Chapter V: Part II: Lessons (2)

The mean temperature is from 62 to 70 degrees Fah. Compare this with the mean temperature of Chicago. The heaviest annual rainfall recorded is 90 inches. Air-plants and creeping vines are everywhere. Flowers are more delicately fragrant, birds are songsters, and insects are fewer than in the lower hot lands.

Tropical products are found at a height of 4,000 feet. Rice, coffee, sugar-cane, tobacco and fruits like olives, oranges and lemons are all found here.

Evergreens, oaks and cedars are here as well, while maize and beans are seen growing all the way up from the coast.

Grains grow best at a height of 6,000 feet. Compare these conditions with those of the Hot Lands. Would the temperate lands be a desirable place for a home? What effect has the climate upon the people? Compare them with inhabitants of the low lands. Draw typical scenes, including houses, of temperate lands.

About 7,000 feet we find the “Cold Lands.” Here the amount of rainfall is only one-sixth of that of the low lands. Many small rivers having their source in the eternal snows of the lofty mountain peaks, disappear before reaching the lakes or lagoons. Why? Above 8,000 feet many varieties of the fir tree are seen climbing the mountain slopes. Only four mountain peaks are snow-capped all the year round.

The mountains are rich in metals, especially silver. Sulphur is obtained from the very throat of the crater of Popocatapetl. Salt is obtained from the lakes. The pupils should chalk model the plateau of Mexico showing what they have learned of details of structure. On this plateau every variety of surface is seen. Here are deserts, wooded hills, quiet valleys, and broad level plains studded with clear sparkling lakes which have no visible outlets. What feeds these lakes? What is their character? (Saline.) Why are they salt? Are they getting larger or smaller? Why? Compare the surface here described with that of Yucatan.

The soil of the latter is largely limestone. The surface is low and monotonous, with scarcely a river or brook of any considerable size.

Midway between Vera Cruz on the Gulf coast and Acapulco on the Pacific in the valley or basin of Anahuac, on a plateau of the interior, is situated the renowned city of Mexico, at an altitude of about 7,800 feet above sea-level. In which climate zone is it located? The valley is about 55 miles long, and 30 miles wide, and is hemmed in by mountains with the great volcanoes to the southeast.

Higher than any other, and the first to attract the traveler’s eye as he enters the valley, is the mighty Popocatapetl.

In the northern half of the valley are three small lakes and a number of towns and villages. In the southern half there are three large lakes and the city of Mexico. The lowest part of the basin is Lake Tezcuco. This is only 6 feet below the level of the plateau on which the city stands. The waters of this lake are salt, while Lake Xochimilco is a fresh water lake, situated a few miles south of the city and is 4 feet higher. It is from this lake that the city of Mexico obtains its water supply. What is the population of the city? What do you know of its people?

Throughout the lessons the pupil should be continually led to imagine what the life of the people must be, from what is known of their environment. Lead him also to infer the reasons for their present state of advancement in civilization. Have him sketch scenery, houses, utensils, etc., illustrative of their modes of life.

Show pictures of ancient Aztec and Toltec ruins. Tell of the people who came from the north and settled in the marsh near Lake Tezcuco.

Speak of their great works—temples, aqueducts, dykes and causeways. Refer to evidences of culture as shown in ruins of buildings, fountains, baths, tapestries, etc. What was their religion? Compare them with the Indians of northern forest regions.

What were the motives of the Spaniards in the conquest of Mexico? Describe the landing of Cortez and his army and let the pupil infer the difficulties and dangers encountered on their way into the country; the hot climate, shifting sands, tropical marshes, slippery precipices, gorges with swollen streams, and the mountains to be crossed. Through a pass they went in single file into a sterile region where there was no water: through a second defile, a valley, and then another and more difficult gorge until the summit reached, they descended into the interior valleys. Here the Spaniards rested for four days, near the desert infested with wolves and other wild animals. Tell of Cortez’ attack on the great city—his repulse—the siege, etc. Show that the results were largely determined by the geography of the country.

Cortez conquered because the country being broken up by mountains, plateaus and valleys naturally divided the people into many small tribes, some speaking different languages, who were under forced subjection to a federation consisting of warrior bandits from the stronger cities.

Give the result of the conquest to the Mexicans, and bring their history down to the present day if desired.

What class of people now inhabit Mexico? What regions are most densely populated? What is the population? Compare with the population of the United States.

What is the form of government? Where are the largest cities? Where the greatest seaports? Describe the modifications of surface structure since the conquest. (Lake Tezcuco has receded from the city two and one half miles. How?) Tell of the floating gardens.

