental Hansa, which bound together by a similar league the trading cities of the Baltic. Some of the most important towns date their charters from William, and he extended the influence of civilization in the north by holding his court in such remote places as _Elgin_, _Nairn_, and _Inverness_. The only religious foundation of this reign was the abbey of _Arbroath_. It was dedicated to the newest saint in the calendar, _Thomas of Canterbury_. William died at Stirling in 1214, leaving one son, _Alexander_, who succeeded him.

=18. Alexander II., 1214-1249.=--_Alexander's_ accession was the signal for one of the usual risings in Moray; but as the power of the Crown in that district was now stronger than it had been in earlier times, this rising was more easily put down than any former one had been. The great struggle between despotism and freedom had just at this time set _John_ of England and his barons at variance. Alexander joined the barons in hopes of getting back Northumberland. He crossed the Border and received the homage of the northern barons, and the following year he joined his force to those of the confederates, and marched to _Dover_, where he did homage to Louis of France, who, at the invitation of the barons, had come over to take the crown. The death of John and the victory of his son, _Henry the Third_, at _Lincoln_, changed the whole state of affairs, and in 1217 Alexander did the usual homage to Henry and was invested with the _Honour of Huntingdon_. Four years later the bond between them was drawn closer by the marriage of _Alexander_ to _Joanna_, Henry's sister. This alliance was followed by a lasting peace, though Alexander still claimed Northumberland, and Henry upheld the right of the Archbishop of York to supremacy over the Scottish Church. In a council held at York in 1237, Alexander agreed to compound his claim to the earldom for a grant of the lands of _Penrith_ and _Tynedale_, and, when Henry went to France, he left the Border under the care of the King of Scots.

=19. Settling of the Border Line.=--In 1222 an attempt was made to lay down a definite boundary between the two countries. Six commissioners on either side were appointed, and though the exact course of the line was disputed, from that time it continued pretty much what it is now, though a wide tract on either side was claimed alternately by both nations and belonged in reality to neither.

=20. State of the North.=--A disturbance which happened during this reign shows us something of the lawless state of the northern part of the kingdom. _Adam_, bishop of _Caithness_, tried to enforce the payment of tithes in his diocese, but his people came together to consider the best way of resisting this exaction. While they were thus holding council, it is said that a voice cried out, "Short rede good rede; slay we the bishop." On this advice they acted, for without more waste of words they attacked the bishop, and burned him and his house to ashes. Shortly before this a former bishop of Caithness had been seized and had his tongue cut out by the Earl of Orkney. Alexander died on an expedition to the Western Isles, at _Kerrara_, a small islet off the coast of Argyle. By his second wife, _Mary of Coucy_, he left a son, who succeeded him.

=21. Alexander III., 1249-1266.=--_Alexander_, a child of eight years, was crowned with great pomp at _Scone_, the ancient crowning place, where the famous stone of _Destiny_ was kept. The tradition was that no one who had not been enthroned on this stone was lawful King of Scots. The most striking part of the coronation ceremony was the appearance of a Sennachy or Celtic bard, who greeted Alexander as King by virtue of his descent from the ancient Celtic Kings, and recited the whole list of the King's ancestors, carrying them back to the most remote ages. This might serve to remind him that after all his title of King came solely from those very Celts whom his more immediate forefathers had slighted and despised.

=22. Alexander's Marriage and Homage to England.=--On Christmas day, 1251, Alexander was married at _York_, to _Margaret_, daughter of _Henry the Third_, and at the same time he did homage for the lands he held in England, but evaded Henry's claim of homage for _Scotland_, pleading the necessity of consulting his advisers before giving an answer on so difficult a matter. This question was brought up again in 1278, when Alexander went to _Westminster_ to acknowledge and to do homage to _Edward the First_, and he gave for answer that he did homage for his English fiefs alone and not for his kingdom. Edward asserted his right as over-lord of the kingdom, but he did not then attempt to enforce it.

