Chapter XVIII: The Age of Solomon Ben Adret and Asheri (2)

At this time all eyes in the East beheld with astonishment a Jewish statesman as the most distinguished personage at the court of a Mongol Grand Khan, whose dominion extended from the lower Euphrates and the borders of Syria to the Caspian Sea. The Mongols, or Tartars, had founded a large kingdom in Persia, which was only nominally subject to the khanate of Mongolia and China. After Hulagu, the founder of this kingdom, and his son Abaka (Abagha), his second son had succeeded to the throne, and he embraced Islam, and assumed the name of Ahmed. The Mongols of Persia were, however, dissatisfied with this proceeding: Ahmed was dethroned, and put to death. His successor, in the Perso-Mongolian kingdom, was Argun, the son of Abaka (1284-91). Argun displayed marked aversion to Islam, and a special liking for Jews and Christians. This Grand Khan had a Jewish physician, named Saad-Addaula (perhaps the same as Mordecai Ibn-Alcharbiya), a man possessed of wide learning, acute intellect, political insight, and disinterested character. As he had frequent dealings with Mongols, he was acquainted with their language as well as with Arabic. He had a handsome appearance, charming manners, and the suppleness of a diplomat. He also had a taste for poetry and science, and in later years became their patron. Saad-Addaula practised in Bagdad, where Argun very often held his court. The Grand Khan once fell ill, and was restored to health by Saad. He conversed with the physician to whom he owed his recovery, upon state matters, and learnt from him particulars of the condition of the revenue, which the officials and courtiers, out of avarice, had diligently concealed from the Grand Khan. From that time Saad-Addaula became his favorite and counselor, and rose step by step to the position of the highest state official.

Many wealthy Jews of the districts of the Rhine and the Maine started on their journey; and Meïr of Rothenburg reached Lombardy, together with his whole family. He was only waiting for the members of his congregation in order to take ship in Italy, and, together with other exiles, steer their course towards the East into the haven of safety. Unfortunately, Meïr was recognized by a baptized Jew, who was passing through the same town in the train of the bishop of Basle. At the instigation of the bishop, the captain, Meinhard of Görz, took him prisoner, and delivered him to the authorities. Emperor Rudolph ordered him to be placed under arrest in the tower of Ensisheim, in Alsace (4th Tammuz--19th June, 1286). The emperor did not intend to punish the runaway rabbi, but to keep him safe and prevent him from emigrating. He was afraid that, by the departure of the Jews _en masse_, the imperial income obtained from these serfs of the chamber ("servi cameræ") would suffer heavy loss. Meïr's imprisonment was, therefore, not a severe one. He was permitted to receive visits, to instruct his pupils, and to perform all the functions of a rabbi, but he was not permitted to leave the place.

The German Jews, however, could not feel easy while their highly respected chief remained in custody: they, therefore, sent deputies to Emperor Rudolph, when he paid a visit to the Rhine country (in the year 1288). Being then, as usual, in need of money, he entered into negotiations with them. The Jews offered him 20,000 marks of silver if he would inflict punishment upon the murderers of the Jews of Oberwesel and Boppard, release Meïr from custody, and guarantee to them security against murderous outrages at the hands of the populace. The emperor acceded to their terms, and laid a heavy fine upon the citizens of Oberwesel and Boppard. Meïr was not, however, released from prison, either because the emperor hoped to make capital of the respect of the Jews for their rabbi, and to extract large sums of money from them, or, as is related, because Meïr himself refused to be liberated on these terms. He feared that the precedent of imprisoning the rabbis to extort ransoms from the Jews, would be frequently resorted to in after times, and therefore continued for five years longer under arrest. From prison he sent replies to inquiries addressed to him, and composed several works there. He died in prison, and the successors of Rudolph kept his corpse unburied for fourteen years, in order to extort money from the congregations. At length a childless man from Frankfort, named Süsskind Alexander Wimpfen, ransomed the body for a large sum, and interred it in Worms. The only reward which the noble Wimpfen demanded was that his bones might be laid by the side of the pious rabbi.

At about this time the Jews of England suffered the extremity of misfortune. They were more unhappy, if that was possible, than the German Jews. Before being expelled, they had to pass through every degree of misery. At the accession of the new king, Edward I, they had prospects of a secure existence, seeing that this monarch, the very opposite of his father, was severe but just; he showed them no favors, but, on the other hand, he extorted nothing from them, and at all events was able to protect them from the attacks of the deluded mob. Edward took very great care that the Jews of his land be not made to suffer nor be subjected to caprice, and that no injury be done either to their persons or their property. They might have lived on in this lowly state, bowed down beneath the burden of the imposts, and wearying themselves to satisfy, through usury, the insatiable demands of the royal treasury, had not a slight occurrence made them the object of the bitter hatred of the monks.

In London there lived a Dominican, named Robert de Redingge, who inflamed the minds of the people by his eloquence in the pulpit. He had studied the Hebrew language, on the cultivation of which so much stress had been laid by the third general of the order, Raymond de Penyaforte, to enable the monks to convert the Jews by means of their own writings. But instead of converting them, the preaching friar, Robert de Reddinge, became himself converted. He was inspired by so deep a love for Judaism that he underwent circumcision, assumed the name of Haggaï, and married a beautiful Jewess (summer of 1275). When he was summoned to answer for his apostasy, he defended his new faith with great warmth. King Edward handed him over for punishment to the archbishop of Canterbury. What was done to him is not known; but it appears that he, together with his wife, escaped unhurt. The Dominicans were, however, enraged at his conversion, for they considered the apostasy of one of their members as a disgraceful blot upon their order. Touched to the quick by the mockery of the people and their rivals the Franciscans, who deeply hated them, the preaching friars sought to wreak their vengeance upon the Jews. As the king could not be approached except by some intermediate agent, they brought their influence to bear upon the bigoted, avaricious queen-mother Eleanor, and they succeeded. She identified herself with the cause of the Dominicans against the Jews, and did not desist till the English Jews had drained the cup of tribulation to the dregs. She first expelled the Jews from the town of Cambridge which belonged to her, and personally fostered the hostile feeling against them throughout the whole country, especially among Christian merchants.

There now commenced, almost against the will of the king, a series of burdensome oppressions, which would appear incredible, were they not authenticated by the testimony of trustworthy sources. Hitherto Parliament had had nothing to do with the Jews; they were considered the king's people, over whom neither the commons nor the nobility had any authority. Just at this time, however, incited by the Dominicans and the queen-mother, the House of Commons passed a statute (called the Statute of Judaism), which breathes the inimical spirit of the Church. It positively prohibited the Jews from taking usury. They were allowed to reside only in royal cities and boroughs. If they had to enforce payment of debts by law, they could not distress beyond the moiety of the debtor's property. Every Jew above the age of twelve was to pay the sum of three pence to the king at Easter. The House of Commons strictly enforced the wearing of the Jew-badge, determined its size and color (substituting yellow for white), and forbade all intercourse with Christians. As an English writer, Tovey, remarks, the Jews in England were treated like their ancestors in Egypt, except that instead of bricks they had to furnish gold. This comparison is good at every point, nothing was granted to them, and yet they were obliged to render a complete tale of services. Even for the privilege of trading they had to rely upon the favor of the king, and to pay a price for it.