The page of illustrations accompanying the above suggestions include the Map of Mexico, Fig. 74, and also a section of the map, Fig. 75, showing more plainly the old valley of Anahuac, and Lake Tezcuco. Figs. 76 to 78 are scenes typical of the country.

MAP OF SECTION OF THE UNITED STATES, FOR USE IN PREPARATORY LESSONS ON THE CIVIL WAR.

The section under consideration lies east of the Mississippi, and south of the Ohio and Potomac Rivers.

The motive for its study is to trace the influence of physical environment upon the character and motives of the inhabitants.

The following plan for the lesson is suggested:

1. _Description of Country._ (_a_) character; (_b_) altitude; (_c_) vegetation; (_d_) productions.

2. _Division into Belts._ (_a_) mountainous; (_b_) hilly or plateaus; (_c_) lowlands.

3. _Interests of the People in these Sections to be Subserved._ (_a_) Protection of homes; (_b_) railroads; (_c_) factories and cattle; (_d_) open navigation; (_e_) non-interruption of labor.

4. _Plans of Attack by the Enemy._ (_a_) To gain a stronghold in the mountains; (_b_) destroy railroads; (_c_) obstruct rivers; (_d_) capture cattle; (_e_) devastate the fields.

Locate on the map of the United States the special section of country to be studied, and chalk model in detail large map of the same. (See Fig. 79.) From this map, together with typical pictures of scenery, _i.e._, mountains, rivers, valleys, vegetation, industries, etc., the pupil may imagine the general character of the land. What will be his mental picture? (A rolling country, broken into hills and valleys, with mountains more or less rounded and generally clothed with vegetation.) Passing downwards from the heights, the surface becomes more gently undulating and finally stretches away in long level fields.

The pupil may imagine what might be seen from a great height south of the whole section. Immediately below is the sea. Florida at the right, low and green, widens into the mainland in front. The sandy gulf shores broken by many rivers and blending into light greens, darken and turn into browns in the mountains. Lines of grays and purples in the distance indicate the farther mountain ranges. The gentle western slope, and the more abrupt eastern one are clothed with rich foliage, through which gleam the waters of many rivers.

What is the trend of the mountain ranges? (From northeast to southwest. Three nearly parallel ranges are seen with long valleys between.) Which is the most important one? What is the whole mountain system called? (The Appalachian System.) Give the names by which the principal ridges are known. Where is the greatest height? (In North Carolina—Mt. Mitchell, 6,710 feet high. From this point the mountains lower gradually to the north, being in Pennsylvania from about 1,000 feet to 1,500 feet in height. To the south they drop more rapidly, through Georgia and Alabama.)

Are there any natural divisions in the eastern slope? (The mountains, piedmont, and tide-water regions. The piedmont or old plateau region is hilly, while the tide-water region, having been built by the rivers, is low and near the coast often swampy and unhealthy. The rivers are numerous, forming low islands at their mouths.) What are the divisions of the western slope? (Mountains, plateaus and valley country. The plateaus are long arms of high land stretching out from the mountains, under the names of the Cumberland and Tennessee. Rivers have cut into the plateaus which gradually widen into the Ohio and Mississippi.) What is the nature of the soil? (Rich, low and level, adapted to the raising of cotton. Near the Mississippi the land is often swampy and covered with a dense rank growth of vegetation. The strong current of the river often changes the course of its channel, thus forming the numerous bayous or long narrow lakes found in Arkansas, Louisiana and Mississippi.)

What is the vegetation of the mountain regions? (Wooded with pine, oak and other mountain trees.) What would be the chief products of this region? How could the lumber be gotten out of the country? (Tell of mines.) (Slightly wooded and richly turfed would describe the middle section.) What would be the chief occupations of the people? (Farming and stock-raising. In the low valley country the products are tobacco, sugar, rice and cotton.)

At the time of the Civil War, what were the chief interests of the mountain people? (In consequence of their industries they had comparatively slight interest in the questions of slavery.)

Their knowledge of passes, cross-roads, sites for forts, etc., would make them invaluable aids to either party. Of what value might the possession of any special point be to either side during the war? (It might be used as a fort or arsenal. To the opposing side it might prove an entering wedge by which other points might be gained and so divide the people.)

What would be the interest of the miners? (They would favor peace for the sake of uninterrupted labor. If by war their work should be stopped their families would be reduced to starvation.)

Near the mines would be found railroads. What would be the policy of the South in regard to them? (To protect them for their own use.) That of the North? (Destruction or possession.) What would be the farmer’s interest? (The protection of stock and farm products.)

