Chapter V: The Jameses

_Return of the King_ (1)--_state of the Highlands_
(2)--_murder of James_ (3)--_judicial reforms_ (4)--_James
II._ (5)--_Crichton and Livingstone_ (6)--_the Douglases_
(7)--_majority of James_; _fall of Douglas_ (8)--_siege of
Roxburgh_ (9)--_James III._ (10)--_Orkney and Shetland_
(11)--_relations with England_ (12)--_revolt of the nobles_
(13)--_battle of Sauchieburn_ (14)--_Church matters_
(15)--_James IV._ (16)--_English intrigues_ (17)--_state
of the Highlands_ (18)--_differences with England_
(19)--_battle of Flodden_ (20)--_state of the Church_
(21)--_James V._ (22)--_Albany's regency_ (23)--_English
interference_ (24)--_the "Erection"_ (25)--_fall of Angus_
(26)--_internal affairs_ (27)--_English war_ (28)--_death
of James_; _his character_ (29)--_Mary_ (30)--_treaties
with England_ (31)--_first English invasion_ (32)--_second
English invasion_ (33)--_third English invasion_; _fight at
Pinkie_ (34)--_internal affairs_ (35)--_Regency of Mary of
Lorraine_; _first marriage of Mary Stewart_ (36)--_social
progress_ (37)--_state of education and literature_
(38)--_summary_ (39).

=1. James I., 1424-1436. Return of the King.=--In 1424 James came home and brought with him his English wife, _Joan_, daughter of the _Earl of Somerset_. As he had been taken in time of peace, a ransom could not decently be demanded, but the Scots were required to pay forty thousand pounds to defray the expenses of his eighteen years' maintenance and education. The King, now at last restored to his kingdom, let eight months pass quietly before taking vengeance on those who had so long kept him out of it. He spent this time in winning the confidence of the people and of the lesser barons. He then seized _Albany_, his two sons, and twenty-six other nobles at _Perth_, whither they had come to attend the Parliament. _Albany_ and his two sons were tried before a jury of twenty-one peers, many of whom sat only to secure their own safety. They were found guilty of treason and put to death at _Stirling_. James himself presided at the trial, thereby reviving the ancient practice of the King's personal administration of justice.

=2. The Highlands.=--When James had thus got rid of his dangerous cousins, he turned his attention to the _Highlands_ and _Western Isles_, which presented a strange mixture of Celtic and of feudal manners. They were ruled partly by Norman barons, and partly by native chiefs, and these barons or chiefs were both alike upheld by that personal devotion of their vassals which was the strong point of Celtic clanship. James summoned the chiefs to a parliament at _Inverness_ in 1427. They obeyed the summons, and were at once seized and imprisoned. Three of them were hanged at that time. Several others shared the same fate at a later date. Others were imprisoned, and a small remnant only allowed to go away unhurt. _Alexander, Lord of the Isles_, was among these last, and the first use he made of his recovered liberty was to bring his islemen down on Inverness, which they destroyed. James hurried northward again and defeated him in _Lochaber_. Alexander gave himself up to the King's grace, and was confined in _Tantalion Castle_. But his kinsman, _Donald Balloch_, set himself at the head of the clans and they defeated the royal army. James determined to crush the Celts once and for ever. An additional tax was levied for the purpose, and James set out once more for the north. But the chiefs, who saw that the King was just then too strong for them, met him with proffers of homage and submission. Such submissions were, however, practically worthless. In the eyes of the Celts they were just as little binding as the parchment title-deeds by which the government sought to change their chiefs into feudal barons.

=3. Murder of James.=--The policy of James was to reduce the power of the baronage, and to balance it by strengthening the clergy and encouraging the commons. He made strict search into the titles by which the several nobles held their lands, and more especially into the actual state of the estates which had been held by the Crown in the time of Robert the First. He deprived the Earl of March of his earldom, on the ground that Albany, who had restored it to him, had not the power to confer upon him the estates which he had once forfeited by the transfer of his allegiance to England. James also took from _Malise Grahame_ his earldom of _Strathearn_, which he had inherited through his mother, on the ground that it was a male fief. He therefore transferred it to the next male heir, _Walter Stewart, Earl of Athole_, grand-uncle of Grahame, the only surviving son of Robert the Second. These measures roused the dislike and distrust of the class they were aimed at, and a conspiracy was formed against the King. At its head was _Sir Robert Grahame_, uncle of Malise, who had been banished for denouncing the King's doings in Parliament. Through the connivance of the Earl of Athole, the High Chamberlain, the conspirators got entrance to the King's quarters, when he was keeping his Christmas in the monastery of the _Black Friars_ at _Perth_, and there they treacherously murdered him, 1436. James left one son and five daughters. _Margaret_, the eldest, was married to the _Dauphin_, afterwards _Louis the Eleventh of France_.

=4. Judicial Reforms.=--James held many parliaments, and pretty nearly all are noteworthy for passing wise measures for the common good. In his first parliament, the "_Committee of the Articles_," which dated from the reign of David the Second, was acknowledged as an established part of the parliament. This committee was elected by the parliament at the beginning of its session, and nearly the whole power of the Estates was made over to the persons chosen to form it, who were called the _Lords of the Articles_. They consulted together and considered the Articles presented to them in parliament, which were then passed by the vote of the Estates and became law. This custom, by which the business of the whole parliament was left in the hands of a committee, was afterwards found to be the weakest point of the legislature, and paved the way for a great deal of bribery and corruption. Statute law in Scotland dates from this reign, as it was James who first caused a collection of statutes to be made, and separated those that were still in force from those that had fallen out of use. He also regulated weights and measures, and fixed a standard for the coinage, so that it should be of the same weight and fineness as the money in England. From his reign also dates the appointment of the office of _Treasurer_; the publication of the acts of parliament in the language spoken by the people; the first effort towards the representation of the lesser barons by commissaries; and an attempt to establish a supreme court of civil jurisdiction, which was to consist of the _Chancellor_ and three other persons chosen by the Estates, and to sit three times a year. In order that the Scottish people might learn to compete with the English bowmen, James established schools in the different parishes for the practice of archery. In short, he strove in every way to make his people profit by what he had learnt and observed during his long exile in England. He was a patron of learning, and was himself a scholar and one of the earliest and best English poets. The longest of his poems is called the "_King's Quhair_" or book. In it he sang his love for his fair English bride in strains that prove him to have been a true poet. It is written in stanzas of seven lines each, a very favourite measure in those days, which was afterwards called the "roial rime" in memory of this poet-king.