A favorable opportunity soon presented itself to the enemies of the Jews to prefer grave charges against them. Counterfeit coins, imported from abroad, were in circulation in England; the coin of the country also was often clipped. The charge was directed against the Jews, that they were the sole originators and circulators of the counterfeit coins. In consequence of this, on Friday, 17th November, 1278, all the Jews of England, together with their wives and children, were thrown into prison, and their houses searched. It was afterwards proved that many Christians, and even some noblemen of London, had been guilty of counterfeiting the coin of the realm, and that throughout the whole kingdom only 293 Jews had been convicted of the crime of which they were accused. Nevertheless, over 10,000 Jews were made to suffer for this act, and whilst the Christians who were implicated, with the exception of three, were liberated on payment of a fine, the 293 Jews were hanged, others sentenced to imprisonment for life, and still others expelled from the country and their possessions confiscated. But the hatred against them was not spent. The Jews continued to be accused of passing counterfeit coins, and their enemies tried to smuggle them into their possession, and then by threatening to denounce them, extorted money from them. Edward, who became acquainted with these intrigues, issued a law (May, 1279), which enacted that charges of tampering with the coin of the realm could only be brought forward till the May of the following year, and thus put a stop to all these denunciations.

The enemies of the Jews, however, did not tire of forging new charges against them. It was soon reported that the Jews of Northampton had crucified a Christian child. For this alleged crime many Jews in London were torn asunder by horses, and their corpses hung on the gallows (2nd April, 1279). Next, the Jews were charged with acts of disrespect to Christian emblems. The king thereupon issued a decree that the blasphemers were to be punished with death. As, however, Edward knew his people, he added that the accused were to receive punishment only if convicted by the evidence of honest, impartial witnesses of the transgression. In order to lead the Jews on to blasphemous acts, the Dominicans devised an infamous trick. They besought the king to permit them to preach to the Jews for the purpose of converting them. They knew that one or other of them would be transported by zeal for his religion, and would make use of an offensive expression. Edward granted them this permission at the request of the prior (1280), and warned the Jews to listen to the sermons of the Dominicans patiently, without turbulence, contradiction, or blasphemy. To promote their conversion, the king even sacrificed money. The extraordinary law, that the Jews who went over to Christianity were to forfeit their property to the treasury, Edward partly abrogated, and decreed that they might retain a half. He moreover ordered the erection of a house for converts of the Jewish race, and endowed it with a revenue, which, however, flowed mainly into the pockets of the overseer. A scholastic philosopher of that time suggested another means for the conversion of the Jews. The celebrated Franciscan monk, Duns Scotus (professor at Oxford, afterwards in Paris and Cologne), who had nurtured his mind with the thoughts of the Jewish philosopher Gebirol, held that it was the duty of the king, if he wished to show Christian zeal, to tear Jewish children away from their parents, and cause them to be educated in the Christian faith. Still more, it was perfectly justifiable to force the parents themselves, by all sorts of threats, to submit to baptism. How much respect the Jews entertained for the Christianity of the worldly-minded and rapacious popes, ferocious princes, and sensual monks, is shown by a peculiar incident. A Jewess complained to the king that her own and her husband's enemies had defamed her by calling her a convert, and she entreated him to secure her redress for this insult. Whilst the queen-mother, Eleanor, was exerting herself at the instance of the Dominicans to inflame the king and the people against the Jews, the queen, also named Eleanor, bestowed her favor on them. She prayed the king to confer the vacant chief rabbinate of the English congregation on her favorite Hagin (Chayim) Denlacres. The king granted her prayer, and installed Hagin as chief rabbi, with all the powers and privileges which his predecessors had enjoyed (15th May, 1281).

When the king settled the chief rabbinate of England on Hagin and his heirs, he had no thought of expelling the Jews from his kingdom. Gradually, however, the fanatical party and his mother gained more influence over him, and disturbed his clear perceptions. This party in England, probably the Dominicans, appeared before the newly-elected pope, Honorius IV, lodging the serious accusations against the Jews, that they not only held friendly intercourse with Christians, but that they encouraged the return of baptized Jews to Judaism, invited Christians on Sabbaths and festivals to the synagogue, made them bend the knee before the Torah, and enticed them to adopt Jewish customs. The pope accordingly sent a missive to the archbishop of York and his legate, bidding them employ every means to put a stop to this improper conduct. On the 16th of April, 1287, a Church assembly was held in Exeter, which renewed all the hateful canonical resolutions against the Jews. A fortnight later (2nd May) the king for the second time ordered the arrest of all English Jews with their wives and children, an act for which no cause can be assigned. Nor did he release them until he received a large ransom. Three years later, in 1290, Edward, instigated by his mother, issued an edict on his own authority, without the consent of Parliament, that all the Jews of England were to be banished from the country. They were given till the first of November to change their goods into money. Any Jew found on English soil after that date was to be hanged. But they had to restore all pledges of Christian debtors to their owners before that time. Edward was mild enough strongly to impress upon his officials not to molest the Jews on their departure, and he warned the sailing-masters at the five ports not to insult them. Although their respite lasted till the 1st of November, the 16,511 Jews of England left the country by the 9th of October. The real estate which they had not succeeded in selling, escheated to the king. In spite of the king's orders, the expelled Jews were exposed to all sorts of ill-treatment. One captain, who was employed to convey several families down the Thames to the sea, ran the ship against a sandbank, and made them disembark until the rising of the tide. When the tide began to return, he re-embarked, and his sailors went aboard, sailed away, and called out scornfully to the despairing Jews, "Cry unto Moses, who led your ancestors safely through the Red Sea, to bring you to dry land." The unhappy people perished in the waves. This affair came to the ears of the judges, and the ringleaders were hanged as murderers. How many similar incidents may have occurred and remained unpunished! The Jews of Gascony, which at that time belonged to England, were also expelled. The banished Jews directed their steps to France, the nearest refuge. There they were at first received by Philip IV, le Bel. But soon after the king and the Parliament together decreed that the Jews who had been driven out of England and Gascony were to leave French territory by the middle of Lent. Once more were they compelled to set out on their pilgrimage; some of them went to Germany, the others probably to northern Spain.

As if an evil destiny were pursuing the sons of Jacob, like a shadow, never leaving them for a moment, the short spell of fortune enjoyed through Saad-Addaula by the Jews of Asia soon turned to destruction. The physician of the Grand Khan of Persia had drawn attention to the fraudulent conduct of the finance officials; for which service he had been appointed commissary, and sent to Bagdad to investigate the condition of the revenue, and to bring the fraudulent administrators to account (end of 1288). Saad-Addaula succeeded in restoring the revenues to such order, that he was able to remit to the Grand Khan Argun considerable sums, which he had not expected. Argun, who loved gold, was delighted with his Jewish commissary, and distinguished him by all possible marks of honor. As Saad-Addaula acted disinterestedly, and was concerned only for the good of his master, he was able continually to put larger sums of money into the treasury, and thus won for himself ever more favor from this great khan. Ultimately Argun appointed him minister of finance for the whole Iranian (Persian) empire, and conferred on him the honorable title of Saad-Addaula, "Support of the Empire" (summer, 1288). He was ordered to employ only Jews and Christians in offices, as the khan disliked Mahometans on account of their rebellious attitude. It was natural that Saad-Addaula should employ his relatives, for he could best depend upon their zeal to assist him in his difficult office. Through the fidelity with which Saad-Addaula served his master, he won so much confidence, that nearly all state affairs went through his hands, and he had the authority to make decisions without referring the points to the great khan. Probably through his instrumentality and advice Argun established diplomatic connections with Europe, and even with the pope. Through the help of the Europeans, the Mahometans were to be driven out of Asia Minor, particularly out of Palestine. The pope, however, flattered himself that Argun would become a member of the Catholic Church.

