Chapter IV: Part II: Lessons (1)

REMARKS.

Chalk Modeling of surface forms is the easiest and simplest method of geographical drawing, and one of the best ways of beginning art work in the school-room, for absolute definiteness of form and detail is not required, and we know that generalities are represented much more easily than details—large masses more easily than small objects.

No one need hesitate to try to draw who can write or gesture: this last we are all doing continually, either consciously or unconsciously.

Watch the friend while telling some interesting story, or while giving a description of some object or landscape. Note the gestures unconsciously employed and how truthful to the subject they are. Also notice that the more intense the desire to make you understand, the more adequate is the gesture.

No conscious thought is required as to what motion to make, for the very desire to express brings with it both the required word and action. This is spontaneity, and if a pencil or crayon were in the hand of the narrator, with paper or a blackboard near, a sketch might be the result, and one quite adequate to its purpose.

If you are in earnest and truly desire to express your thought by drawing or chalk modeling, you will forget yourself in your effort to be understood. You will find a way to accomplish your object, choosing and using the right direction of line and giving the right accentuation or emphasis without any special attention as to the method of working.

Drawings may be made on the blackboard with common blackboard crayon of medium softness, or with charcoal or crayon upon paper. The blackboard is much the more serviceable, as upon that you can draw with great freedom, without fear of wasting paper or of spoiling your work. Swing the arm out freely from the shoulder as you work, give out that which you have to give, without fear, generously. If it is but a line to indicate the edge of a table, draw that line as though you were _glad_ to draw it. Express your thought boldly regarding the fact or object you wish to make your statement about—fear not.

REPRESENTATION OF SURFACES WITH HINTS ON THE DELINEATION OF DISTANCES. LAND SLOPING _FROM_ THE OBSERVER. LIGHT AND SHADE.

The most convenient length of crayon to use, is a piece about an inch and a half or two inches long, yet we may often profitably use the whole side or length of the crayon. If we wish to represent broad surfaces, we will naturally use the side of the crayon, as a child does. To show narrower widths of surface press more upon the end of the crayon, also use a long _edge_ to represent the edges or the meeting of surface planes. This manner of using the crayon seems the most natural for the purpose, and it certainly economizes time.

Line represents direction. When applied to surface we understand it to indicate horizontal, vertical, oblique, and curved surface directions. Try it and see if it is not true that lines in one direction never indicate any other direction; the vertical can never be mistaken for the horizontal, or the reverse. For the representation of a level plain, make simple strokes in the horizontal direction with the side of the crayon, and to represent a vertical surface as a cliff, make a stroke in the vertical direction with the same broad side of the crayon. Oblique surfaces, as slopes, are to be drawn with oblique strokes, and curved surfaces like rounded hills, represented by continuous upward and downward strokes. (See Fig. 1.) In the delineation of mountain masses, that are high with abrupt declivities as well as gradual slopes, we use the side of the crayon with an oblique stroke as in Fig. 2. We see then that right direction of lines of themselves illustrate surface planes, elevations or depressions.

Detail of structure, however, cannot be well brought out except by effects of light and shade. Choose from which direction your map or sketch is to be lighted, and keep it always in mind while drawing. Study the effects of light and shade everywhere. Note the length of shadows at different times of the day, and their relation to the position of the sun.

To represent an unbroken sweep of land or water, as of a plain or lake, draw a broad unbroken line for the distance, as all detail of surface forms seems to merge into one horizontal mass; nearer to us, we perceive more detail of landscape or broken land surface, which we may represent with broken lines. This is the most simple representation of level distance. (Note Fig. 3.)

In Fig. 4, or the representation of a plateau (upraised mass of land), there are horizontal, vertical, and oblique surfaces combined. The detail of structure in the foreground is represented with some definiteness of line, while the mountain slopes are quite indefinite. Notice that the oblique and vertical lines are shorter in the distance than in the foreground, and that the land seems to rise as it recedes from us. Look out of doors and see if it is not so. Notice rows of trees, houses, or telegraph poles, in their relative height, also in their relation to the ground on which they stand.

In the delineation of a valley between parallel mountain ranges, keep in mind the proportionate height of mountains to width of valley; for example, think of the apparent width of street or railroad track at the farther end, in comparison with the width of the same close by you, and also notice that it decreases in definiteness as it recedes into the distance. Note the width of the valley in Fig. 4.

Fig. 5 represents land sloping from us as it recedes. Note the more definite lines in the foreground, indicating some detail of structure, and the indefiniteness, or less distinct lines that indicate the distant hills, these lines becoming more and more indistinct as the hills recede.

LAND SLOPING TOWARDS THE OBSERVER. QUALITY OF LINE. RELATIONS.

Each line drawn has its own characteristic meaning—its own individuality, so to speak. It not only represents direction, but carries with it a certain quality of effort or mentality, as indecision, fear, courage, certainty. (See Fig. 6, _a._ _b._ _c._) We also see in it the habitual mental attitude of the delineator. This is plainly seen in the quality of line used by the timid, contrasted with that of the fearless—by the unstable or changeable mind in contrast to one who is clear in his thought (who “knows his own mind”) and positive in his expression. (_d._ _c._ _e._)

It follows, then, that to draw a firm line with ease and rapidity, one must have a positive knowledge of what one desires to express, just the length of the line and its relation to all other lines; that is, one must see things or objects in their right relations. All things in the universe are related to each other—nothing stands alone. The mountain is closely related to the valley, it has given of its substance to build and enrich the latter, and its streams have carried nourishment to help swell the river at its base.

