Chapter VII: Part 7

Raccoons are known to breed in their first year of life (Pope, 1944: 91).

=Procyon lotor psora= Gray

_Procyon psora_ Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 10: 261. December,
1842.

_Procyon psora pacifica_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 16: 107, October
28, 1899 (type from Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, Washington).

_Procyon proteus_ Brass, Aus dem Reiche der Pelze, p. 564, 1911.

_Procyon lotor pacifica_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R.
Conner Mus., no. 2: 10. December, 1929.

_Procyon lotor psora_ Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale, Fur-bearing
Mamm. California, Univ. California Press, Berkeley, p. 137, July
22, 1937.

_Type locality._--Sacramento, Sacramento County, California.

_Racial characters._--Medium size; dark color; smoothly rounded
skull.

_Measurements._--A female from Forks, Clallam County, measures:
total length 905; length of tail 355; hind foot 125; ear 50;
weight 14-1/2 lbs. A female and 6 males, young animals of the
year, taken between November 15 and December 15, average: 772;
284; 114; weight (of 3) 8-2/3 lbs.

_Distribution._--From the western slope of the Cascade Mountains
westward. Marginal occurrences are Lake Keechelus (type locality)
and Mount Rainier (Taylor and Shaw, 1927: 45).

_Remarks._--The range of variation in color and cranial characters
of coastal raccoons is large. I am unable to find any character or
average difference to separate the raccoons of western Washington
from those of northern California.

=Procyon lotor excelsus= Nelson and Goldman

_Procyon lotor excelsus_ Nelson and Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 11:458,
November 11, 1930.

_Type._--Obtained on upper Owyhee River, near the mouth of the
North Fork in southeastern Oregon by J. W. Fisk on April 15, 1920;
type in United States National Museum.

_Racial characters._--Similar to _psora_ but larger; body paler
and grayer; skull larger, heavier and more angular.

_Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, the valleys of the Snake
and Yakima rivers and the valley of the Columbia River north to
northeastern Washington. Marginal records, from reports of
trappers, include the Okanogan River, Okanogan County, Wenatchee,
Chelan County, and Selah, Yakima County.

_Remarks._--The assignment of the raccoons of northeastern Washington to _excelsus_ is tentative for I have seen no specimens.

=Martes caurina= Merriam

Western marten

_Description._--The marten is slightly smaller and slimmer than a house cat, and at first glance resembles a large squirrel. The legs are longer, the body stouter and the fur more fluffy than those of a mink or weasel. Adult males weigh from two to two and a half pounds, and females from one and a half to two pounds. Males are slightly more than two feet in total length and females about 18 inches, the tail comprising one-third or more of the total length. The head is broad and narrows rapidly to a sharp muzzle. The ears are large, erect and prominent. The feet are large with stout toes and long, sharply curved pinkish-white claws. The body and head are rich golden brown, the tail, wrists, feet and muzzle being darker.

The western marten ranges from British Columbia southward through Idaho and Washington to California. A closely related species, _americana_, is found in Alaska, the eastern United States and Canada. Martens and fishers may be distinguished from weasels and minks by the presence of 18 rather than 16 teeth in the upper jaw and 20 instead of 18 teeth in the lower jaw.

The western marten is arboreal. Its principal habitat in Washington is the Canadian Life-zone forests of the Olympic, Cascade and Blue mountains and the various ranges in the northeastern part of the state. At one time it ranged near sea level along the densely forested coastal belt and may still do so in the more rugged parts of the Willapa Hills.

The marten is both diurnal and nocturnal. In Mount Rainier National Park the species has become quite tame and may be seen in the daytime. Many of the small mammals upon which it feeds are diurnal, but others are nocturnal. The marten is active throughout the year. Trappers report that during a storm the marten "holes up in rock slides" where it lives on conies and chipmunks until the storm passes. It spends a large part of its time in trees, and travels through them for long distances. It climbs more skillfully than the tree squirrels upon which it feeds. On the ground or on snow the marten travels in bounds, a yard at a leap, and its characteristic bounding gait forms tracks that are distinctive and easily followed.