The Jewish minister, indeed, deserved the high favor with which Argun honored him. Where hitherto there had prevailed license and abuse of power in the empire, he introduced law and order. The military captains were forbidden to interfere with the administration of justice, the legal tribunals were admonished to protect the weak and the innocent. As the Mongols had no judicial code, Saad-Addaula put the Mahometan laws into force, as far as they bore upon the civil and penal administration of justice. The peaceful population blessed him for the security of life and property for which they were indebted to him. Saad-Addaula also patronized learning, settled handsome annuities upon learned men and poets, and encouraged them in their literary undertakings. In consequence he was extolled and praised by men of letters in prose and verse.

The Eastern Jews felt themselves happy and exalted through the elevation of their co-religionist to the highest post of the empire. From the most remote countries there flowed a stream of Jews to the Persian Khanate, to bask in the favor of the Jewish minister. They unanimously said, "God has elevated this man in the latter days as a Lord of Redemption and to sustain our hope." Neo-Hebraic poetry, which had arisen in the East, but had sunk into jarring discord, or become altogether silent, appears to have recovered in order to proclaim his glory.

Saad-Addaula, however, had aroused many powerful enemies through his resolute administration and his love of justice and order. The Mahometans, who were shut out of every office, beheld, with deep vexation, that Jews and Christians, whom they were accustomed to despise as infidel dogs, were in possession of the government. They were, moreover, urged on by their priests and learned men to a most violent hatred of the Jewish statesman, to whom they imputed their humiliation. They accordingly spread the report that Saad-Addaula was contemplating the establishment of a new religion, and the proclamation of the great khan as the religious lawgiver and prophet. To excite their bigotry still more, they reported that Saad-Addaula had completed preparations for an expedition to Mecca, to transform the hallowed abode of the Kaaba into an idolatrous temple and to compel the Mahometans once more to become heathens. The order of the Ishmaelite murderers, the Assassins, which was organized for the purpose of putting to death actual or supposed enemies of Islam, immediately made arrangements clandestinely to remove Saad-Addaula and his relatives. But their plot was betrayed, and it was frustrated by him.

The Jewish minister had many opponents even among the Mongols. The military captains were incensed against him, because he had laid a restraint upon their license. A conspiracy was hatched also in Mongol circles. It was given out that he had commissioned a Jew, Neglib-Eddin, to proceed to Khorasan and put to death two hundred of the most distinguished Mongols; and that his relative, Shem-Addaula, had received instructions to remove many priests and chiefs of the city. Unfortunately, Argun fell seriously ill (November, 1290), and his sickness was a signal for the discontented to make a conspiracy against Saad-Addaula and his adherents. The minister, in vain, exerted himself to secure the recovery of the Khan, for he saw that the latter's death meant his own. He even sent a messenger secretly to Argun's son to ensure his speedy return to the court, in order that he might seize the crown immediately after his father's death. When they received intimation of these precautionary measures, the Mongol magnates, who observed that Argun's end was near, pushed the accomplishment of their conspiracy. They executed Saad-Addaula (March, 1291), and slew all Argun's favorites. Argun died seven days later. The conspirators thereupon despatched messengers to all provinces, ordered Saad-Addaula's relatives to be thrown into chains, their property to be confiscated, and their wives and children to be sold as slaves. The Mahometan population also fell upon the Jews in every city of the empire, to wreak their vengeance upon them for the degradation which they had suffered from the Mongols. In Bagdad there were numerous encounters between armed bodies of Mahometans and Jews, and on both sides many were killed and wounded.

Two months later the great Jewish community of St. Jean d'Acre (Accho), which shortly before had been put into a state of tumult by Solomon Petit, was completely blotted out. The Egyptian sultan, Almalek Alashraf, undertook a campaign to drive the last of the crusaders out of Palestine and Syria. He besieged the fortified city of Accho for more than a month, and then took it by storm (18th May, 1291). Not only all the Christians, but many Jews who happened to be in the city were executed. Others were cast into prison, and among them Isaac of Accho, a zealous but unintellectual Kabbalist, whose candor forced him, much against his will, to expose the halo of divinity, with which the Kabbala had surrounded itself, as mere mummery.

END OF VOL. III.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Translation by Solomon Solis Cohen, to whom thanks are due for the translation of most of the poetic passages in this volume.--[ED.]

[2] Translation by Emma Lazarus.--[ED.]

[3] Translation by Emma Lazarus.--[ED.]

[4] Meïr means light-bearer or luminary.--[ED.]

INDEX.

Aaron of York, chief rabbi of England, 588.

Aaron ben Joseph the Elder, Karaite, 607.

Aaron ben Meshullam, adherent of Maimonides, 524.

Aaron Halevi, 621.

Abassid caliphs, civil war of, 145 f.
persecute the Jews, 145.

Abdallah Ibn-Sabâ, Jewish partisan of Ali, 90.

Abdallah Ibn-Salâm, relation of, to Mahomet, 73.

Abdallah Ibn-Ubey, ally of the Jews in Arabia, 77.

Abdel-latif, opinion of, on Maimonides, 488.

Abdul Malik, 110.

Abdulmumen, bigotry of, 451.
persecutes the Jews in Africa, 358.

Abdul-Rahman III, inaugurates the classical period of Moslem culture
in Spain, 214.
and Chasdaï, 216 ff.

Abelé Zion. See Mourners of Zion.

Abodah (liturgy of the Day of Atonement), of José bar José, 114 f.
of Simon ben Caipha, 115.
connected with the Apostle Peter, 115.

Abrabanels, descent of, 43.

Abraham of Aragon, oculist, 583.

Abraham ben Chasdaï of Barcelona, champion of Maimonides, 544.
poet, 560.

Abraham ben David of Posquières (Rabed II), 399.
death of, 490.
opposition of, to Maimonides, 490.

Abraham, son of Maimonides, 493, 495.
attitude of, in the Maimunist controversy, 525 f.
"War for God" (Milchamoth), 545.

Abraham Ibn-Ezra. See Ibn-Ezra.

Abu-Amran Moses, founder of a Karaite sect, 157 f.

Abu-Ayub, poet and court physician, 312.

Abu-Bekr, repelled by the Jews, 82.

Abu-Fadhl Chasdaï, Jewish vizir and poet in Saragossa, 280.

Abu-Isa, opposition of, to the Talmud, 128.

Abu-Jafar Almansur, 129 f.

Abu-Jafar Ibn-Aljezzar, Mahometan physician, 181.

Abu-Kariba, Arabian king converted to Judaism, 62 f.

Abulafia, Meïr, opponent of Maimonides, 524 f., 537 f.

Abulmeni. See Abraham, son of Maimonides.

Abu-Mansur, head of the Jewish community in Egypt, 340 f.

Abu-Sahal Ali, Jewish scholar, 146.