In its delineation, therefore, one must keep in mind the relation of its height to the width of the valley, and to the plateau on which it may stand; the declivity of its slopes, and their relation to the vertical direction, which may be seen as an imaginary line drawn from the center of the base to the zenith.

The trees beside the hill in Fig. 7 show the latter to be very high. In Fig. 8 the hill becomes low because of the relation of its altitude to the height of the trees in the foreground.

The delineation of more or less detail also helps to determine altitudes; as, to draw grasses, boulders or out-cropping rocks on the hill side, would show that we were near enough to the hill or knoll to see them in detail. Hills in the far distance would be represented without much detail, for they are too far away naturally for us to observe it.

To represent land sloping towards us as in Figs. 7, 9, and 10, the foreground must be broken up, that is, represented in more or less of structure detail. Fig. 9 shows low hills at the foot of the mountain range sloping toward the level land in the immediate foreground. Fig. 10 a steep alluvial fan indicating the nature and character of its structure by the direction and quality of line used. The crumbling sandstone rock, showing the effects of weathering, is indicated by short nearly vertical strokes, with the thought of stratification also in mind. The flowing sand is represented by vertical and oblique lines drawn in the direction in which sand would naturally flow. We have here three examples of land sloping towards us. One represented by nearly horizontal lines, the others by vertical or oblique lines. Grasses grow many blades from one root. Their tendency may be vertical but many influences combine to turn them from that direction. Use an edge of the chalk with an upward or downward motion. Knolls of any contour may be represented by drawing grasses in the direction of the slopes as in Fig. 8.

HIGH AND LOW WATER-PARTINGS WITH MAP.

If your subject “possesses” you, there will be no need of giving special thought to effects or results; these will follow naturally from the state or quality of feeling engendered in your mind by its contemplation; that is, if one part of the surface to be represented is hard and rocky, and another soft and yielding, and you have observed this fact in relation to the whole, you will naturally show it in the quality of line you use. No other hints can be given that will help you so readily to the artistic touch as this, together with the hints given in our last lesson as to the necessity of an adequate knowledge of form and of relationships or proportions. Fig. 11. A water-parting high and mountainous. It shows its rocky structure in the harsh and “liney” quality of the work as well as in the surface contour. The paper is left white for the streams of water. On the blackboard, when drawing maps with chalk, use charcoal for the rivers, as in the rapid delineation of such maps it takes too much time to save spaces for them; and at the best it is such an exaggeration of the width of streams, that it misleads the pupil.

Fig. 12 represents a low water-parting. Notice the texture of line, soft and yielding, produced by thinking, knowing and feeling that the surface was not rocky, but a somewhat sandy soil, mixed with a little loam.

Perspective is shown by less of detail in the distance than in the foreground; the trees in the latter being more accurately drawn, as well as taller. The poplars at the right of the picture also show that the ground is a little uneven, as the distant ones seem to be partially below a slight rise in the surface. Fig. 13 is a map or bird’s eye view of a height of land worn down by streams running in different directions, leaving the water-parting sharply defined.

A little sketch of the sea shore (Fig. 14) illustrates another quality of “touch.” In depicting water rolling irresistibly on, a mighty force dashing against the shore and breaking into showers of spray, you will naturally use a steady, forceful but light touch in indicating its curves and masses. “Feeling” and “touch” are something to be experienced and not taught mechanically.

MEETING OF WATER AND LAND. LAKES, SPRINGS, ISLANDS. HIGH AND LOW TIDE.

The artistic appeals to the higher or finer qualities of our nature, and to be artistic is to show forth or make visible these qualities. Work which is truly artistic can only be produced when we are in such harmony with our subject that these qualities predominate. These truths are so important that I ask you to experiment and discover them for yourselves. How will you get the “atmospheric” effect unless you realize that a certain volume of atmosphere is between you and the distant object? How will you keep true values unless you see truly (correctly)? In all drawing of any special subject it should be the aim to keep everything subordinated to the main point of interest, just as in writing you make every word or sentence bear upon the main point of your theme or your argument.

The meeting of land and water can never be represented by a continuous line; as line indicates direction of surface, and as the surface planes of both land and water are continually changing, the direction of line is changing or being broken, even if on the same general plane. Fig. 15 (a lake among the hills) shows the horizontal plane of water surface meeting the oblique surface of land. Where the water falls over the rock, the oblique and curved lines used are broken, to represent the nature of the rock underneath. Notice that the depth of each little fall corresponds with the stratification of rock. The water, as it recedes, lies level, also. You will have no difficulty in drawing ponds and lakes, if you think of the farther shores as less distinct, and the waves, although rough and broken in the foreground, as merged and blended together in the distance.