=5. James II., 1436-1460.=--The young King, who was only six years old when his father was killed, was crowned at _Holyrood_, as _Scone_, the customary crowning-place, was too near the Highlands, where the conspirators had taken refuge, to be safe. He was then taken by his mother for greater security to _Edinburgh Castle_. The object of the murderers was to place on the throne the Earl of Athole, who, as being the son of the second marriage of Robert the Second, was looked on as the true heir by the party who held that the first marriage of that king was not valid. If this were their design, it was not seconded by the people, who were filled with sorrow and anger at the death of the King, who had made himself popular by all the good he had done for them. A hue-and-cry was raised after the murderers, who were taken and put to death with cruel tortures.

=6. Crichton and Livingstone.=--The first part of the reign was a struggle for the wardship of the King's person, which gave nearly royal power to whoever held it. The rivals for this honour were _William Crichton_, the _Chancellor_ and governor of Edinburgh Castle; _Alexander Livingstone_, the governor of _Stirling_, the other great stronghold; and the _Queen-mother_. The Queen, who feared that Crichton would try to separate the young King from her if she stayed in Edinburgh, succeeded in getting herself and her child out of his hands by a stealthy flight to _Stirling_. But she soon found that they had only changed jailers, for Livingstone kept as strict a guard over the King as Crichton had done. A few years later she married _Stewart, Lord of Lorn_, after which she took no further part in public affairs. Her flight to Stirling gave Livingstone for a time the advantage in the possession of the King, till Crichton contrived to kidnap him back to Edinburgh. But as the rivals found that it would be more for the interest of each to act in concert with the other, they made an agreement, by which James was sent back to the custody of Livingstone.

=7. The House of Douglas.=--_Archibald, Earl of Douglas_, was at this time the most powerful baron in Scotland. Besides holding _Galloway_, _Annandale_, and other great estates in Scotland, he had inherited the _Duchy of Touraine_, which had been conferred on his father by the King of France for good service done against the English, and in his foreign duchy he possessed wealth and splendour beyond anything that the Scottish king could boast. The family still had a hold on the popular favour won for them by the Good Lord James. They had also some pretensions to the crown of Scotland, for _Archibald_, brother and heir of the Good Lord James, had married a sister of the _Red Comyn_, who was slain by Bruce. The Douglases therefore represented the claim of the _Comyns_, which, as we have seen, was better than that of _Bruce_. They were also descendants of _Robert the Second_, through _Euphemia_, one of the children of his second marriage, to whom those who looked on his first family as illegitimate held that the crown ought to have gone. _Douglas_ had been chosen _Lieutenant-Governor_ of the kingdom, and had ample power to quiet the rival parties had he chosen to exercise it. But he did not, and his nominal government was ended by his death in 1439. _William_, his son, who at seventeen succeeded to all this pride and power, kept up a state and retinue almost royal, and much violence and oppression were laid to his charge. Crichton and Livingstone agreed to compass his downfall, and for this end they invited him and his brother _David_ to visit the King at Edinburgh. They came, were seized, and, after the form of a trial, were beheaded in the Castle-yard. The power of their house was thus broken for a time. The estates were divided; part went with the title to their grand-uncle _James_, the male heir, while _Galloway_ went to their sister _Margaret_. But on the death of James they were re-united, for his son _William_ married _Margaret of Galloway_, his cousin. He then went to court, to do his duty, as he said, to his sovereign, pretended that the King had chosen him _Lieutenant-General_ of the kingdom, and got most of the power into his own hands. He and Livingstone joined, and tried to make Crichton give up the seals by besieging him in Edinburgh Castle; but he held out so well that they were forced to make terms with him. Douglas grew more proud and powerful every year. He was already lord of nearly all the southern country, and he joined in a bond with the great chiefs of the north,--the _Lord of the Isles_, who was now _Earl of Ross_, and _Alexander, Earl of Crawford_, the head of the house of _Lindsay_ and representative of the fallen _Earls of March_. He held meetings of his vassals, to which he summoned all those who either were or, as he thought, ought to be his dependants. Nor did he scruple to put to death any who opposed him, in direct defiance of the King's commands. But as the Earl's retainers numbered 5,000, while the King had not so much as a bodyguard, his commands were not easily enforced. On one occasion the King sent _Sir Patrick Gray_ to demand the release of his nephew, _M'Lellan_, tutor or guardian of the young _Laird of Bunby_, or Bomby, whom Douglas had put in ward because he failed to appear at one of the gatherings of his vassals. Douglas received him courteously, but said he could on no account hear the King's message till his visitor had dined. Meanwhile he had the prisoner brought out and beheaded. When he heard the King's order he feigned great respect for it, and, showing the body, said, "There lies your sister's son; he wants the head, but the body is at your service." Sir Patrick had to hide his anger as best he might till he had got safe out of his hands.