In the lowland section the protection of railroads would be one interest. What other interests would be endangered by war? (Vast fields of cotton and other southern products would be subject to trampling or burning; fences, houses and other buildings likely to be destroyed. The desertion of slaves would leave fields uncultivated, want in the houses and homes unprotected.)

If crops could be raised and gathered, what of their disposal? (The market would be smaller, their delivery uncertain. Blockaded rivers and deserted railroads are obstacles to commerce.)

What points would be desirable to gain against the South? (_a_) (A foothold in the mountains and control of the railroads leading thereto; (_b_) Possession of boats to be used on the Mississippi in closing ports and the holding of them; (_c_) Occupation of a line of points on the Tennessee or the Cumberland River, and so push the northern line farther down; (_d_) Possession of seaports along the Atlantic coast.)

What could be planned for the opposite side? (_a_) (To gain possession of Washington; (_b_) To fortify the northern boundary of the Confederacy; (_c_) To protect the Mississippi River and the coast.) Read extracts from war letters of Grant, McClellan and others to show the relation of the plans of the generals to the geography of the country.

MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA.

To repeat what has been said in substance again and again, in the course of these lessons (it cannot be too often brought to mind), if you know your subject, _i.e._, have the knowledge, and desire to give it to others you will be able to do so; more or less crudely it may be, but one learns to do, only by doing.

Should you be in doubt as to the direction of line to use, analyze the gestures you would naturally make in an oral expression of the same subject, and see just what direction you wish to represent.

Do not misunderstand in regard to the representations of elevations on the map. These are not drawn to represent actual shape, any more than actual size or height; they merely indicate location.

The horizontal distances of the map should never be compared with the altitudes, but compare altitudes with altitudes, and horizontal distance with horizontal distance. Lead the pupil also to continually compare the altitudes given, with those within his sense grasp; _e.g._, Mt. Chimborazo is about 20,500 feet in height. What is the height of the highest building, hill or mountain the pupil has ever seen? How many such elevations placed one above another would equal the height of Chimborazo? By such comparison the pupil will be in no danger of getting a wrong idea of the altitude from the study of the maps. Horizontal distances may be compared in the same way. A given distance of thousands of miles may be compared with a shorter distance within the experience of the pupil.

Remember this method of drawing or chalk modeling is designed chiefly to suggest to the mind the main characteristic features of the continent.

To those who have read Lessons VIII. and IX. it is scarcely necessary to illustrate the four stages in the map of South America or other continents.

Notice that the land lowers towards the north in Peru and Bolivia and also from the Guiana highlands. Get the effect by reducing the size of the hills and mountains as they recede, and by making them less definite.

MAP OF EURASIA WITH SECTIONS IN DETAIL.

Your pupils may soon excel their teacher in chalk modeling. This is encouraging. The true teacher will rejoice at such proofs of success in instruction and be stimulated to renewed endeavors.

It is of such vital importance that pupils acquire the habit of expression through drawing. Fig. 80 is a map of “Eurasia” or Europe and Asia together as one continent. It shows the highlands which divide the waters of the northern or long slope, from those of the short slope, i.e., the backbone of the continent or continental axis. About midway between the extreme eastern and western coasts, note the high plateau or center from which many mountain ranges radiate—the Pamir or “Roof of the World” 15,000 feet in height. The plateau of Thibet is also 15,000 feet high, but towering above these are many lofty mountain peaks, some reaching the height of 25,000 to 29,000 feet.

From these plateaus, those of Gobi and Iran, and the highlands in Europe, the land lowers more or less abruptly as it recedes to the north, east and south. To represent the Arctic coast, where the land is mostly low, draw with the horizontal stroke. Between this and the highlands use broken horizontal or slightly curved lines to indicate the broken hilly surface. Be careful to keep the great depressions level around the Black, the Caspian and Aral Seas.

The Scandinavian Peninsula (Fig. 81) is drawn more in detail to show the fiord coast.

Fig. 82 is a typical view of the coast. A map of India, with the Himalaya Mountains on the north, and the Hindu Kush Mountains on the west, is seen in Fig. 83. Notice the source of its three great rivers. Fig. 84 is a typical view on the Bramahpootra River. Fig. 85 is a map of Greece and Fig. 86 a view of the country immediately surrounding the Acropolis. Figs. 87-91 are a map of Japan and typical scenes illustrative of the country, houses, and costumes of the people.

REVIEW OF INSTRUCTIONS. MAPS OF AFRICA AND AUSTRALIA.