Figs. 16 and 17 are high and low tide on the Piscataqua River. (The ocean tides flow in for miles up the river.) These illustrations show the broken, or short, nearly horizontal lines used to indicate the tops of the little waves and ripples in the foreground. As the water lowers a little in the river, the island (Fig. 16) is seen, connected with the mainland by an isthmus, or narrow neck of land; and in Fig. 17 it is seen as a part of the mainland. Figs. 18 and 19 are springs flowing out from hillsides. Notice the relation the grasses and rock bear to the water. Fig. 20 represents North Cape; Fig. 23, a coral island: both show water in active motion, compared with that in Fig. 15, and with Fig. 21 (a rocky island). Fig. 22 shows rapids in a New England stream. Notice the velocity and volume of water. Fig. 24 is a map of the Mississippi River. The upper part of the map is drawn without any lines between river and land. The lower half has a line drawn close to the edge of the water, to indicate the levees, which are necessary in that region, to prevent inundation. For a map of continental islands and drowned valleys, see map of the fiord coast of Alaska, in the Introduction.

SKETCHES ILLUSTRATIVE OF WIND AND WATER EROSION.

All who will may learn to draw. It is that which we most earnestly desire to do, that is accomplished in every department of effort. All lesser interests will give place to that which we consider of the greatest importance. Therefore if we as teachers recognize the value of the habit of sketching before our classes and greatly desire to be able to draw with ease and rapidity, we will put ourselves into right relationship to the work, and will undoubtedly acquire the desired skill.

We have been observing all our lives; we have made careful observations of many details of form and color, perhaps, and close investigation of structure, but we have not analyzed them into terms of drawing. We have not been looking for the planes of surface, or the relative proportions of parts, or for distance or foreground. Now, however, with the desire to be able to sketch readily, we will observe the object or landscape for that special purpose. One sketch will represent only what has been observed by looking in one direction without turning the head. The most interesting point of the view will be that at which one looks directly, and consequently it will be the most important part of the sketch with every other part subordinated to it.

In out of door sketching it will be necessary to eliminate much that is seen, only drawing that which is chosen to be the vital or interesting part of the picture, with that which modifies, or is necessary to show it in its completeness. Select your point of view, standing at such a distance that all you care to study may be comprehended in a glance.

Note the relation of earth to sky, and of trees to hills, streams, or other objects to be included in the sketch. As a help to find the true direction compare the surface planes and edges with that which you know is vertical. Study the light and shade, choose the simple broad tones which will best express distance, middle ground and near details. Work simply and easily, not straining after certain preconceived effects. It is this particular truth or fact which now appeals to you, which you are to express, and do not hesitate to express it freely and boldly. Sketch everything, anything, no matter how complicated it may seem to be, and sketch often. The child does that, and learns to draw by drawing.

Fig. 25 shows the edge of a desert in Wyoming Territory, where the only vegetation is sage brush. The rains have worn a little gully in the general sandy level. Notice the steep slant of the sandy sides. Fig. 26 is a sketch of a hole in the sandy soil of a farm, on the banks of the Au Sable River, New York. It was first worn by the rains as a little gully on the upper edge of the bank, and with every rain-storm more sand was washed out and carried down into the river. A part of this is deposited lower down the river, below the bank on the right, in the sketch Fig. 30.

Use horizontal lines for the sandy level, and curved lines to indicate the slow current in the water. Fig. 27 also shows the result of rain and wind erosion of the bank behind the stump of the tree. Fig. 28 represents a section of Yellowstone cañon, and Fig. 29 is a sketch from Monument Park, Colorado. In both the latter are seen examples of rain and wind erosion, more particularly in Fig. 29. Notice the hard layers of rock that cap and protect the softer sandstone beneath, and the hard pinnacles that jut out from among the sliding sands in Fig. 28.

The effects of river erosion, together with the weathering of rocks are seen in Fig. 31, which is a sketch of a section of Wilmington Pass, in the Adirondacks. The precipitous sides of rock, are shown with evergreens growing wherever they can find a foothold in the soil made by the disintegration of the rocks above. Boulders and trees have been brought down by the loosening of masses of rock, through the action of frost, heat, and melted snow, causing obstructions in the stream, over and between which the waters tumble and roll. Fig. 32 is a view taken from the beach of Arch Rock, at Mackinac Island. It is a mass of calcareous rock, showing the result of lake erosion and weathering. The rock in Fig. 33 shows signs of disintegration from the action of wind and rain.

SCENES TYPICAL OF THE DIFFERENT ZONES.

Take the children into your confidence: that is, cause them to feel that you are not sketching for their amusement or for their admiration, but are trying to help them to a better understanding of the subject. They will appreciate your motive and be stimulated to increase their own efforts. With every attempt to sketch on your part, additional skill will be acquired, for it is only by repeated attempts that progress is made. By such continued efforts you not only gain the power to express the knowledge you have, but are led to see wherein you are deficient and require closer study of your subject. When we try to express our knowledge of a subject by drawing, we are often greatly surprised to find how little we know of it. It is the same with writing or speaking. Our knowledge or ideas of a subject should be arranged in orderly sequence, so logical and clearly defined, that we shall not be obliged to go back and modify or correct any part of our expression. Such corrections in connection with drawing destroy that pleasing quality which marks a sketch as “artistic.” The teacher who appreciates the importance of forming correct mental habits, will encourage in his pupils the practice of accurate and thorough study of a subject, before any attempts at expression are made.