=8. Majority of James.= =Fall of Douglas.=--The King's majority was soon followed by the ruin of _Livingstone_. _Douglas_ was too strong to be openly attacked. He was invited to _Stirling_ and received in a friendly way. James remonstrated with him about the bonds, and urged him to break them off. Douglas refused. James in a fit of passion cried out, "If you will not break the bonds, this shall," and stabbed him. Sir Patrick Gray, who stood by, killed him with his pole-axe. They then threw the mangled body into the courtyard. This savage deed plunged the whole country into civil war. _James_, the brother and heir of the murdered Earl, openly defied the King; that is, he renounced his allegiance to him as a traitor and a perjured man. His cause was taken up by the parties to the bond, the _Earls of Ross_ and _Crawford_. The King, who felt himself too weak to break the confederacy, was forced to turn to his own advantage the enmity among his nobles, and to pull down one house by building up another. This policy only changed the name of the rivals of the Crown, without getting rid of them, and it laid the foundation of the like troubles in future reigns. In the north James entrusted the conduct of the war to the head of the house of _Gordon_, whom he created _Earl of Huntly_, and whose lands lay between those of the banded Earls. In the south the _Earl of Angus_, the head of the _Red_ Douglases as they were called, was made use of to overthrow the _Black_ Douglases, the elder branch of the family. The question whether James Stewart or James Douglas should wear the crown was settled by a battle at _Arkinholm_, in _Eskdale_ in 1454. Douglas was forsaken by many of his followers, and was defeated and fled to England. An act of forfeiture was passed against him and all his house, and, to prevent any one family again becoming so formidable, another act was passed, which made _Galloway_ and certain other lordships and castles inalienable from the Crown. But, in spite of this, the greater part of the lands of the fallen Douglas went to his kinsman Angus. Many other families also, among them the _Hamiltons_, rose from the ruins of the Black Douglases. Sir James Hamilton, the head of the house, had been one of the adherents of the Earl, but he deserted to the royal side on the eve of the battle of Arkinholm.

=9. Siege of Roxburgh.=--As the strife which was at this time going on between the Yorkists and Lancastrians kept the English busy at home, there was comparative peace on the Border, broken only by an inroad from Percy and the banished Douglas. James took the part of Henry VI., and raised a large army with the intention of invading England in his favour. But there was no serious war, and James saw that there was now a good chance of winning back the towns which the English still held in Scotland. He therefore laid siege to _Roxburgh_, and was killed there by the bursting of a large cannon which he was watching with great interest. After his death the Queen urged on the siege, and Roxburgh was taken and destroyed. This siege is noteworthy as being among the first in which we hear of the use of artillery in Scotland. Another notable feature of it was the presence of the Lord of the Isles with an auxiliary force, for which service he was made one of the Wardens of the Border. James had married _Mary_, the daughter of the _Duke of Gelders_, and left four sons, the eldest only eight years old. The second university in Scotland was founded in this reign, at _Glasgow_, by _Bishop Turnbull_.

=10. James III., 1460-1488.=--During the first part of this reign, _Kennedy, Bishop of St. Andrews_, had the chief part in the government. He died in 1466, and on his death the _Boyds_ got hold of the King and of the chief power. These _Boyds_ were originally simple lairds, but they strengthened themselves by bonds with more powerful families, won the King's favour and finally got possession of his person, by making him come with them, partly by persuasion, partly by force, from _Stirling_ to _Edinburgh_. They then obtained an act of the Estates declaring that this step had been taken with the full consent and good pleasure of the King. The _Lord Boyd_ was appointed guardian of his person and of the royal strongholds, his son _Thomas_ was created _Earl of Arran_, and with the earldom the King's sister _Mary_ was given him in marriage.

=11. Annexation of Orkney and Shetland.=--For many years the rent of the _Western Isles_ had not been paid to the _King of Norway_. There were heavy arrears due to him which had been demanded in the last reign. It was now agreed to settle the matter peaceably by the marriage of _James_ with _Margaret_, daughter of _Christian of Norway_, in 1469. Her dowry was the claim for the arrears and 60,000 florins, in security for which the _Orkney and Shetland Isles_ were placed as pledges in the hands of the King of Scotland. These islands have never been redeemed by payment of the sum agreed on. _Arran_ had been chiefly concerned in bringing about this marriage. During his absence at the court of Christian his enemies were busy in compassing his fall. His wife sent him timely warning of his danger, and he fled first to _Denmark_ and finally to _England_, whither his father had also escaped. But _Alexander_, the younger son, was made the scapegoat for the sins of his kindred. He was seized, tried, and put to death for his share in kidnapping the King, which was now denounced as treason. The family estates were forfeited, and most of them were declared inalienable from the Crown.

=12. Relations with England.=--In the beginning of the reign, _Edward the Fourth_ kept up a seeming show of friendliness, but he was secretly treating with _Douglas_ and the _Lord of the Isles_ to the effect that they should hold the two parts of Scotland as principalities dependent on England. The end of this underhand dealing was that _John_, son of the Lord of the Isles, invaded and wasted the district that was to be his principality, all the country north of the Scots Water. This led to the final breaking up of the lordship of the Isles, for he was called to account for his rebellion, and was required to resign the districts of _Knapdale_ and _Kintyre_, the original Scottish kingdom; the sheriffdoms of _Inverness_ and _Nairn_, and the earldom of _Ross_, which was vested in the Crown. In exchange for his proud but doubtful title of Lord of the Isles, he was made a peer of parliament. In 1474 a marriage was arranged between Edward's daughter _Cecily_ and _James_ the Prince of Scotland. It was broken off owing to a quarrel between the King and his brothers, _Alexander Duke of Albany_, and _John Earl of Mar_. They were much more popular than James, and, when Mar died suddenly in _Craigmillar Castle_, James was suspected of having poisoned him. Albany was arrested and confined in Edinburgh Castle on a charge of treasonable dealings with Edward. He escaped to _France_ in hopes of getting _Louis the Eleventh_ to take his part, but he found a more willing helper in Edward. An agreement was made that Edward should place Albany on the throne of Scotland, that he should hold it, and that he should marry the _Lady Cecily_. After divers threatening messages had been exchanged between the two governments, and many threatenings of attack had been made, a great Scottish army was mustered to invade England in good earnest.