Abu-Yussuf Almansur, imposes the Jew-badge, 511.

Abuzurj-Mihir, counselor of Hormisdas IV, 7.

Accho, Jewish community of, blotted out, 650.
nest of the Kabbalists, 626.

Achunaï. See Chananya.

Acrostichs, 115.

Aden, warlike Jews of, 436.

Adher-Baijan, low condition of the Jews of, 430.

Adonim. See Dunash ben Labrat.

Africa, northern, Jews of:
great men of, 248.
oppressed and persecuted, 357 ff., 451 f.

Agada, interpretation of, 495, 523, 527, 533, 535, 549, 552, 599, 619,
622.
used by Christians against the Jews, 598, 622.

Agadic discourses in the service, 116.

Agadic method of interpretation of the Bible, 152, 408, 529, 561,
608 f.

Agobard, bishop of Lyons, contest of, with the Jews, 164-8.

Ahunai, 4.

Akbara, Jewish congregation of, 429.

Akbarites, Karaite sect, 157 f.

Albalia, Isaac ben Baruch, 282 ff.
descent of, 282.
head of the Jews in Seville, 283 f.

Albergeloni, Isaac ben Reuben, Talmudist and poet, 284.

Albigenses, 390, 394.
crusade against, 501 f.
relation of, to the Jews, 501.

Aleppo, captured by the Mongols, 606.

Alexander III, pope, friendly to the Jews, 421.

Alexandria, Jewish congregation of, 444.

Alfadhel, vizir of Saladin, relation of, to Maimonides, 472 ff.

Alfassi, Isaac ben Jacob, 285 f., 315 ff.
character of, 315.
death of, 309.
disciples, 314.
education of, 285.
"Halachoth," 286.

Alfonso II of Aragon, 387.

Alfonso II (the Noble) of Castile, censured by Innocent III for
protecting the Jews, 499.
persecutes the Jews, 507.

Alfonso III of Portugal, favors the Jews, 618.

Alfonso VI, conquers Toledo, 294 f.
diplomacy of, 291.
employs Jews on diplomatic missions, 291.
tolerance of, 292.

Alfonso VIII, admits Jews to high positions, 384.

Alfonso X (the Wise), admits Jews to official positions, 592 f.
code of, 595.
imposes degrading restrictions upon the Jews, 594-6.
imprisons the Jews of Castile, 616.
rebellion of his son against, 616.

Alfonso Raimundez, emperor of Castile, favorable to the Jews, 361.

Alghazali, mystic philosopher, 357.

Alhakem, caliph of Spain, death of, 239.
library of, 237.

Ali, cousin of Mahomet, 82.
supported by the Jews, 90.

Ali Halevi, principal of the Talmudic school of Bagdad, 429.

Alice of Montmorency, persecutes the Jews of Toulouse, 514.

Alides, contest of, with Ommiyyades, 92.

Alkuti, Jewish philosopher, 267.

Allegorical interpretation, adopted by Mahometans, 147.

Almalek Alashraf, captures Accho, 650.

Almamun, caliph, 147.
appealed to in internal disputes by Jews and Christians, 155.
flourishing condition of his caliphate, 146.

Almansur, regent of Andalusia, 239 ff.

Almohades, 358.
conquer Andalusia, 360.
fanaticism of, 359.
ravage Castile, 361.

Almoravides, exterminated, 357.
invade Spain, 296, 311 ff.

Almovachides. See Almohades.

Al-Mutadhil, caliph, favorable to the Jews, 183.

Al-Mutavakkil, renews Omar's laws, 176 f.

Amadia, scene of a false Messiah, 431.

Amolo, bishop of Lyons, hostility of, to the Jews, 170 f.

Amshel Oppenheimer, creditor of Rudolph of Habsburg, 634.

Amulets, 153.

Anan ben David, founder of Karaism, 128-35. See also Karaism.
contest of, for the exilarchate, 129 f.
death of, 135.
emigrates to Palestine, 130.
excommunicated, 134.
hostility of, to the Talmud, 129 f.
imprisoned, 129.
interpretation, his, of the Bible, 131, 133.
memorial prayers for, 135.
mental capacity of, 135.
recognizes Mahomet as prophet, 134.
view of, on Jesus, 133.
want of poetical and historical sense in, 133.
works of, 131.

Ananites. See Karaites.

Anatoli, Jacob, Maimunist, 629.
in favor with Frederick II, 566.

Andalusia, culture of, 234 ff.
fall of the princes of, 296.
flourishing condition of the Jews of, 234 ff.
persecution of the Jews of, by the Almohades, 361.

Andreas, king of Hungary, excommunicated for his indulgence to
non-Christians, 521.

Anthropomorphism and anthropomorphists, among Jews, 152, 528, 552.
among Mahometans, 148 f.

Antioch, Jews of, murdered, 10 f.
uprise of the Jews against the Christians, 18.

Apostates, 122, 441 f., 572.

Aquitania, sufferings of the Jews of, from the crusaders, 570.

Arab conquest of Persia, 10.

Arabia, Jews of, 53-85.
attitude of, to the Talmud, 58, 119 f.
become thoroughly Arabic, 56 f.
condition of, 53, 56.
congregations of, 436.
conquered by the Arabians, 67 f.
customs of, 57.
difference between those of the north and those of the south, 56 f.
divisions among, 57, 77, 80.
empire of, 51.
intercourse of, with Palestine, 59.
inspire Mahomet, 71.
king of, 12.
language of, 111.
leaders of Arabian tribes, 53.
recover their importance, 71.
relations to the Arabians, 57, 67 f.
teachers of the Arabic nation, 54, 58 f.
traditions as to their original settlements, 54.
tribes of, 55.

Arabian king converted to Judaism, 62 f.

Arabic calligraphy, 255.

Arabic language, 111.
adopted by the Jews of Spain, 110 f.

Arabic tribe converted to Christianity, 56.

Arabs, acquire the art of writing from the Jews, 58.
converted to Judaism, 56, 61 f.
descent of, 60.
teachers of the Jews, 224.

Aragon, Jews of, 497 f.
compelled to support a Christian missionary, 602.
exempted from wearing the badge, 515.
favorable condition of, 387.
miserable condition of, 596-605.

Areobindus, minister of Justinian, 15.

Argun, Grand Khan of the Mongols, 646 f.
death of, 649.
favorable to the Jews, 638.

Arianists, toleration of, 26, 44 f.

Aristotle, influence of, 448.
works of, translated, 566 f.

Arnold, bishop of Cologne, protects the Jews, 352.

Arnold of Brescia, 370.

Arnold of Citeaux, fanatical monk, 502, 507.

"Aruch," 290, 421.

Ashkaba (prayer for the dead), 101.

Asia, degeneration of the Jews of, 440 ff.
under the Abbassides, 437.

Asia Minor, Jewish communities of, 123 f.

Asma, Arabian poetess, 76.

Assassins, 648.

Atel. See Itil.

Atonement Day, liturgy of, 113 ff.

Atzbaha. See Elesbaa.

Aus, Arabic tribe partly converted to Judaism, 61.

Austrasia, Jews of, 40.

Austria, favorable condition of the Jews of, 516 f., 567 f.

Averroës, 566.

Avignon, council of, prohibits the Jews from working on Sunday, 504.