In drawing from your imaginary picture, look at it closely and carefully. Clear it up, classify its component parts into primary and secondary, that is, decide which is the most important and interesting part of the whole, and to what degree the other parts are to be subordinated to that, then analyze it into terms of drawing, _i.e._, vertical, horizontal, etc.

In the scenes given in this lesson as typical of the different zones of climate, some of the primary features were gained through observation, some through pictures supplemented by reading. Many of the sketches illustrating the other lessons, as well as those in the Introduction, will also give suggestions for this lesson, such as the illustrations on Alaska, India, and the continents. These need not be duplicated here.

In the scene from Siberia (Fig. 34), and in that of the dunes in the Sahara desert (Fig. 35), notice the form of both snow and sand drifts—their sharp edges and short and long slopes. The corn-field in northern New York (Fig. 36), illustrates the law of receding parallel lines—that they appear to converge as they recede, and if extended far enough, would seem to meet at a point on the horizon (the “point of sight”), a point immediately opposite the eye. A line drawn from the top and one from the bottom of each stalk in the front row, to the point of sight, will show this. Notice how the stalks in the foreground are brought out with more prominence than those farther away and outside of the direct line of vision.

Figs. 37 to 40, inclusive, tell the stories of a lumber camp (Northern Michigan); logs of cotton-wood floating out into the Au Sable River (Adirondacks); a scarred and storm-worn pine tree, also one gashed by the axe of the wood-cutter. In contrast to the pine, notice the graceful elm of New England, in Fig. 41, and in Fig. 42, the banana tree of hot climates. Fig. 43 is a scene typical of the hot belt (the Amazon region, where there is abundant rainfall), and Figs. 44 and 45 show an oasis in the desert, also cactus, as another typical form of vegetation. Fig. 46 represents a rice-field, and Fig. 47 cotton balls and flowers.

Figs. 48 and 49, showing a factory or “mill” in New England, and the New York State harvest scene, are typical of the cool belt, or temperate zone.

RIVER BASINS. COASTS.

Do not copy the sketches given in these lessons. They are but suggestions to you, who will be able to express your own thoughts and represent your own mental pictures better than you can another’s. They are given to show you that simple sketches will help a child to a clearer understanding of the subject under consideration. As has been said elsewhere, all such illustrations should be drawn as they are needed to illustrate a given point in the development of a lesson; for they carry more weight than if sketched beforehand, that is, outside of the class exercise.

To merely locate in your sketch a house, spring, tree or man, will often be of great value to the pupil, though you may feel timid about trying to draw it, or think you have not the time. The experience of many teachers in this respect may be illustrated by supposing a case.

A sketch is to be drawn, including the figure of a man, animal or any object which has been considered difficult and therefore somewhat avoided.

The teacher, by one or two rapid strokes in the right direction, indicates the location and movement of this figure, and proceeds with the lesson without any hesitation or laborious attempts to really sketch it. The next time it is necessary to represent it (perhaps in the second or third lesson), sufficient confidence and skill have been gained to encourage additional strokes in the development of form, and every succeeding attempt has resulted in the addition of details of structure, until almost without knowing it, the necessary skill has been acquired to make an adequate sketch. How? By _doing_, the teacher has been forced to form the mental picture, which, once acquired, can be represented, though it may be more or less crudely at first.

Fig. 50 illustrates the basin of a young river or brook, with its slopes and system of drainage, just such an one as may be seen near many country school-houses, and an exaggerated type, only, of what may be found in the streets and alleys of the city. Its source (_a_) is found in a slight depression which, in the spring or after heavy rains, becomes a pond, from which its waters overflow and trickle down through two channels, which they have worn for themselves. The soil brought down by these rivulets and others which are tributaries to the main stream, may be seen deposited at _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, as flood plains, islands, and delta. Notice the cañon cut by one of the tributaries through the left slope of the basin, and the cascade and waterfall where the debris brought down at high water has formed an obstruction. In Fig. 51 is given a typical Switzerland river basin. Figs. 52 to 55 inclusive, show ocean wearing and rock weathering. “Hilt Rock” (Fig. 52) shows alternate layers of trap rock and sandstone. In Fig. 53 (“Point Portal,” Pictured Rocks, Lake Superior), is seen the effect of wave and wind wearing in soft rock, and Fig. 54 (“Land’s End,” Cornwall, England), is an example of wave wearing in hard rock. Fig. 55 (“Giant’s Cause-way,” Ireland), shows the weathering and wearing of basaltic rock. Fig. 56 is Eddystone Light-house, (England).

In the drawing of maps, the meeting of land and water can be as accurately drawn by the new method as by the old. The following sketches illustrate the fact that it is not necessary to use any line running contrary to the general direction of surface, in order to represent any contour of coast.

Figs. 57 to 60 are imaginary bird’s-eye views of coasts. Fig. 57 shows a stretch of level land at the coast, with broken or hilly land between it and the distant higher hills or mountains: the latter being merely suggested in the representation. A stream winds its way through the low land to the ocean, where the silt which it has brought down and the sands which have been washed up by the sea, form a delta and sand-bars. Fig. 60 shows drowned valleys, fiord coasts, and continental islands.