In reviewing the directions for chalk modeling, the following points are noted, (_a_) A mental picture made clearer by expression; (_b_) A desire to express through the medium of chalk and blackboard; (_c_) Analysis into terms of drawing, as masses and sub-masses, direction of line, light and shade; (_d_) Quality of line, attained through “feeling” or harmony with the subject; (_e_) Artistic expression (no modifications, as erasures or additions); (_f_) Persistent effort.

Through the observance of the hints given on these points adequate skill in execution may be acquired.

The plateaus of Africa and Australia are classed together in this lesson. Little is known of the western half of the latter, but the eastern half of Australia has its rivers and river basins.

We see also how it has been worn into mountain ranges; the highest part being in the southeast. Africa is also wearing back from the coasts and the plateau itself has many long river basins, the longest of which is that of the Nile. The Nile is not only the longest river in Africa but is the third river of the globe as to length. The valleys of the continent are mostly very narrow, especially the valleys of this river.

The Sahara Desert is represented as being broken into a number of plateaus and depressed regions, which is expressed by short, nearly horizontal lines.

The Abyssinian Plateau is given in detail in Fig. 92. Notice that it lowers gradually towards the south, but abruptly towards the north and that its surface is broken into many plateaus and deeply cut river beds by tributaries to the Nile.

BOOKS OF REFERENCE.

The following books of reference may be found useful in the study of geography as a preparation for map drawing:

Abbott. Waste-land Wanderings. _Appleton._
Agassiz. Journey in Brazil.
Appleton. Physical Geography.
Arrold. Through Persia by Caravan.

Baker. The Nile and Tributaries of Abyssinia.
Bartholomäi. Travels and Discoveries in North and Central America.
Bates. Bird’s-eye View of Central and South America.
Bates. The Naturalist of the Amazon.
Biart. The Aztecs.
Brown. Countries of the World.

Chamberlin and Salisbury. Geology. _H. E. Holt & Co._
Croll. Climate and Cosmology. _Appleton._
Croll. Climate and Time. _Appleton._

Dall. Alaska and Its Resources.
Dallas. Caves. _Humboldt Library._
Dana. Geological Stories.
Darwin. Formation of Vegetable Mould. _Humboldt Library._
Davis. Elementary Meteorology.

Encyclopædias.

Fitzgerald. Australia.
Foster. The Mississippi Valley.

Geikie. Text-book of Geology. _Macmillan & Co._
Geikie. Geological Sketches at Home or Abroad.
Geikie. Physical Geography. _Macmillan & Co._
Geikie. Text-book of Geography.
Geikie. Earth Lore.
Gilbert. Lake Bonneville. _U. S. Geological Survey._
Giberne. Ocean of Air.
Gilbert. Henry Mountains. _U. S. Geological Survey._
Guyot. Earth and Man. _Scribner._
Guyot. Physical Geography.
Guyot. Common School Geography.

Hale. Mexico.
Hart. Geology and Physical Geography of Brazil.
Hinman. Eclectic Physical Geography.
Hill. Physiography.
Huxley. Physiography.

Jackman. Nature Study for the Common Schools.
Jackman. Field Work in Nature Study.
Johnson. Surface Zones of the Globe.
Johnson. Geography—Physical, Historical and Descriptive.
Judd. Volcanoes.
Jukes-Brown. Hand-book of Physical Geography. _Bell._

Kingsley. Town Geology. _Humboldt Library._

Lawson. Geography of Coast Lines.
Le Conte. Elements of Geology. _Appleton._
Longman. School Geography.
Longman. Physical School Atlas.
Lubbock. Beauties of Nature. _Humboldt Library._
Lyell. Principles of Geology.

Mill. Realm of Nature. _Scribner._
Milner. Gallery of Geography.
Mortimer. Journey Across Australia.

Nansen. First Crossing of Greenland.
Nordenskjold. Voyage of the Vega.

Ober. Travels in Mexico.

Palgrave. Dutch Guiana.
Parker. How to Study Geography. _Appleton._
Poole. Egypt.

Reclus. Earth and Its Inhabitants. _Appleton._
Reclus. Birds’-eye View of the World. _Ticknor & Co._
Reclus. The History of a Mountain. _Harper Bros._
Reclus. The Earth.
Reclus. The Earth, the Sea and the Sky. (_2 Vols._)
Ritter. Comparative Geography. _Van Antwerp._
Ritter. Geographical Studies. _Bragg & Co._
Robert. The Earth’s History. _Scribner._

Schuyler. Turkestan.
Shaler. Aspects of the Earth. _Scribner._
Shaler. Nature and Man in America.
Shaler. Our Continent.
Squier. Peru.
Stanford. Compendiums of Geography and Travel.
Stanley. The Congo.
Stanley. In Darkest Africa.