Avitus, bishop of Arverna, inaugurates a persecution of the Jews in
the Frankish empire, 38 f.

Azriel, Kabbalist, 548.

Baalbek, captured by the Mongols, 606.

Babylonia, supplanted by Spain as center of Judaism, 210, 228.

Babylonia, Jews of:
independent tribe of, 433 f.
organization and officials of, 96-100.
prosperous condition of, 428.
side with Ali, 90.
support the Arab conquerors, 89.

Bacharach (Germany), massacre of the Jews of, 636.

Bachiel Ibn-Alkonstantini, physician to King Jayme of Portugal and
Maimunist, 536 f.

Bachya Ibn-Pakuda, moral philosopher, 271-3.

Baden (Germany), Jews of, blood-accusation against, and massacre of,
564.

Badis, king of the Berbers, bloody design of, 276 f.

Bagdad, Jews of, 156, 428.
center of science, 146.
congregation of, on the side of Maimonides, 633.
Talmudic school of, 429, 438 f.

Bahram Tshubin, Persian general, 8 f.
dethrones Hormisdas IV, 8.

Balanyiar, capital of the Chazars, 139.

Baldwin, archbishop of Canterbury, fanaticism of, against the Jews,
410.

Barcelona, center of northern Spain, 387.
prominent Jews of, 387 f.

Basilius, emperor, arranges disputations between Jews and Christians,
175 f.

Beaucaire (Belcaire), Jewish congregation of, 400.

Bedaresi, Abraham, 579.

Bedr, battle of, 76.

Bela IV of Hungary, favorable to the Jews, 613.

Belisarius, 4.
conquers the Vandals, 26.
subjects Italy, 31 f.

Ben-Asher, Massoret, 207.
poet, 223.

Benedict of York, maltreated, 411, 413.

Bene Mikra. See Karaism.

Benjamin of Canterbury, 409.

Benjamin of Tiberias, leader of a Jewish uprise in Palestine, 19, 22.

Benjamin of Tudela, traveler and historian, 388 f.

Benjamin Nahavendi, Karaite and founder of the Makariyites, 149 f.

Ben-Naphtali, 207.

Benu-Bachdal, 55.

Benu-Kainukaa, 55.

Benu-Kinanah, Arabic tribe converted to Judaism, 61.

Benu-Kuraiza, 55.
massacred by Mahomet, 80 f.

Benu-Nadhir, 55.
driven out by Mahomet, 78 f.

Benveniste, Don Isaac, physician to the king of Aragon, 508.
work of, in behalf of the Jews, 513.

Benveniste, Sheshet, diplomatist and poet, 388, 524 f.

Berachya ben Natronaï Nakdan (Crispia), writer of fables, 560.

Berbers, kingdom of, 256 ff.

Bernard of Clairvaux and the second crusade, 349.
intercedes in behalf of the Jews, 353.

Béziers, council of, prohibits the Jews from practising medicine among
Christians, 582.
inhabitants of, massacred by the crusaders, 502.
Jews of, hold offices, 394 f.
Palm Sunday riots in, against the Jews, 394 f.

Bible, attacks against, 199.
Christian exposition of, 288.
Massoretic text of, 207.
oldest copy of, in Spain, 387.
study of, among Jews, 111 f., 118.

Black Jews in India, 436.

Blois, persecution of the Jews of, 378-81.

Blood-accusation, 402, 418, 499, 564, 595.
causes frequent massacres of the Jews in France and Germany, 583.
first appearance of, 378-81.
in England, 591, 643.
officially contradicted by Innocent IV, 584, 635.

Bodo (Puoto), bishop, converted to Judaism, 168 f.

Bohemia, Jews of, 305.
during the crusades, 305, 356.
plundered, 307.
Talmudic center, 420 f.

Bologna, Jews of, expelled, 421.

Bonastruc de Porta. See Nachmani.

"Book of the Pious," 408.

Boppard (Germany), massacre of the Jews of, 637, 639.

Boso, king of Burgundy, presents the Jews as a gift to the church, 175.

Bostanaï, exilarch, 10.
descendants of, 91.
marries a daughter of Chosru, 89.
recognized by the Mahometans, 89.

Bray, massacre of the Jews of, 404.

Bribery in the Church, 578, 584, 591.

Buda, synod of, excludes the Jews from Christian society, 614.

Bulan, king of the Chazars, 139.

Burgundy, Jews of, oppressed, 37.

Byzantine empire, Jews of, 10-23.
communities of, 424-7.
culture of, 425 f.
occupations of, 175.
oppression of, 122, 425.

Cabades. See Kobad.

Cæsarea, betrayed to the Arabs, 87.
riot of Jews and Samaritans against the Christians, 17.

Cairo, Jewish congregation of, 444.

Caliphate, condition of Jews under, 176 f., 183.

Cambridge, Jews expelled from, 641.

Cameos among Jews, 153.

Carenton, massacre of Jews of, 355.

Carlovingians, feeble rule of, 241.

Cassiodorus, minister of Theodoric, 30.
invectives of, against the Jews, 31.

Castile, civil war of, 363.

Castile, Jews of, 361 ff., 592-6, 615-17.
admitted to honors, 293, 384, 593.
congregations of, 617.
oppressed by Alfonso X, 616.
favorable condition of, 361 ff.
fight of, against the Almohades, 386 f.
first persecution of, 507.

Catalonia, Jews of, 389.

Censorship of the Talmud, 602 f.

Ceremonial laws explained, 484 f., 523, 553.

Ceylon, Jews of, enjoy liberty, 436.

Chagan, title of the king of the Chazars, 138.

Chaibar (Arabia), 55.
Jews of, defeated by Mahomet, 81-3.
Jews of, driven out by Omar, 85.
Jews of, warlike, 437.

Chaldean Christians support the Arabs, 89.

Chanan of Iskia, principal of Pumbeditha, 9.

Chananel of Kairuan, 248 ff.

Chananya (Achunaï), exilarch, 129, 137.

Chananya, principal of Sora, 10.

Chaninaï, exilarch, 10.

Chaninaï, principal of Pumbeditha, 10.

Chaninaï Kahana ben Huna, Gaon of Sora, 137.

Chanoch, head of the Jews of Andalusia, 229 f., 236.
contest of, with Ibn-Abitur, 229, 238.
death of, 241.

Chariot-races occasions of bloodshed, 11, 17.

Charlemagne, elevates the position of the Jews in Europe, 141 f.
embassy of, to Haroun Alrashid, 143.
imposes an oath on the Jews, 144.
regenerator of Europe, 141 f.

Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily, 628.

Charles the Bald protects the Jews against the clergy, 172.

Charles the Simple grants Jewish property to the church, 175.

Chasdaï, exilarch, 92.

Chasdaï, Ibn-Shaprut, 215-30.
ambassador, 218 f.
character of, 215.
correspondence of, with the Jewish king of the Chazars, 219 ff.
death of, 230.
deliverer of his people, 217.
descent of, 215.
gives Jewish history a European character, 216.
in the service of Abdul-Rahman III, 216.
patron of learning, 223, 234.
promotes the study of the Talmud, 227.
representative of a Judæo-European culture, 188.
statesman, 187.

Chayuj, father of Hebrew philology, 237, 255.

Chazanuth, 118.

Chazaria, 138.