SUGGESTIONS ON THE USE OF THE CHALK MODELED MAP OF NORTH AMERICA IN FOURTH AND FIFTH GRADES.

It is hoped that these suggestions will aid many teachers to realize that the Chalk Modeled maps signify much more than the simple fact of high and low land, or a representation of structural relief: that from them, together with suitable pictures showing typical scenes in different parts of the world, such valuable knowledge of the real surface of the earth may be gained by the pupil, as will enable him to appreciate the important relation sustained by man to his environment, and also to his fellow man.

Previous to the study of the map of North America, the pupil may be led to imagine the character of the country to the north, south, east and west of his own locality. He may travel in imagination across the continent to either ocean, and may study different sections of the country through pictures and from oral and written descriptions. Such sections should also be chalk modeled, showing the plateaus, mountain ranges, plains, valleys, arid and fertile regions.

These drawings should be large, sometimes extending the whole length of the blackboard from left to right, and drawn in a semi-conventionalized manner, that is, in a style that combines both landscape, and map drawing. This is an essential link between the two and should play an important part in the development of continental picturing: the motive being (in all this) to have the pupil mentally image the real continent, before the map or symbol is presented to him. With such preparation, when the chalk modeled map is placed before him he readily reads its surface contour.

He notes the great highlands, plateaus, and mountains, the plains, valleys, slopes, river basins, lakes and rivers.

He is then led to infer the character of soil, climate and vegetation—everything, indeed, that relates to man’s environment.

He is asked to locate the great forest regions that furnish material for shelter and articles of household use; to point out the areas best adapted to the growth of different kinds of food-plants, and also those that furnish material for clothing; to indicate the grazing lands where herds of cattle feed; the mining regions, where coal for fuel, iron, copper, silver, gold, and other valuable metals and minerals are found.

Information necessary to inferences is given at the moment required, such as altitudes, horizontal distances, latitude, etc. The pupil is also encouraged to read and acquire knowledge upon certain points for himself, that he may bring it to the class for the benefit of others.

(The following questions may have some value to the teacher in the further study of the map, but should _by no means_ be used as a set form or method of questioning. They are only suggestions, given to those who may need them in assisting the pupil to think and reason for himself.)

His attention may be called to the triangular shape of the land mass, with its greatest elevation in the west. He may be told that its length is 5,700 and its greatest width 3,000 miles.

Questions may then be asked as follows: Into how many slopes or great drainage systems is the continent divided? Into what ocean do the waters of the long slope flow? Those of the short slope? Locate and give general direction of the continental axis. Trace this from Behring Strait to Isthmus of Panama.

Compare its length with greatest width of continent. Compare length of long slope (2,200 miles) with length of short slope (500 to 700 miles). Which slope has the longer coast-line? Mold in sand and chalk model, showing the two slopes and continental axis. Compare surface of both slopes. Which has the greater area of highlands? Which of plains? Give number and comparative size of lakes. Compare length and direction of rivers on each slope. What is the character of the coasts and harbors? What of the islands? Which slope has the larger inland drainage system? Compare with oceanic drainage system.

Locate highlands of each slope. Give the appearance of the Appalachian Mountain System. Compare with the Rocky Mountain System. What can be learned as to the general formation and altitude of each slope? (Show typical pictures.) What is the effect of altitude upon the surrounding country? What on drainage? What is the effect of large rivers upon plateaus?

Locate great central valley of North America. What two great rivers flow through this valley? Trace the Mississippi River from its source to its mouth. Trace the Mackenzie River in the same way. What separates the Mississippi basin from the Mackenzie basin? From the Saskatchawan basin? Trace lowest line from the mouth of the Mississippi to the mouth of the Mackenzie. Into what does this line divide the continent? (Into two land masses.)

Compare these two. In which is the continental axis? (In the primary land mass.) The secondary land mass is divided by the Appalachian Mountain System into two slopes, of which the eastern is called the Atlantic slope. Compare these slopes. Where do the Appalachian Mountains begin? (In the St. Lawrence basin.) Nearly to what gulf do they extend? (Gulf of Mexico.) What is their direction? What separates the secondary land mass into two parts—northern and southern? (The St. Lawrence River.) The northern part is the peninsula of Labrador. In this part trace the water partings of the Hudson Bay river system.

In the primary land mass two immense mountain ranges extend over 5,000 miles—nearly the entire length of the continent. What are these mountains called? Compare their general altitude with the low range of mountains (100 feet high) crossing the Isthmus of Panama. How wide is this Isthmus? (Fifty miles from coast to coast.)

What is known about a certain canal which has been begun in Panama? Is there any other important canal in Central America?

Commencing in the southern part of Mexico, and extending northerly and westerly, two great ranges bound the great plateau of Mexico on the east and west. This plateau is divided by the Rio Grande, Colorado, and other rivers, at a distance of about 500 miles north. The southern part of it is a volcanic region, in which are Popocatapetl and other high mountains.