=23. Last Invasion of the Northmen.=--In 1262 _Hakon_ of _Norway_ came with a great fleet to visit the _Orkneys_ and the _Western Isles_, _Sudereys_ or _Southern Isles_ as the Northmen called them. The fleet sailed down the _Western Coast_, levying black mail on the islands and making divers inland raids. Among other exploits the Northmen dragged a number of their ships across the narrow neck of land that parts _Loch Long_ from _Loch Lomond_, sailed down _Loch Lomond_, and harried the _Lennox_, as the fertile tract which stretches along its lower end is called. Hakon sailed up the _Firth of Clyde_, and an attempt was made at a peaceable agreement between him and the King, who was at first willing to give up all claim to the _Hebrides_, but wished to keep the _Cumbraes_, _Bute_, and _Arran_. But the Scots purposely delayed coming to terms, as they expected that the autumn storms would soon help them to get rid of their enemy. Nor were their hopes disappointed, for, in the beginning of October, a violent tempest rose, separated the ships of the invaders, sunk some, and stranded others. On the following day the Northmen who had landed were easily beaten, near _Largs_, by a Scottish army hastily got together on the coast of _Ayr_, in 1263. Hakon died in one of the _Orkneys_ on his way home, and his son, in 1266, agreed to give up _Man_ and the _Isles_ for 1,000 marks down, and the promise of 100 yearly. An amnesty was granted to the Islesmen, and it was settled that the bishopric should continue in the province of _Drontheim_. In 1281 the King's daughter, _Margaret_, married _Eric_, the heir to the throne of _Norway_. She died in 1283, leaving an infant daughter, who, a few months after, by the death of _Alexander_, the King's only son, became heir to the Scottish crown. Three years later, in 1286, the King himself was killed by a fall from his horse while riding by night along the coast of _Fife_, near _Kinghorn_.

=24. Literature and Architecture.=--No chronicles of this period, written by natives of Scotland, have come down to us. But there was one poet who was held in great repute, not only for his verses, but for his prophecies. This was _Thomas Learmouth of Ercildoun_, called "Thomas the Rhymer," and "True Thomas," from the general belief in the truth of his predictions. He is said to have foretold that great national calamity, the King's death, under the figure of a great storm that should blow "so stark and strang, that all Scotland sall reu efter rycht lang." Another Scotsman of note was _Michael Scot_, the famous wizard. He travelled much in foreign lands, and was greatly renowned in them, as in his own country, as a scholar, an astrologer, and magician. The buildings of this period were chiefly the churches and abbeys founded by Margaret and her descendants. They were all in the same style as contemporary buildings in England. There were as yet very few castles, that is fortified buildings of solid masonry, in the kingdom. The great strongholds, such as _Edinburgh_, _Stirling_, and _Dunbarton_, were steep rocks, made so inaccessible by nature that they needed but little strengthening from art. Dwelling-houses seem to have been generally built of wood.

=25. State of the Kingdom.=--The second period of the national history breaks off abruptly with the death of _Alexander_. It had begun with the dethronement of Donald Bane, the last Celtic King, nearly two hundred years before, and during that time the boundary of Scotland had been extended by the annexation of _Argyle_ and of the _Isles_, while her two dependencies of _Lothian_ and _Galloway_ had been drawn more closely to her, though they still remained separate and distinct. Throughout this period the influence of England, though peaceable, had been stronger than it was ever to be again. English laws and English customs had been brought in, and had, in many cases, taken the place of the old Celtic usages. The Celtic _maers_ had been removed to make way for the _sheriffs_ of the Crown. But, as Scotland was not divided like England into shires, the sheriffs were not, as in England, the reeves of the already existing shires, but officers who were placed by the King over certain districts. These districts or sheriffdoms became the counties of later times. _Feudalism_ after the _Norman_ model, with all its burthensome exactions and oppressions, had been brought in and had taken firmer root in Scotland than it ever did in England. The native chiefs had been displaced by foreign nobles, so that a purely Norman baronage held the lands, whether peopled by a _Celtic_ or a _Saxon_ peasantry. In some cases the new owners founded families afterwards known under Celtic names; for, while the Celts gave their own names to the lands on which they settled, the Normans took the names of the lands conferred upon them and bore them as their own. The long peace with England, which had lasted unbroken for nearly a century, had been marked by great social progress. The large proportion of land that was now under the plough proves that during this untroubled time husbandry must have thriven, roads and bridges were many and in good repair, and the trading towns had made great advances in riches and power. Hitherto no one town had distinctly taken its place as the capital. _Saint John's Town_, or _Perth_, had, from its connexion with _Scone_, some claim to the first place, but the King held his court or his assize indifferently at any of the royal burghs. These burghs were of great importance in the state, and, as the burgesses of the royal burghs were all vassals holding direct from the Crown, they acted in some sort as a check on the growing power of the nobles. The burghers had the right of governing themselves by their own laws, and were divided into two groups. Those north of the _Scots water_ or Firth of Forth were bound together by a league like the great continental Hansa, and known by the same name; while those in Lothian, represented by the four principal among them--_Roxburgh_, _Stirling_, _Edinburgh_, and _Berwick_--held their "court of the four burghs," which is still represented by the "Convention of Royal Burghs" which meets once a year in Edinburgh. Nor were the Scottish towns of this period in any way behind the cities of the Continent. _Berwick_, the richest and the greatest, was said by a writer of the time to rival London. _Inverness_ had a great reputation for shipbuilding. A ship which was built there called forth the envy and wonder of the French nobles of that time. But this happy state of things was brought to an end by the death of the King, and the long years of war and misery that followed went far to sweep away all traces of the high state of civilization and prosperity that had been reached by the country in this, the golden age of Scottish history.