Chazars, 123 ff., 327 f.
army of, 221.
embrace Judaism, 138-41.
hospitality of, to Jews, 123 f.
Jewish kingdom of, 219 ff.
motive of conversion of, 139 f.
origin of, 138.
original religion of, 139.
tolerance of, 141.
wars of, 138.

Chazraj, Arabic tribe partly converted to Judaism, 61.

Cherem. See Excommunication.

Chess, invention of, 7.

Childebert I of Paris, intolerance of, 37.

Children, introduction of, to the Law, 572.

Chilperic, forces Jews to baptism, 39.

Chindaswinth, king of the Visigoths, tolerance of, 101 f.

Chintila, king of the Visigoths, forces the Jews to emigrate, 51 f.

Chiskiya, last Gaon of Pumbeditha, executed, 254.

Chivi Albalchi, first rationalist and critic, 199.

"Chobath Halebaboth," 271.

Chosroes Nushirvan imposes a poll-tax upon Jews and Christians, 5.

Chosru II, attacks the Roman possessions, 19.
favorable to the Jews, 9.

"Chozari," origin of, 327 f.

Christian emperors curtail the political rights of the Jews, 27.

Christian slaves, possession of, forbidden to Jews, 28, 33, 46, 48.

Christians and Mahometans, treatment of Jews compared, 347, 426, 506.

Christianity, hostility of, to Judaism, 34.
in western Europe at first tolerant against the Jews, 24, 34.
of the 11th century, 301.

Christianity, Islam and Judaism compared, 328, 332 ff.

Chumrata, 97.

"Church of the Mother of God" in Constantinople originally a
synagogue, 26.

Church, rigor of, against Jews and heretics, 496 ff., 503 f.

Church and synagogue, attitude of, to science compared, 187 f.

Chushiel, Rosh of Kairuan, 208 ff.

Cidellus, Jewish diplomatist in the service of Alfonso VI, 292.

Clement III, 306.

Clement IV, hostile to the Jews, 605.
orders confiscation of the Talmud, 602.

Clergy, hatred of, against the Jews, 24-6, 172, 241 f., 349 f., 611.
ignorance of, 26.

Clotaire II, bigotry of, 40.

Clovis, 36 f.

Cologne, Jews of:
during the crusades, 303 f.
privileges of, 41.
when settled in, 41.

Commons massacre the Jews of London, 591.

Communism in Persia, 2 f.

Confession of faith, Jewish (Shema), forbidden, 15.

Conrad III, German emperor, protects the Jews, 351 f., 416.

Constantine VIII sends an embassy to Spain, 218.

Constantinople, Jews of, 26.

"Constitutio Judæorum," 497.

Controversies, between Jews and Christians, 105, 576, 598, 622.
between Jews and Mahometans, 111, 119.

Conversions, forced, of Jews to Christianity, 38 f., 48 f., 123, 176,
246, 300, 570.
prohibited by Gregory X, 635.

Conversions, forced, to Islam, 359 f., 451, 461.

Conversions to Judaism, 21, 61, 409, 440, 445, 516, 640 f.

Converts, Jewish, to Christianity, treatment of, 49 ff., 308 f.

Cordova, center of Judaism, 228 f.
contention in, for the rabbinate, 229 f., 238 ff.
seat of a Talmudic school, 210.

"Covenant of Omar," 87, 120, 145, 176 f.

Council (of the Church. See also under the individual cities):
Lateran, 400, 421, 498.
Lateran, the Fourth, 509-12.
of Avignon, 504.
of Béziers, 582.
of Buda, 614.
of Exeter, 645.
of Illiberis, 43.
of Mâcon, 39.
of Meaux, 171.
of Nice, 25.
of Orleans, 37.
of Oxford, 516.
of Paris, 40.
of Toledo, 49, 102.
of Vannes, 36.
of Vienna, 611 f.

Crimea, emigration of Chazars to, 222.
emigration of Karaites to, 435.

Crispia, 560.

Crusade, the first, 297.
effect of, on the intellectual condition of the Jews in Germany, 309.
in Jerusalem, 308.

Crusade, the second, 349-57.
in France, 349-51, 355.
in Germany, 351 f.

Crusade, the third, 405 ff.

Crusade against the Albigenses, 501 f.

Crusaders, brutalities of, 412-15, 497, 507, 570.

Crusades in France, 299.
in Germany, 300 ff.
voluntary death of Jews during, 300, 302 f., 305.

Cyril expels the Jews from Alexandria, 23.

"Dagger of Faith," 622.

Dagobert, decree of, against the Jews, 40.

Damascus, captured by the Mongols, 606.

Daniel, the prophet, superstition about the grave of, 435.

Daniel, the exilarch, 438.

Daniel ben Saadiah, opponent of Maimonides, 525 f.

Dante, 628.

David, grandson of Maimonides, 627.
and Solomon ben Adret, 620 f.
defends his grandfather, 632.

David ben Daniel, exilarch and defender of Maimonides, 632.

David ben Judah, exilarch, 155 f.

David ben Saul, opponent of Maimonides, 529.

David ben Zaccaï, exilarch, 186.
conflict of, with Saadiah Gaon, 195 f.

David Abudarham, 617.

David Alrui, false Messiah, 430-33.

Dayan (judge), functions of, 98.

Dei Mansi, family of, 421.

Demons, belief in, 525, 528, 534.

Dhu-Nowas. See Zorah Yussuf.

Diniz, king of Portugal, favorable to the Jews, 618.

Disputations between Jews and Christians, 576, 601 ff.
See also under Controversies.

Divorce, law of, changed, 92.
reform of, by Gershom, 244.
synodical decisions concerning, 378.

Dominicans, fanaticism of, 519, 591, 613, 641.
entrusted with the Inquisition, 542.
part taken by, in the disputation of Barcelona, 600 ff.
preachers, 545.
rivalry of, with the Franciscans, 641.

Don Judah ben Moses Cohen, physician to Alfonso X, 593.

Don Meïr de Malea, treasurer of Alfonso X, 593.

Don Pedro II, king of Aragon, 497 f.

Don Sancho, son of Alfonso X, king of Castile, 616.
and Don Zag, 616.
rebellion of, against his father, 616.
regulates the Jew-tax, 617.

Don Zag, Isaac, treasurer of Alfonso X, 593.
and the "Tables of Alfonso," 594.
executed, 615.

Donnolo, Sabbataï, head of Jewish science in Italy, 212-14.
relation of, to Nilus the younger, 213 f.

Dossa, son of Saadiah Gaon, 202.
and Chasdaï, 217.

Dudaï, Gaon of Pumbeditha, 129.

Dunash ben Labrat, creator of the artistic form of Jewish poetry, and
one of the founders of Judæo-Spanish culture, 215.
career and character, 226.
first employs meter in Hebrew poetry, 223.
polemic of, against Menachem and Saadiah, 226.

Dunash ben Tamim, physician, 181, 211.
correspondence of, with Chasdaï, 211, 217.

Duns Scotus, recommends forced conversion of the Jews, 644.

East, the, loses the leadership of Judaism, 207 f.
scepticism in, 199.

Easter, Jewish, celebration of, forbidden before the Christian, 13.

Eastertide, during, Jews forbidden to appear in the streets, 37, 39,
171, 510, 518, 582, 595, 635.