=13. Revolt of the Nobles.=--The King had always been unpopular with his nobles. His love of money and of peaceable pursuits found little sympathy with them, and they could neither understand nor tolerate his fancy for making favourites of men whom they despised. The time had now come when they could take the law into their own hands. The army raised for the invasion of England was led by the King in person, and advanced as far as _Lauder_ in Berwickshire. There the nobles met together, with old _Angus_ at their head, to devise some way of getting rid of the most hated of these favourites. This was _Robert Cochrane_, a mason or architect, to whom the King had given the control of the artillery in this expedition. He had also conferred on him the revenues of the earldom of _Mar_, and _Cochrane_, going a step further, had assumed the title. While they were deliberating, the _Lord Gray_, so the story goes, quoted the old fable of the mice and the cat, meaning thereby that all their talk would come to nothing unless one of their number was bold enough to attack their enemy. On this _Archibald Earl of Angus_ cried out, "Heed not, I'll bell the cat." This saying won him the nickname of "Bell the Cat." While they thus sat in council in the church, Cochrane himself knocked at the door and demanded admittance in the name of the King. The finery which he wore, the chain of massive gold thrown round his neck, the jewelled horn that dangled from it, the gilt helmet borne before him, still further heated the wrath of the lords. They seized him, and with many insults accused him of misguiding the King and the government. Meanwhile they had sent a band of armed men to the King's tent to secure _Rogers_, a musician, and the other favourites. They then hanged them all over _Lauder Bridge_. _John Ramsay of Balmain_ was the only one of the favourites who was spared to the entreaties of the King. The triumphant barons then brought the King back to Edinburgh, 1482. Soon after this Albany came back, and demanded the release of his brother, and for a short time they lived together seemingly on good terms, while Albany really ruled. But before long he found it most prudent to return to England, and he showed his real designs by putting _Dunbar Castle_ into the hands of the English.

=14. Battle of Sauchieburn.=--The King, who had not learned wisdom by the lesson of Lauder Bridge, grew more and more unpopular. A confederacy was formed, and a large army was raised by the lords south of the Forth. To give a show of justice to their doings, they placed _James_ the _Prince of Scotland_ at their head, professing to have deposed his father, and to have accepted him as their lawful king. North of the Scots Water the country was true to James, and there he collected a considerable force. The two armies met at _Sauchieburn_. The King, who was not brave, turned and fled at the first sign that the day was going against him. In his flight he was thrown from his horse and carried to a mill built on the _Bannock Burn_, where he was murdered by an unknown hand, 1488.

=15. Church Matters.=--In 1471 _St. Andrews_ was raised to an _Archbishopric_. Pope Sextus the Fourth sent the pallium to _Robert Graham_ the bishop, but this increase of dignity only proved a source of torment to him, for his suffragans, out of jealousy, accused him of all manner of heresies and crimes. He was deposed and degraded, and ended his days in confinement.

=16. James IV., 1488-1513.=--The first thing to be done after the affair of Sauchieburn was to find out what had become of the King, and, when his death was made sure of, an inquiry was set on foot as to the cause of it. The offices of state were transferred to the party in power, and an act of amnesty was passed, to take in all persons who had taken part with the late King in the struggle which the nobles pleased to call the late rebellion. Two ineffectual risings to avenge the murder of the King were made by the Lords _Lennox_ and _Forbes_, and three years later, to pacify the clamours of the people, a reward of one hundred marks was offered for the discovery of the actual murderers.

=17. English Intrigues.=--Just at this time Henry the Seventh of England had his hands too busy at home to allow of his making open war upon Scotland, but he carried on secret schemes with _Angus_, _Ramsay_, and others for the capture of the King. James, on the other hand, upheld that _Perkin Warbeck_ was really _Richard, Duke of York_, received him at his court as the son of King Edward, and gave him in marriage his kinswoman _Lady Katharine Gordon_. A force of _French_ and _Burgundians_ came to aid him, and an army crossed the Border, but it did nothing, as the rising which had been planned, and was to have been made at the same time in the north of England, did not take place. At last James got tired of Perkin, sent him off to Ireland, though with a princely escort, and renewed a truce with Henry, in 1497. The two kings were drawn still closer by the marriage of _James_ with _Margaret Tudor_, eldest daughter of Henry, in 1502.

=18. State of the Highlands.=--James paid frequent visits to _Kintyre_, the _Isles_, and _Inverness_, and took measures for the building of more castles and the maintenance of garrisons in those already built. This plan might have been successful in keeping the country quiet, if the Crown had been strong enough to carry it out. As it was not, James was forced to fall back on the old policy of turning the feuds of the chiefs to their own destruction, by empowering one to act against another. Again the _Gordons_ got a great increase of power, for their head, the _Earl of Huntly_, was appointed sheriff of _Inverness_, _Ross_, and _Caithness_, with the condition that he should finish and maintain a fortress at _Inverness_. In the west the charge of keeping order was put into the hands of the Earl of Argyle, the chief of the Campbells. An attempt was also made to break up the Isles into sheriffdoms, and to impose upon the Highlanders the laws of the Lowlands. A commission was issued for the banishment of broken men, as those clansmen were called who had no representative chiefs, and an Act was passed which made the chiefs responsible for the execution of legal writs upon their clansmen. But the disaffected chiefs rallied round _Donald Dhu_, an illegitimate descendant of the last _Lord of the Isles_, and it took three years' fighting on the part of the King and of Huntly to reduce them. _Donald_ was at last brought captive to _Edinburgh_, and the lordship of the Isles was finally broken up in 1504.

=19. Differences with England.=--In this reign Scotland first appears as a naval power, and this proved a new source of strife with England. One of the King of Scots' captains, _Andrew Barton_, bore letters of marque against the _Portuguese_, but the English accused him of taking _English_ vessels also. He was attacked in time of truce by the _Howards_. He himself was killed in the action, and his ship, the _Lion_, was taken, and became the second ship in the English navy. James had also another cause of complaint against _Henry the Eighth_, for Henry refused to give up to his sister _Margaret_ a legacy of jewels left to her by her father. When therefore _England_ and _France_ declared war, _Scotland_ stood by her old ally, the bond between them was drawn closer, the right of citizenship in France was extended to the Scots, and _Queen Anne of France_ made an appeal to the chivalrous feeling of James by choosing him as her knight, and calling on him for assistance. James therefore fitted out a fleet of twenty-three vessels. Among them was a very large ship called the _Great Michael_, which was looked on as a masterpiece of shipbuilding. This fleet was put under the command of _James Hamilton, Earl of Arran_, with orders to sail for France. Instead of doing this, he stormed _Carrickfergus_, and what became of the ships was never clearly made out.