What can be told about the Colorado River? (Show pictures of structure, also of ancient cliff dwellings.) What is the character of the rock through which the river cuts? Is it in the region of much rainfall or of no rainfall? North of the great plateau is the great basin, 600 miles wide and 900 miles from north to south, enclosed by the Sierra Nevada, Wasatch and Rocky Mountains.

What is the character of the large lake found here? Of what was it once a part? (Tell of old Lake Bonneville, and the terraces which record the height of its ancient waters, high up on the mountain sides, at the east of Salt Lake. Show pictures of structure of country and the effect of irrigation on the barren soil.)

What low range of mountains west of the Sierra Nevada range? Describe the beautiful valley lying between these ranges. Why is it fertile? What are its products? Describe the great red-wood trees.

What peninsula south of this is formed by the union of these two ranges? Locate Mt. Shasta, 14,442 feet high, in the Cascade range (a part of Sierra Nevada), just north of the California valley; also Mts. Tacoma, Hood, and Ranier, in the same range. Find Mt. St. Elias, in Alaska—the highest peak in North America, being 19,500 feet above sea level. (Show pictures of these mountains. Tell stories of Alaskan Indians.)

Yellowstone Park is in the Rocky Mountain range, east and north of Mt. Shasta. What do you know of this wonderful park? (Sketch geysers of Yellowstone Park.) Can the prevailing wind of the Pacific slope be confidently stated? What of the Atlantic slope? Compare the number and character of rivers, also the coastal planes of these two slopes.

What relation has the structure of a region to the amount of rainfall? Locate the region of greatest rainfall on the continent; also the region of no rainfall, or desert region. Compare with the rainfall of the home region. (Let the pupils chalk model the map again, showing the depressed axis, great plateau and mountain ranges: also indicating the character of coasts, whether high or low, and stating whether they are building or wearing coasts, and why.)

Name the river basins of each slope. Locate the basin of the Mississippi River, and trace its water partings. Give the general direction of the river and the reason for its flowing in this direction.

What great rivers are in the right slope of this basin? Which is the largest river? Why are the waters of the Missouri River colored? Which is the largest river in the left slope? Compare the two slopes. Which is the higher? Which has the greater number of river basins? Locate the Ozark Mountains. Are there any lakes in this basin? In which course of the river are the waterfalls or cascades found? (Show pictures of St. Anthony and Minnehaha Falls.)

What is the length of the Mississippi River in a direct line? (1,275 miles, while the length by water way is 3,160 miles.) What is to be inferred from these data as to the course of the river? What as to the slope of the land and the character of the soil? What must be the effect on navigation and commerce? In which course, upper, middle, or lower, are most of the windings? (Tell of the levees built to prevent the river from overflowing its banks.)

(The total length of the line of embankments, including those on both sides of the river and its tributaries, is 42,500 miles.)

At what rate is the river lowering the continent? (Enough sediment is annually carried down to cover twelve miles square of surface one foot deep.)

Where is the soil being deposited? How far is the river navigable? What canal is being dug to connect its waters with those of Lake Michigan? Consider the effect of this great work on the commerce of Chicago. What is the temperature in the northern part of the Mississippi River basin? What is the character of its vegetation? Compare these with those of the southern part. Where is the greatest rainfall? What besides fertile soil and abundant rainfall, is necessary to insure luxuriant vegetation? Name some fruits characteristic of the northern part of the basin, also of the southern part.

Locate areas of land best adapted to the growing of food plants; as grain, including rice; potatoes and sugar-cane; also those best for grazing purposes; the raising of cattle, sheep, etc. What plants produce materials for the manufacture of clothing? What areas are especially suitable to the growth of cotton? What to the growth of flax and hemp? Locate coal mines, and other mining districts; also lumber regions.

Where are the largest cities situated? Why are they thus located? What localities are best adapted to manufacturing purposes? Which to commerce? Interest the children in the discovery of the “great river.” Read accounts of Joliet’s and Marquette’s discoveries in 1673, also LaSalle’s discovery of its mouth in 1682.

Study the history of the early colonists and show the relation of their environment to their social and political development.

The further study of history will require a constant review of the geographical features of the continent, and will show their relation to the political divisions. These may be marked off upon the map with red chalk at the proper time.

In a similar manner each river basin of the continent may be studied separately, and the Hudson Bay basin. Compare the Atlantic and the Pacific, river basin systems, also Alabama and Texas systems of river basins.

Review the whole continent. See where the boundaries of all natural divisions coincide with the political divisions. Draw the continent, and mark all the large political divisions on the map. Add, also, the continental islands. How were these formed? What is a political division? What is its use? Mention the government of each division of the continent.

As the study of other continents are taken up, they may be compared with this one, and with each other, in regard to resemblances and differences.

MAP OF NORTH AMERICA.

It is supposed that in the course of their study, the pupils have been in the habit of modeling in sand and chalk modeling on the blackboard at every step of the way. It may now be found that they are prepared to represent the entire continent, first in two slopes, again in land masses, and then as an aggregation of river basins, as suggested in the last lesson.

Such a development of the map is illustrated in the present lesson by four stages of chalk modeling. The first stage is represented in Fig. 61. It shows the continent of North America in two great slopes, one long one sloping to the east, and a short one sloping to the west, from the line of meeting of their upper edges, or what has been termed the Continental Axis.