Eberard, Magister Judæorum, 161, 164.

Edward I, Jews treated by, 640-6.
Jews expelled by, 645.
justice of, to Jews, 640, 643.
proselytizing zeal of, 644.

Egica, king of the Visigoths, imposes restrictions on the Jews, 107 f.

Egilbert, bishop of Treves, inhumanity of, against the Jews, 300.

Egypt, becomes a center of Judaism, 445.
Talmudic schools of, 210.

Egypt, Jews of, 23, 443-5.
low state of culture of, 444 f.
prosperous condition of, under Saladin, 461.

Elchanan, Tossafist and martyr, 404.

Eldad, traveler, 182.

Eleanor, mother of Edward I, enmity of, against the Jews, 641, 645.

Eleazar ben Kalir, poetan, 116.
characteristics of his style, 117, 245.

Elesbaa, king of Ethiopia, destroys the Jewish kingdom of Arabia, 66 f.

Elias of London, chief rabbi of England, 588.
deposed, 591.

"Emunoth we-Deoth," 197 f.

England, Jews of, 409-16, 587-92, 640-6.
accusations against, 642 f.
act of parliament concerning, 642.
authority and functions of the chief rabbi of, 588.
blood-accusation against, 591.
converts to Judaism in, 409.
degradation of, 516.
enemies of, 504 f.
expelled, 643, 645.
impoverished, 592.
imprisoned, 645.
parliament of, 589.
occasion of the first persecution of, 410.
oppressions of, 641.
statute of Judaism for, 642.

"En-Sof," 550.

Ephraim ben Jacob of Bonn, Talmudist and poet, 419.

Erwig, king of the Visigoths, edict of, against the Jews and Jewish
converts, 106 f.

Eugenius III, repudiates the debts to the Jews in the second crusade,
349.

Europe, becomes the chief seat of Judaism, 383.
Judaism of, compared with that of the East, 160.

Excommunication, as inflicted by Church and Synagogue, 99, 151, 177,
528.
degrees of, 99.
employment of, in the Middle Ages, 528.

Exeter, council of, 645.

Exilarch (Prince of the Captivity), authority of, lessened by the
Karaite disturbances, 137.
ceremonies of installation of, 94 f.
functions of, 89 f., 428 f.
last, 201.
under Mahometan rule, 89 f.

Exilarchate, contest for, 155, 439.
corruption of, 194.
decline of, 177, 183 ff.
dependent on the Gaonate, 137.
disputes of, with the Gaonate, 184-6.
divested of its official character, 177.
elective, 137.
extinction of, 202.
in the 12th century, 439.
revival of, 428.

Ezekiel, the prophet, grave of, resort of pilgrims, 440 f.

Ezra, the scribe, grave of, resort of pilgrims, 441.

Ezra, Kabbalist, 548.

Fables in Neo-Hebraic, 560 f.

Farraj Ibn-Solomon, physician to Charles of Anjou, 628.

Fathers of the Church put a chasm between Christianity and Judaism,
144.

Fatimide caliphate, 210.
fall of, 461.
fanaticism of, 212.

Fatimides persecute the Jews, 247 ff.

Ferdinand III of Castile, fanaticism of, 519.

Ferdinand the Catholic, 383.

Ferdinand the Holy, 592.

Ferrara, favorable condition of the Jews in, 628.

Firuz, persecutes the Jews, 1.

Firuz-Shabur (place), 8, 90.
academy of, 9.

Fosse, war of the, 80.

Fostat, residence of Maimonides, 457.

France, home of Talmudic lore, 289, 344 ff.

France, Jews of, 34 ff.
expelled, 402, 585.
impoverished, 586 f.
massacre of, 583.
intellectual condition of, 281, 345.
prosperity of, 443.
settlement of, 34 ff.
under the last Carlovingians and the first Capets, 241 f.

France, northern, Jews of, 400-9.
beginning of misfortunes of, 400.
driven out, 405.
money extorted from, 407.
lose freedom of motion, 406.
treated as chattels, 407.

France, southern, Jews of, 390 ff.
prosperity of, 489.
sufferings of, during the Albigensian crusade, 501 f.

Franciscans, fanaticism of, 519.

Frankish empire, Jews of, clerical hatred against, 164 ff., 171 ff.
favorable condition of, 141 ff., 161-70.
privileges of, 161.

Frederick I (the Valiant) of Austria, favorable to the Jews, 567 f.
statute of, for the protection of the Jews, 568.

Frederick II, German emperor, 565-9.
confines the Jews to a ghetto, 567.
draws Jewish scholars to his court, 565.
edict of, against the Jews of Austria, 569.
enmity of, against the Jews, 567 ff.
in feud with Gregory IX, 567, 580.
scepticism of, 567.

Frederick Barbarossa, makes free Jews "servi cameræ," 416 f.
protects the Jews, 418.

Fulko de Neuilly, preaches against the Jews, 405.

Galen, 473.

Gaon and Exilarch, positions of, compared, 93.

Gaonate (see also under Geonim):
decay of, 231-4.
extinction of, 253 f.
origin of, 90.
relations of, to the Exilarchate, 90, 137 f.

Gaonic period, study of the Talmud in the, 128.

Gascony, Jews of, expelled, 646.

Gebirol, Solomon Ibn-, 265-80.
childhood of, 265.
death of, 280 f.
driven out from Saragossa, 268.
facility of muse of, 265, 267.
friend of Yekutiel Ibn-Hassan, 266.
Jewish Plato, 265.
legend about death of, 281.
melancholy of, 265 f.
philosophy of, 267, 269-71.
philosophy of, among Christians, 644.
poetical forms of, 301.
protected by Samuel Nagrela, 268.
versatility of, 267.
works of, translated, 503.

Gelasius, pope, attitude of, to the Jews, 29.

Gelimer, king of the Vandals, 26 f.

Geonim, 126.
authority and influence of, 118 f.
epoch of, 90 f.
literary activity of, 178 ff.

German emperor, protector of the Jews, 356 f.

German nations, character of, 416.

German princes, protect the Jews, 416.

Germany, Jews of, 40 f., 144, 416-20, 634-40.
blood-accusation against, 635 f.
compelled to be tradesmen, 242 f.
culture of, 243, 281, 357, 419.
emigration of, 637.
favorable condition of, before the crusades, 297.
first persecution of, 245.
hostility against, 419.
massacre of, 418, 583, 611, 636.
opposition of, to Maimonides, 624 f.
oppressions of, 580.
rights of, 417 f.
Talmudic study of, 419.
under Frederick II, 516 f.
under Rudolph of Habsburg, 634-40.
under the Saxon emperors, 242 f.

Gerona, home of the Kabbala, 556.

Gershom ben Jehuda, 243-5.
decrees of, 244 f.
first commentator of the Talmud, 244.
in Mayence, 243.
son of, embraces Christianity, 246.

Ghetto, 567.

Ghuzz, Turkish hordes, 434.

G'ikatilia, poet, 237, 290.

Giza, principal of Sora, 4 ff.

Granada, entirely inhabited by Jews, 256, 261.
envy against Jews of, 275 ff.
massacre of Jews of, 279.

"Great Assembly," 95.

Greece, Jews of, 27.

Greek translation of the Bible, reading of, in the synagogue, 13-15.