=20. Battle of Flodden.=--James also determined to invade England. Though the cause was not popular, the King was, and a large army was soon mustered. The King himself led the host across the Border, and encamped on the _Till_, but, as he would not take the advice of _Angus_ and others who knew more of border fighting than he did, he mismanaged the whole affair. He idled away the time till his own army began to disperse and the English had time to gather; then he let them cross the river unopposed, and finally left his strong position on the hill to meet them hand to hand in the plain. The result was an utter defeat, and the King, who was more eager to display his own valour than to act the part of the general in command, was slain in the thickest of the fight. Twelve earls and thirteen barons fell round him, and every noble house in Scotland left some of its name on the fatal field of _Flodden_ Sept. 9, 1513. The death of _James the Fourth_ was deeply mourned, for his reign had been peaceable and prosperous. He was popular with the nobles, because he kept them round him, and freely spent his father's savings; and with the commons, because of his rigorous maintenance of justice, his encouragement of commerce and agriculture, and his easy, kindly manners. James is described as middle-sized, handsome, and well-made. Besides Latin and several other foreign languages, he could speak the Irish or Gaelic, which was the native tongue of his western subjects. During his reign Scotland was more prosperous than it had been since the days of the last Alexander. Trade was flourishing and on the increase, and large quantities of wool, hides, and fish were exported to other countries.

=21. Church Matters.=--In 1492, at the petition of the _Estates_, the _pallium_ was sent from _Rome_ to _Robert Blackadder_, Bishop of _Glasgow_, with licence to bear the cross and all other archiepiscopal insignia. This led to bitter strife between the two Archbishops, who referred their disputes to the Pope, to the great wrath of the Estates, who denounced and forbade all such appeals to Rome. The burning of Reseby had not put a stop to the spreading of Wickliffe's doctrines, for we find thirty persons accused of the Lollard heresy by Blackadder. Two great steps towards the advancement of learning were made in this reign: the one was the foundation of a third University at Aberdeen, on the model of the University of Paris, by _Elphinstone_, the good Bishop of _Aberdeen_; the other was the introduction of the art of printing, by means of which knowledge could be extended to the people. The first press was set up by _Walter Chapman_, under the patronage of the King.

=22. James V., 1513-1542.=--The news of the defeat at _Flodden_ spread grief and terror through the country. The citizens of Edinburgh built a wall round their city, but its strength was not tried, for the English army dispersed instead of advancing. The Estates met at _Perth_, and the Queen-mother was appointed Regent, for the King was an infant only two years old. But within a year the Queen married _Archibald_, the young _Earl of Angus_, and the Estates then transferred the regency to _John, Duke of Albany_, High Admiral of France, son of the brother of James the Third. Peace was made with England, Scotland being taken in as the ally of France in a treaty between that country and England.

=23. Albany's Regency.=--Albany's government was at first very unpopular, for the national jealousy was roused by the number of his _French_ followers. The Queen at first refused to give up the King, but she was besieged in _Stirling Castle_ and obliged to yield. The country was distracted by the brawls of the two great factions, the _Hamiltons_ and the _Douglases_. The _Earl of Arran_ was the head of the former, _Angus_ of the latter. The Governor put them down with the help of the French: _Angus_ was seized and transported to _France_; his wife fled to _England_, where he contrived to join her before long. The _Lord Home_ and his brother, two of the few survivors of _Flodden_, and the most powerful of the Angus faction, were seized at Edinburgh and beheaded, after the mere form of a trial. But Albany went back to France after he had been about a year in Scotland; and as he left a Frenchman, _Anthony de la Bastie_, Warden of the Border, and placed the strongholds in the hands of the French also, the Scots grew more jealous and turbulent than before. De la Bastie fell a victim to the national hatred of foreigners. He was killed in a border raid by one of the _Homes_, in revenge for the death of his kinsman, the Lord Home. The Celts in the west re-asserted their independence, and the feud between the _Hamiltons_ and the _Douglases_ broke out worse than ever. They brought their brawls into the very streets of the capital. The Hamiltons laid a plan for attacking the Douglases, and making Angus prisoner. _Gavin Douglas_, Bishop of _Dunkeld_, fearing that his kinsmen might get the worst of it, appealed to _James Beaton_, the primate, to stop it. Beaton solemnly declared on his conscience that he knew nothing of the matter; and to give weight to his words, laid his hand on his heart, and in so doing struck the breastplate which he always wore. On this, Douglas, who heard the ring of the armour, told him that he heard his conscience "clattering," that is, telling tales. In the fight that followed, Angus so thoroughly routed his foes that the fray was called "_Clear the Causeway_," and after it he held the city with an armed force. Thus five years passed, and the Regent, who had nominally gone back to France for a few months only, was still absent, and it took a great deal of urging and threatening from the Estates to bring him back to his trust.

=24. English Interference.=--It was now nine years since Flodden, and, as there had been peace with England during that time, the country had somewhat recovered her strength. When therefore Henry began to meddle in the affairs of Scotland, to require that Albany should be dismissed, and that the French connexion should be broken off, the Estates refused and prepared for war. As the greater part of the English force was in France, the northern counties of England were comparatively unprotected, and it was just the time for striking an effective blow there. Instead of doing this, Albany came to terms with _Lord Dacre_, the _English Warden_, and the large army that had gathered round him melted away without doing anything. But the truce was not renewed. Dacre stormed _Jedburgh_, and the Scots mustered again. This time their numbers were increased by the presence of some French auxiliaries whom Albany had brought back from France, to which he had paid a second visit. Again the army was brought to the Border without being led any further. By this time the Scots were thoroughly disgusted with Albany, and he with them; and shortly after this second fruitless expedition, he sailed for France and took the Frenchmen with him, 1524.