Fig. 62 represents the continent as sketched after a study of it as simple land masses—a primary land mass, and a secondary land mass, with the line of depression at the meeting of the two opposing slopes. This line is indicated by lines slanting downwards towards the depressed axis.

The primary land mass is represented as one continuous unbroken land mass extending from the Isthmus of Panama to Behring Strait, and is itself divided into two main slopes. The secondary land mass is likewise divided into two slopes; it is also separated by the St. Lawrence River basin into two parts, _viz._, the northern or Labrador land mass, and the southern or Appalachian land mass. Fig. 63 is drawn to represent the drainage, or principal river basins; as, the Mississippi, Mackenzie, St. Lawrence, and Saskatchawan basins, and the Hudson Bay river system. In drawing small maps on paper it is necessary to trace the rivers with a fine pencil point. For very large maps, four of five feet long, spaces may be left, but great care should be taken to keep them as narrow as possible, so as not to exaggerate the width of the rivers more than is necessary. Fig. 64 is drawn in more detail and the great political divisions are marked upon it. On the blackboard map these divisions may be marked with colored chalk, and should follow the contour of the surface as closely as possible.

For the teacher who wishes to rapidly chalk model a map for immediate use in the class, the following hints may be of service:

Plan to draw the continent in its proper proportions within a given space. Imagine that you see it as already drawn. Commence with the region best known or understood, and draw as you mentally travel, to the north, south, east or west. It may be that you will begin with the great depressed regions, in which case draw the ascending slopes and crowning altitudes as you mentally picture; or if the great highlands or water partings are fixed upon as a starting-point, the descending slopes should be drawn to the line of meeting of other slopes, or to the sea level.

Break the line to indicate broken or uneven surface. You will do this naturally, however, if you have in mind the picture of a broken surface.

Keep the river basins definitely in mind, and the character of streams and rivers: the character also of the land structure; whether it is rocky or alluvial; sharp or hard, or soft and yielding. Knowing that line represents direction, and having a clear and distinct picture in mind of the real country with its surface features, it will be an easy matter to draw or represent it. Understand, as has often been said, that the delineator is drawing from his own mental image of a map, and not copying the work of another. In the latter case no instructions are necessary, as the practice is of no educative value, and should be persistently discouraged.

While at work, always think of the continent as being lighted from one direction, so as to show strong lights and shadows (utilize the blackboard for shadows), this helps to show altitudes; bear in mind, however, that these depend mainly upon direction of line corresponding to direction of surface.

It is to be remembered also, that knowing the geological structure prevents one from drawing level lands first, and from afterward delineating mountains as being piled upon them. Mountains should be drawn where they belong and valleys where they belong, with no contradictory lines underneath to confuse the meaning.

With few exceptions, mountains are the crowning points or peaks of slopes—their meeting place. They may be the corrugated points of mountain ranges or of worn down plateaus.

From whatever part of the continent the work is commenced, let it be carried out in every direction until the limit of land is reached, and then stop. Remember that there is no line between land and water, either at sea-shore or at lake-shore. The rivers may be drawn with charcoal, accentuating the lower part of the river near its mouth.

Let me say to the beginner—do not let any crude results disturb or discourage you. You can chalk model with an adequate amount of skill if you will. It simply means a close study of nature, a clear knowledge of geographical structure, and persistent effort.

NATURAL FEATURES OF INTEREST IN NORTH AMERICA.

It is the constant, persevering attempts—simply the continual doing—that accomplishes the work of the world. Devote ten minutes a day, if you cannot spare more time, to your preparation for sketching in to-morrow’s classes. By expressing your mental picture again and again you clear it up, and the increased interest of your pupils in the work will be ample reward. The experience gained will probably show that your last attempt is a much more complete expression than the first one; the repeated efforts made having resulted in a more thorough knowledge of the subject and therefore, a more complete representation.

As before stated in connection with the study of North America, natural features of interest should be sketched while with the class, at the same time locating them on the map.

The mental images for such sketches, as well as for all others, if not gained by actual observations, must be acquired through the study of pictures and descriptions, as has been remarked before, and should not be copied line for line from another’s sketch.

In Fig. 65 (entrance to Mammoth Cave, Kentucky) the stratification of the rocks is seen back of the entrance, within it, and at the right in the rocks of the foreground. (It is estimated that 12,000,000 cubic yards of limestone have been worn away or displaced in the excavation of the interior of this celebrated cave.)

Fig. 66 (Natural Bridge, Virginia) also plainly shows the stratification of rock. What is the character of the rock? What was the agency employed in the sculpturing of both of these natural wonders?

In Fig. 67 (Niagara Falls) the general direction of the mass is oblique. Notice how the water breaks as it falls, owing to the resistance of the atmosphere. In the “Palisades on the Hudson” (Fig. 68) notice the debris at the foot of the vertical wall of stone, forming what is called the talus slope. This is mostly overgrown with vegetation. In Fig. 69 (a gorge in the cañon of the Colorado) the stratification of rock and the almost vertical cliffs are the principal features illustrated. Fig. 70 represents a lofty peak in one of the cañons along the line of the Colorado. Fig. 71 (Devil’s Slide, Weber Cañon, Utah) shows the mountain side as worn back leaving the trap rock projecting. (How came the harder rock there in this peculiar shape?) Figs. 72 and 73 are geysers in Yellowstone Park—“Old Faithful” and “the Sponge.” In the latter, notice the corrugated formation, and the little stream that flows from its base.