Taylor. Arabia, India, China and Japan.
Treat. Home Studies in Nature. _Harper._
Tyler. Anahuac, or Mexico and the Mexicans.
Tyndall. Forms of Water. _Humboldt Library._

United States Geological Surveys from 4th to 12th Vols. Inclusive.

Vincent. Thirty Thousand Miles’ Travel in Australia.

Wallace. Darwinism.
— What Darwin Saw.
Williams. The Middle Kingdom.
Whymper. Travels and Adventures in Alaska.
Williams. Geography of the Ocean.
Winchell. Geological Excursions. _Griggs._
Winchell. Sketches of Creation. _Harper._

ADVERTISEMENTS

CHALK-MODELING.

_Relief maps_ or representation of relief maps are absolutely essential to the intelligent teaching of geography. The most effective means that I have seen employed for the production of such maps is the chalk-modeling so long and successfully taught by MISS IDA C. HEFFRON. I can think of no other contribution to present text-books which would be of so great service to the teachers as a book from which they may learn chalk-modeling, to the end that any portion of a continent or country may be placed in relief before the eyes of the children on whatever scale the teacher desires.

I have known MISS HEFFRON’S work for the last fifteen years and commend it without reserve.

O. T. BRIGHT, _Chicago, Ill._

It gives me great pleasure to commend MISS HEFFRON’S work to the attention of school officers, and to school teachers who desire assistance along the lines of expression in school work. Her large practical experience in teaching children in all the grades of public school work, furnishes a substantial basis for most excellent instruction in her chosen field.

Whatever success may have attended the introduction of Nature Study into this school has been largely due to her intelligence and skill in directing the work in drawing, painting and modeling.

WILBUR S. JACKMAN, _Teacher of Natural Science,
Cook County Normal School_.

The value of Drawing and Modeling as modes of expression cannot be over-estimated. Every subject taught in our schools gains new power and life, as the brush or pencil, the clay or tool, tells its own truth concerning it. Literature, History, Science and Geography gain an immensely added value: each one becomes a living thing if the teacher possess the power to illustrate her subject. In Geography especially, the Chalk-Modeling originated by MISS HEFFRON, while teacher of Drawing in the Cook County Normal School, is of incalculable value. In fact, to those in whose schools it has been introduced, the wonder is that pupils ever comprehend the subject without its revealing and interpreting aid.

KATE STARR KELLOGG, _Prin. of Lewis School, Englewood, Ill._

I have seen the results of MISS IDA CASSA HEFFRON’S work in teaching Drawing, Painting, Modeling and Illustrative Drawing, and Chalk-Modeling in Structural Geography, and I consider her work of the highest importance. It gives to training teachers, and teachers of general experience as well, a newer and deeper insight into the truth that Drawing with its allied subjects is a form of expression.

JESSE LOWE SMITH, _Supt. of Schools, Lexington, Ill._

FOR THE TEACHER’S DESK.

The Story of Our Planet.

By T. G. BONNEY, D. Sc., LL. D., F. R. S., F. S. A., F. G. S., Professor of Geology in University College, London; Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge; and Honorary Canon of Manchester. With six Colored Plates and Maps and about 100 illustrations. 1 Vol., large, 8vo. Price, $3.00

EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHING CO.

HELPS IN GEOGRAPHY.

People and Places Here and There.

In this series, designed primarily for supplementary reading in schools, the plan has been to prepare books which shall have all the charm and interest attaching to volumes of travels written by the travelers themselves.

Vol. I. Stories of Australasia.

Fully Illustrated. Boards, 40 cents; Cloth, 60 cents.

_Stories of Australasia_ is evidently a success, possessing simplicity and life. It is a difficult thing to get down to the plane of child life and comprehension without devitalizing matter and style. You have done it without loss of freshness.

D. L. KIEHLE, _St. Paul, Minn._

IN SAME SERIES.

Stories of India
Stories of China
Stories of Northern Europe
Stories of England

Fully Illustrated.]

Price, Boards, 40 cents; Cloth, 60 cents.

_Gentlemen_:—_People and Places_, the sample copies of _Australasia_, _India_, _China_, _Northern Europe_, and _England_ are at hand. They are handsome books and what I have read of them up to this time makes me feel that _all_, _all_ our schools ought to be supplied with a full set of such books.

F. J. GEORGE, _County Supt. Schools, Tell City, Ind._

EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHING CO., Boston, Mass.