=25. "Erection" of the King.=--No sooner was Albany gone than Henry, through his subtle chancellor _Wolsey_, tried to make the Scots break with France. _Margaret_, the Queen-mother, was the great upholder of the English interest; _James Beaton_, Archbishop of St. Andrews and Chancellor, was the leader of the French party. Wolsey tried hard to get hold of Beaton on various pretexts, but Beaton was too cunning for him, and held himself apart in his own strong castle of _St. Andrews_, where he kept up dealings with France. But the English party were for a time the stronger, and, by the advice of Henry, James, who was now twelve years old, was set up to rule in his own name, and took his place at the head of the parliament, August 1524. The only change made by this step, called the _erection_, was that Albany's nominal government was done away with, and the French influence much weakened. Still Henry's interference was not liked, and the capture of _Francis the First_ at _Pavia_ turned the tide of popular feeling back to the old allies of France. Since the _erection_, Arran had been the nominal head of the government, but in 1526 the King, who was now fourteen, was considered old enough to choose his own guardians. He chose the Earls of _Errol_, _Argyle_, and _Angus_, and an agreement was made that each in succession was to have the care of the King for three months. Angus's turn came first, but at the end of it he refused to give up his charge, and for two years he tyrannized over both the King and his subjects, and successfully resisted all attempts at a rescue.

=26. Fall of Angus.=--James at last contrived to make his escape by riding in the night, disguised as a groom, from _Falkland_ to _Stirling Castle_, 1528. Now that he was at last safely out of the hands of the Douglases, he set to work to crush them utterly. It was made treason for any who bore that name to come within six miles of the King, and an act of forfeiture was passed against them. Angus had many adherents; but as all those nobles who hoped for a share of his lands took part with the King, they proved too strong for him, and he was at last obliged to give in, and to flee for refuge to England. Thus the overthrow of the _Red Douglases_ was as thorough as had been that of the elder branch, on whose ruin they had risen.

=27. Internal Affairs.=--James began his reign by executing summary justice on the lawless and turbulent part of his subjects. The Borderers were now nearly as troublesome as the Highlanders. They dwelt in the debateable ground between England and Scotland, and preyed on either country with the greatest impartiality. Certain families, as the _Kerrs_, _Armstrongs_, and _Scotts_, had a sort of monopoly of this wholesale thieving; and as they had taken to the clan system of the Celts, each robber chief in his peel tower could count, not only on the unquestioning service, but also on the personal devotion of every man in his following. _John Armstrong_ had made himself famous among them by his daring deeds. For this renown James made him pay dear; for judging that he, the most notorious offender, would make the most telling example of the force of justice, he had him seized and hanged like a common thief. New means were tried for quieting the disturbances in the _Western Highlands_ and _Isles_. _Argyle_ was deprived of his lieutenancy, and the government was in future to deal directly with the chiefs for the collection of taxes and of the feudal dues. Three persons were put to death in this reign for conspiracy and treason, all of whom were more or less connected with the banished Angus. These were the _Lady Glammis_, his sister; the _Master of Forbes_, his brother-in-law; and _James Hamilton_, the illegitimate brother of Arran, who was accused of being in league with him.

=28. English War.=--Though the need of a reform in the Church was felt and openly discussed in parliament, and the shortcomings of the clergy were unsparingly ridiculed by the popular poets, still neither the King nor the people were inclined to break off from Rome, as Henry the Eighth had done. But Henry was most anxious that his nephew should follow his example, and a meeting between them at York was agreed on. But James, doubtful of Henry's good faith, did not keep tryst. Henry was furious; he brought up again the old claim of supremacy over Scotland, and to enforce the claim he sent an army to invade Scotland. James prepared to avenge this attack; but when his army got as far as the Border, the nobles refused to go further, and a body of ten thousand men who had passed the Esk were surprised and scattered by _Dacre_, while they were contending about the chief command.

=29. Death and Character of James.=--The King meanwhile was waiting in _Caerlaverock Castle_. At the same time that he heard of the shameful defeat of his army at _Solway_ _Moss_, the news was brought that a daughter was born to him. This child was heir to the throne, for his two sons had died in infancy. James thought that the birth of a girl at this time was an ill omen for Scotland. He murmured, "It came wi' a lass, and it'll gang wi' a lass." By this he meant that, as it was by Marjory Bruce that the crown had first passed into the Stewart family, so with this infant it would pass from it. Eight days later he died of grief and disappointment, December 14, 1542. James is the first King of Scots of whom we have a portrait. He was handsome, but had red hair, which won him the nickname of the "_Red Tod_," or red fox. He was not liked by the nobles, but the commons loved him well. His habit of going about in disguise familiarly among the people, endeared him to them, and led him into many amusing adventures. James was twice married, first to _Magdalen_, daughter of _Francis the First, King of France_; secondly, to _Mary_, daughter of the _Duke of Guise_, widow of the _Duke of Longueville_. In character and policy James was something like James the First. Like him, he strove to curb the power of the nobles, and to win for the Crown something more than mere nominal power, by making reforms which were much needed in the administration of justice. He worked out his ancestor's idea of a supreme court of justice by founding the _Court of Session_, or _College of Justice_. This court consisted first of thirteen, afterwards of fifteen, members, half of whom were clerks, and who acted both as judge and jury. As the members of this court were chosen from the parliament, it had the power of parliament, and was supreme in all civil cases, there being no appeal beyond it. James was not only a patron of letters, but himself a poet, one of the few royal poets whose writings will bear comparison with those of meaner birth. "Christ's Kirk on the Green," and the "Gaberlunzie Man," are the titles of two poems that are ascribed to him, but on no very certain proof. They are both descriptions of scenes from peasant life. If indeed they were written by him, the choice of the subjects and the way in which they are treated show how well he knew the condition of his people. They, in loving remembrance of the favour he had always shown them, gave him the title of "King of the Commons, and the People's Poet."