MAP OF MEXICO WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADE TEACHERS.

In the study of political divisions, details of structure, climate, etc., that were not brought out in the work on the continent as a whole, should precede the historical study.

Again let it be stated, that the method and questions here given are not to be followed literally; they are merely presented as suggestive hints to teachers, who should frame their own questions so as to best lead the pupil in his study to a realization of what the country is in itself, and how geographical conditions affect the history and civilization of a people.

Having a general idea of the geographical features of Mexico, the pupil in its closer study, may give its location as lying south of the United States and extending from Texas on the north to central America on the south. He may describe its general shape as triangular or cornucopia shaped. He may notice that the Rio Grande forms its natural boundary on the north, for nearly three fourths of the distance from gulf to ocean. What is the length of this river? Compare with length of the Mississippi. How far is it navigable? (About 500 miles.) What is its character? (Swift, crooked, and obstructed by rapids and sand-bars.) Notice the break in the great western range of mountains, forming a depression between the Sierra Madre and Sierra Nevada Ranges.

Just north of this break and west of the Colorado River, in the state of California, lies the great Mohave Desert, in which is the famous “Death Valley,” 100 feet below the level of the sea.

From the Gulf of Mexico on the east and the Pacific Ocean on the west the land rises in a succession of terraces or plateaus, with elevations varying from 2,000 feet to 8,000 feet above sea-level.

The great central or upper plateau has an elevation of about 3,000 feet at the north, but ascends gradually to the height of 8,000 feet in the southern part. Compare this with the Mohave Desert. With the great plateau of the United States. With Florida (mean elevation 30 feet). In this part, the eastern mountain wall of the great central plateau, and the western, which is much higher of the two, culminate in a knot of lofty mountains. This is a volcanic region, and here a number of isolated volcanoes tower above the uplands in a line from east to west. Of these snow-capped volcanoes the highest are Popocatapetl and Orizaba, which are about 17,500 feet above the sea-level.

Compare these with the highest peaks of the Rockies. From this point the land abruptly lowers to the low Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the Peninsula of Yucatan. Mexico has an area of 744,000 square miles. Compare with area of the United States (3,605,000).

Why are there more rivers flowing into the Gulf of Mexico than into the Pacific Ocean? Where is the greatest rainfall? What is the direction of the prevailing wind? Can this be known from the map? The average annual rainfall at the Gulf Coast is 150 inches. How does this compare with that of Florida? (60 inches.) With that of Chicago? (36 inches.) What is the rainfall on the western coast? (There is scarcely no rain at all.) Why? Where is the source of the rivers on the west coast? The average rainfall of the plateau is 27 inches. May we expect to find many rivers flowing from it? What is likely to be the character of rivers flowing into the Gulf? (They are swift torrents bearing trees and rocks, tearing and cutting gorges and cañons from 800 to 1,000 feet deep.) Compare these with rivers of the Atlantic Coast. How are the sand-bars at the mouths of the rivers on the eastern coast to be accounted for? What effect must they have upon commerce? What may we conclude as to the character of Mexican harbors? Would the water-ways afford an enemy means of transportation to the heart of the country? May we conclude that the natural structure of the country affords protection from enemies? What influence has this isolation had upon the progress of the people? Has Mexico a navy? Why not?

Mexico has two seasons—the dry season and the rainy season. The latter begins in June and lasts until October. What is the prevailing wind in each season? What influence has altitude upon climate? Mexico has three zones of climate, according to altitude. The mean temperature of the low lying coast zone or “Hot Lands” is 77 to 82 degrees Fah. at Acapulco on the western coast. What is the climate? (Hot or dry.) What is the climate on the eastern or Gulf coast, where the mean temperature is 77 degrees Fah. rising at Vera Cruz sometimes to 110 degrees Fah.? (Hot, humid and unhealthy. In the rainy season the land is partly under water—steaming. In the dry season the ground is parched and the air oven-like.) What is the character of vegetation, birds, and animals? Compare vegetation with that of cold or cool regions as to appearance, kinds of trees, etc., and its value or usefulness to animals and man. Which city would be the most desirable for a home?

What must be the natural effect of the existing structure and climatic conditions upon the inhabitants of these areas? What kind of houses would they be apt to build? Draw type of houses with environment. The plains rise from the coast gradually to the height of about 2,000 feet where the hills begin, and above these we find other plains.

How does this altitude affect the climate? Vast herds of cattle, horses and sheep roam these plains, and well stocked ranches are in the northern part. Agriculture is the chief occupation in the southern part. The soil being largely volcanic is extremely fertile when irrigated. From the height of 2,000 feet to about 7,000 feet we find the “Temperate Lands.” These combine the conditions of two zones. The heat and moisture of the “Hot Lands” uniting with the cooler breezes of the uplands, produces one of the most equable and delightful climates in the world.