Gregory I (the Great), 46 f.
proselytizing of, 33 f.
protects Jewish rights, 33.
toleration of, towards Jews, 25.

Gregory VII, intolerance of, 293.

Gregory IX, condemns the Talmud, 574 f.
confirms the constitution of Innocent III, 564.
enmity of, against the Jews, 519 ff.
establishes the Inquisition, 542.

Gregory X, prohibits the compulsory conversion of Jews, 635.

Gregory of Tours, 39.

Gudeo, papal legate, 611.

Guelphs and Ghibellines, 611.

"Guide of the Perplexed," 477 ff.
influence of, in Italy, 629.
translated into Latin, 542 f.

Hadrian, pope, unfriendly to the Jews, 142.

Haggaï. See Robert de Redingge.

Hagin Denlacres, chief rabbi of England, 644.

Haï ben David, Gaon of Pumbeditha, 183.

Haï, son of Sherira, 234.

Haï Gaon, 250-3.
character of, 250.
compared with Saadiah, 250.
death of, 253.
friendly relations of, to the Christian patriarch, 250.
influence of, 252.
learning of, 250.
opinion of, on mysticism, 251 f.
systematic methods of, 251.

Hakim, caliph of Egypt, 247 f.

Hamadan, Jewish congregation of, 434.

Hariri of Basra, Arabian poet, 318.

Harith Ibn-Abu Shammir, treachery of, 68.

Haroun Alrashid, embassy of Charlemagne to, 143.
re-enacts Omar's laws, 145.

Head-dress imposed on Jews, 612.

Hebrew language, cultivation of, among Jews, 111 f.
among Christians, 579, 622.

Hebrew philology, 225, 561.

Hejira, 73.

Henry II of England, 409.

Henry III of England, treatment of Jews by, 570 f., 587 ff., 591.

Henry II, emperor of Germany, persecutes the Jews, 245 f.

Henry IV, emperor of Germany, 418.
favorable to the Jews, 293, 298, 306, 308, 416.
permits converts to return to their faith, 306.

Henry I, archbishop of Mayence, protects the Jews, 352.

Heraclius, emperor, 19 ff.
forbids the Jews to enter Jerusalem, 23.
protects the Jews, 23, 47.

Hibat-Allah, apostate to Islam, 442.

Hilderic, rebels against Wamba, 104 f.

Hillel of Verona, founder of the scientific method among the Italian
Jews, 629.
admirer of Maimonides, 629.
proposes a rabbinical synod to compose the Maimunist controversy,
631.

Hinkmar of Rheims, hostile to the Jews, 171 f.

Honorius III, pope, attitude of, towards the Jews, 513, 515.

Hormisdas IV, 7 ff.
compared to Nero, 8.
dethroned and assassinated, 8.
persecutes Christians and Jews, 8.

Hugh Capet, 242.

Hujej Ibn-Achtab, leader of the Benu-Nadhir against Mahomet, 78.

Hulagu, founder of the Mongol kingdom in Persia, 638.

Hungary invaded by the Mongols, 613.

Hungary, Jews of, 613-15, 520 f., 613.
commercial activity of, 613.
condition of, 520 f.
decrees of the synod of Buda against, 614.
fanaticism kindled against, by the Dominicans and Franciscans, 614.
Jew-badge of, 614.

Huns, 9, 138.
re-instate Kobad, 2.

Huna, exilarch and father of Mar-Zutra II, 3.

Hunaï, Gaon of Sora, 92.

Ibn-Abbas, Judah, poet, 318.

Ibn-Abbas, Samuel, apostate to Islam, 442.

Ibn-Abitur, 229.
contest of, with Chanoch, 229 f., 238.
poetry of, 236 f.

Ibn-Alfachar, Abraham, distinguished at the court of Alfonso VIII,
384 f.
opponent of Maimonides, 541.

Ibn-Alfayumi, Jacob, Talmudist of Yemen, 436, 462.

Ibn-Aljami, Nagid of Egypt, 443.

Ibn-Alruchi. See David Alrui.

Ibn-Balam, Jehuda, grammarian, 290.

Ibn-Chasdaï, Samuel ben Abraham, 388.

Ibn-Daud, 43.

Ibn-Daud, Abraham, religious philosopher, 363-5.
as historian, 365 f.
dies a martyr, 386.
"Seder ha-Kabbalah," 366.

Ibn-Ezra, Abraham, 366-75.
as astronomer and astrologer, 368, 371.
character of, 366 f.
commentary of, on the Pentateuch, 371, 373.
death of, 374 f.
exegete, 368, 370.
in France, 373.
in Italy, 369, 423.
in London, 373.
marks the end of the original element in the Spanish school, 381.
philosopher, 373.
poetry of, 367.
rationalism of, 372.
restlessness of, 368, 370.
"Sabbath Epistle" of, 373 f.
travels of, 369.
versatility of, 366.
wit of, 368.

Ibn Ezra, brothers of, 318-21.

Ibn-Ezra, Jehuda, 361-3.
head of the Jews of Castile, 362.
in favor with Alfonso Raimundez, 361.
persecutes the Karaites, 362 f.
protector of the Jews, 361 f.

Ibn-Ezra, Moses, 310, 314.
career of, 319 f.
compared with Gebirol, 319.
philosophical writings of, 320.
poems of, 320 f.

Ibn-Giat, Isaac ben Jehuda, poet, 284, 318.

Ibn-Janach, creator of Hebrew syntax, 261, 263.
first rational Bible critic, 263.
opposed by Abraham Ibn-Ezra, 371.
philosophical writings of, 264.

Ibn-Jau, Jacob, head of the Jews of Andalusia, 238 ff.

Ibn-Malka, Jehuda, at the court of Frederick II, 565 f.

Ibn-Migash, Meïr, disciple and successor of Alfassi, 315 f.
disciples and descendants of, 317.
in Toledo, 362.

Ibn Moïsha and Maimonides, 456, 474.

Ibn-Sahal, Joseph ben Jacob, rabbi of Cordova and poet, 314.

Ibn-Sahula, writer of fables, 560.

Ibn-Sakbel, Solomon, poet, 318.

Ibn-Sakni, Jacob, 284 f.
awakens interest in Talmudic studies in Babylonia, 429.

Ibn-Sarjadu, Aaron, principal of Pumbeditha, 202.

Ibn-Shalbib, Amram ben Isaac, councillor to Alfonso VI, 292, 295.
killed, 295.

Ibn-Tibbon, family of, 397 f.
as physicians, 582.

Ibn-Tibbon, Judah ben Saul, translator, 397 f.
characteristics of his translations, 398.
pedantry of, 397.

Ibn-Tibbon, translator and physician, 582.

Ibn-Tibbon, Samuel ben Judah, translator and writer, 398.
correspondence of, with Maimonides, 490.
unproductiveness of, 566.

Ibn-Tumart, Abdallah, founder of the sect of the Almovachides, 357 f.

Ibn-Zadik, rabbi of Cordova and religio-philosophical writer, 314.

Illiberis, council of, prohibits the friendly intercourse between Jews
and Christians, 44.

Illyria, settlement of Jews in, 27.

Image worship in the Church, conflict caused by, 122.

Immanuel Romi, poet, 630.

Immortality, teachings of the Kabbala on, 554.

Imrulkais Ibn Hojr, Arabian poet, 68.