=30. Mary, 1542-1554. Arran's Regency.=--_James Hamilton, Earl of Arran_, next heir to the throne by his descent from James the Second, was chosen Regent, but, as it was the Scotch custom that the nearest of kin on the mother's side should have the care of the minor, the infant Queen was left in charge of her mother, _Mary of Lorraine_. The defeat at _Solway Moss_, and the death of the King, had left the people nearly as dispirited and defenceless as they had been after Flodden, and Henry the Eighth determined to get the kingdom into his power by marrying _Mary_ to his son _Edward, Prince of Wales_.

=31. Treaties with England.=--To carry out his plans the better, he sent Angus back to Scotland, and with him the Lords _Cassilis_ and _Glencairn_, and several other nobles, all pledged to do their best to place the Queen and the strongholds in the hands of Henry. These nobles were called by the English the _Assured Scots_, because Henry thought he could be sure of their help, but they were either unable or unwilling to give him the aid for which he had hoped. It was not till July in the next year that two treaties were drawn up at London: the one for the English alliance; the other agreeing to the English marriage of the Queen. But there was a strong national party, much set against any dealings with England; and, though the treaties were approved at one meeting of the Estates, it was plain that they would be thrown out at the next. The Regent tried to break them off, and Henry, greatly enraged, made ready for war, and seized some Scotch ships which had been driven by stress of weather into English ports. This was reason enough for the rejection of the treaties by the Estates. Shortly after, the "Assured Scots" changed sides and made a bond with the Regent; but Henry got a new supporter in _Matthew Stewart, Earl of Lennox_, who, as he wished to marry _Margaret Douglas_, daughter of _Angus_, Henry's niece and ward, was eager to do anything to win Henry's favour.

=32. First English Invasion.=--War was declared at Edinburgh by an English herald, May 1, 1544, and an English army under _Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford_, was sent by sea and landed at _Granton_. He was bidden to destroy _Edinburgh_ and as many other towns and villages as he conveniently could, and he carried out his orders to the letter. He sacked and burned _Leith_, a wealthy trading town, set fire to _Edinburgh_, though no resistance had been made to him there, robbed the burghs on the coast of _Fife_, and then marched south to the Border, burning, slaying, spoiling, and leaving a wasted land behind him. The only resistance he met with was near the Border, where a division of his army which had been sent to _Melrose_ to break open the tombs of the ancestors of _Angus_ was routed at _Ancrum_ by Angus himself and some of the Border lords. At the news of this success six hundred Borderers from the Scottish side, who had been fighting in the service of the English Wardens, changed sides and attacked their former brothers in arms. The rest of the nation then took heart, and a large force was mustered and brought to the Border, but did nothing.

=33. Second English Invasion.=--Before the traces of his former ravages had disappeared, just when the next harvest was ready for the sickle, Hertford appeared again at the head of a motley host, swelled by half-savage Irish and by foreign hirelings, and repeated the wild work of the year before. The invaders attacked and plundered the religious houses. The ruins of _Kelso_, _Melrose_, _Dryburgh_, _Roxburgh_, and _Coldingham_ still bear witness to their zeal in carrying out the orders of their master. Towns, manors, churches, and between two and three hundred villages were left in ashes behind them. All this misery was wantonly inflicted without winning for Henry a foot of ground or a single new subject.

=34. Third English Invasion. Battle of Pinkie.=--Two years passed, and again the sorely scourged country was visited by its old enemy. _Hertford_, now _Duke of Somerset_ and _Protector of England_ during the minority of _Edward the Sixth_, thought by one well-aimed blow to wrest from the people their proud boast, the national independence. Two armies, the one led by himself and the other sent by sea, met at _Musselburgh_ and threatened the capital. The Regent had mustered a large force to resist them, and the two hosts faced each other on opposite banks of the _Esk_. But the Scots very foolishly left their strong position and forced the English to a battle, in which they were again defeated with great slaughter, at _Pinkie_, September 10, 1547. After the battle Somerset went back to England, and took the greater part of his army with him. As most of the strongholds were now in the hands of the English, it was thought best to send the Queen to France that she might be out of harm's way. The French sent six thousand men to help in driving out the English, a work that was not ended till 1550, when a short peace followed the nine years of cruel war. If we consider the difference of the times and the advance of civilization, the fiercest raids of _Malcolm_ and of _Wallace_ may be favourably compared with the misery wrought by _Hertford_ in these three savage and unprovoked attacks.

=35. Internal Affairs.=--The overthrow of the monasteries, the seizure of their revenues, and the other changes in religious matters carried out by _Henry the Eighth_ in England, had been approved by a large party in _Scotland_. They were eager to begin the same work there, for the Church, by her abuse of power and by her persecution of all who differed from her, was fast losing her hold upon the people. The first outbreak of the popular feeling was the murder of _Cardinal David Beaton_, the _Primate_, the leader of the French party in the state and the chief mover of religious persecution. In revenge for the burning of _George Wishart_ in 1545, for preaching what was called heresy, sixteen of Wishart's followers murdered _Beaton_ in his own _Castle of St. Andrews_, which they had entered by a stratagem, and which they held for fourteen months, setting at defiance all the Regent's efforts to retake it. It was only with the help of the French that they were at last obliged to give in, and were sent to the French galleys. Among them was _John Knox_, who twelve years later became famous as the apostle of the Reformation among his countrymen. On the death of _Beaton_, _Arran_ made his own ambitious brother _John_ Archbishop of St. Andrews, in the room of the murdered Cardinal. The castle was destroyed.

=36. Regency of Mary of Lorraine. First Marriage of Mary Stewart.=--In 1554, Arran, who had been created _Duke of Chatelherault_ by the French king, went back to France, and _Mary of Lorraine_ became _Regent_. The league with France was drawn still closer by the marriage of the Queen with _Francis the Dauphin_. Francis became _King of France_ in 1559. The crown-matrimonial of Scotland was then granted to him, so that the two countries were for a short time united under one crown. On the strength of this the French began to give themselves airs of superiority which the Scots could ill bear from strangers, and before long they became well-nigh as unpopular as the English had been. The Regent was unconsciously doing her best to foster this feeling of dislike by placing foreigners in offices of trust, above all by making Frenchmen keepers of the strongholds. But there was another influence now at work, the desire of religious reform, which wrought a change in the national life greater than any that had been felt since the time of the first Robert.

=37. Social Progress.=--The intercourse with the French which arose from the close alliance of Scotland with France, influenced the social development of the nation throughout this period more strongly than during any other time either before or after it. The members of the National Council when they met in parliament were not, as in England, divided into lords and commons; the representatives of the three Estates, the _Barons_, the _Clergy_, and the _Commons_, assembled in one chamber, as was the French custom. All the tenants holding direct from the Crown were required to present themselves at these assemblies; but James the First released the lesser barons from this attendance, which they felt to be rather an irksome duty than a privilege, by allowing them to send commissaries in their stead. These commissaries, with the deputies from the cities and burghs, formed the Third Estate. The supreme court of justice, the _Court of Session_, established by James the Fifth, was formed on the model of the _Parliament_ of _Paris_. The Universities were founded in the fifteenth century, at _St. Andrews_, at _Glasgow_, and at _Aberdeen_. Of these, Aberdeen was an exact imitation of the University of Paris. The architecture of this period, both domestic and ecclesiastical, is in many respects like the French. Melrose Abbey, and the palaces of _Falkland_ and of _Stirling_, which were very richly ornamented, were built in the time of the Jameses. The houses of the nobles were also built in imitation of the French style. There are no remains of burgh domestic architecture older than the sixteenth century. Many French words also found their way into the Lowland Scotch, as the language of the Lothians came to be called. By this time there was so much difference between this dialect and that spoken at the English court, that the people who spoke the one could scarcely understand the other. The foreign trade of Scotland was most prosperous during the reign of James the Fourth. Fish, wools, and hides were the principal exports. By this time coal, which is first mentioned towards the end of the thirteenth century, was in general use. There were also lead and iron mines; and gold was found, though not in any large quantities. Of this native gold James the Fourth struck some beautiful coins, which were called bonnet pieces, because they bore the image of the King wearing a bonnet. The state of the people at this time was one of almost serf-like dependence on their lords. But great as the power of the nobles was, there were no forest or game laws in Scotland, nor did they enjoy any privilege of peerage. An offender against the law, if he could be brought to justice, had to "thole an assize," like any peasant, however high his rank might be.

=38. Education and Literature.=--In early times all the education that was within the reach of the people had been offered to them by the Church. Schools were founded and maintained in several towns by the great monasteries, and there was provision made for the education of the choristers attached to the several cathedral churches. In later times there were Grammar Schools founded by the burgh corporations. In 1496 an Act was passed requiring all "barons and freeholders" to keep their sons at these schools until they should be "competently founded," and have "perfect Latin," under pain of a fine of twenty pounds. A book, purporting to be the _History of Scotland_, was written in Latin by _Hector Boece_, the first Principal of the University of Aberdeen. The greater part of this book is purely imaginary. The Latin "_Scotichronicon_" of _Fordun_, was continued by _Walter Bower, Abbot of Inchcolm_, down to the middle of the fifteenth century. Besides the two kings James the First and Fifth, there were other notable poets in Scotland in the middle of the fifteenth century. _Blind Harry_, the _Minstrel_, then did for Wallace what about a century before Barbour had done for Bruce, by putting together all the popular stories of his deeds in a spirit-stirring poem that bears his hero's name. _William Dunbar_, a friar of the order of St. Francis, wrote a poem called _The Thistle and the Rose_, to celebrate the marriage of James the Fourth with Margaret Tudor. This, and the _Golden Terge_, and the _Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins_, are the best among his writings. _Gawin Douglas_, afterwards _Bishop of Dunkeld_, the son of that Earl of Angus who was nicknamed Bell-the-Cat, also wrote several poems in the beginning of the sixteenth century. Those best known are _King Hart_, the _Palace of Honour_, and a translation of Virgil's _Æneid_. Some years after Douglas wrote, _Sir David Lyndesay_, the companion of James the Fifth's childhood, and the mourner of his untimely death, directed many clever satires against the abuses in the Church, the vices of the clergy, and the follies of the court. The _Dreme_, the _Satire of the Three Estates_, and the _Monarchy_, are his best poems.

=39. Summary.=--During this period, which extends over more than a century, the country made little progress either socially or politically. Of the five kings, all bearing the same name, who in turn wore the crown, four died violent deaths; and of these four, two were treacherously murdered by their own subjects. Most of them came to the throne in childhood; not one attained old age. Their reigns were chiefly passed in struggles to put down their lawless and turbulent nobles, who in each succeeding minority waxed more powerful and more independent. In the reigns of James the Second and of James the Fifth, this contest between the Crown and the Baronage took the form of a struggle between the House of Stewart and the House of Douglas. In both cases the King compassed the fall of his rival only by placing a dangerous amount of power in the hands of the other nobles. The foreign policy of Scotland under the Jameses was very simple. It consisted in maintaining a close alliance with France and a constant quarrel with England. But the French never gave the Scots any real help, and the English were so much taken up at home with the Civil Wars of the Roses that they made no serious attacks on the independence of Scotland. Though during this period there were four long minorities, there was no attempt made to break the regular line of succession. This was due partly to the attachment of the people to the royal line, and partly to the weakness of the royal authority, for the King had so little real power that the great nobles did not think the crown worth taking. The reign of James the Fourth was the most peaceful and prosperous, but James the First did the most for the welfare of the people.