Mammals of the weasel family mostly are not gregarious but the marten is exceptional in that in the winter it travels in bands of 6 to 10 animals. Individuals composing these bands are inclined to wander but nevertheless the whole band travels in a definite general direction at a good rate of speed. Travel-ways or "runs" may be used by more than one band, and a run may extend for many miles, perhaps for as many as 50. A band of martens may take two weeks to complete the circuit, but usually returns to the starting point in less than a week. Most runs are about "half-way up the mountain," or midway between the crest of the hill or timber-line and the floor of the stream valley below. In summer the marten ranges higher; it lives in the trees just below timber-line and in the talus slides near timber-line. When the snows are unusually late the martens may keep to these higher areas until November.

The food of the marten consists principally of small mammals and probably birds; the staple food in winter is the Douglas squirrel. In summer they feed on pikas, mantled ground squirrels and chipmunks. Mice, also, are eaten. The deer mouse, _Peromyscus maniculatus_, is usually abundant about old cabins and is successfully used as bait by trappers. Wood rats and flying squirrels are also eaten, the latter being especially important in certain areas. The tracks of martens that had been following snowshoe rabbits were seen on several occasions but the martens had turned off before a kill was made. In every instance the rabbit tracks indicated that the animals were hopping leisurely and browsing; apparently the tracks were made some time before the marten began to follow them.

Martens are inquisitive, and to judge from their tracks in snow they investigate almost every object that they pass; a fallen mound of snow, branch, bit of moss, log or isolated tree is apt to be visited. Failing to find a meal in or around one of these objects, the marten visits the next object that catches its eye. Seemingly the animal always is giving concentrated attention to some definite object although the attention can shift in an instant when a more interesting object comes in to view. As a result the trail of a marten in the snow is an intricate affair composed of numerous straight lines and sharp turns.

The trapping of martens is specialized work, engaged in by professional trappers that follow trap lines many miles in length. Trappers commonly have a base cabin and one or two shelters situated a day's march apart, The trap-line is set in a circle, requiring one to three days' travel by the trapper to complete the circuit.

The standard "set" for marten in the Cascades consists of an opening 8 to 10 inches wide, 4 inches high and 6 inches deep chopped into the side of a dead stub. The hole is cut as high as the trapper can reach. A trap is set in the opening and bait is placed in the back of the hole. A sapling 1 to 3 inches in diameter inclined at an angle of 45° from the ground to the hole completes the set. As the snow deepens, new holes are chopped higher up on the stub. Such sets seen in the summer may consist of six or seven holes spaced a foot apart. The chips from the holes are left lying on the snow and are said to attract the animals. Bait commonly consists of flying squirrel, red squirrel or deer mouse.

The value of the marten's pelt fluctuates from year to year. In recent years average pelts have sold at from ten to twenty dollars each. The number of individuals taken by a trapper varies with the trapper's skill and energy and the location of the trap line. The largest catch made by one trapper in a single winter, of which I know, was 300 animals, taken near Mt. Adams.

=Martes caurina caurina= (Merriam)

_Mustela caurina_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 4:27, October 8, 1890.

_Martes caurina caurina_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:93,
December 31, 1912.

_Type._--Obtained near Grays Harbor, Grays Harbor County,
Washington, by L. C. Toey on February 4, 1886; type in United
States National Museum.

_Racial characters._--Color dark; throat patch bright orange or
brownish.

_Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains westward. Marginal
localities are (from Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 10) head of Cascade
River, Riverside, Chelan, Easton and Trout Lake. The record from
Chelan seems doubtful, and the specimen may have come from
somewhere around Lake Chelan, rather than from the town of that
name.

_Remarks._--Skulls of martens from many localities in western North America were studied in an effort to determine the relationship of the eastern pine marten (_Martes americana_) and the western marten. East of the Rocky Mountains the ranges of the two species approach closely, but each retains distinctive characters, notably the shape of the auditory bullae. The two species have not been taken together and the possibility of intergradation exists. On the basis of the evidence at hand, the two should be regarded as full species until positive proof of intergradation is established.

In the absence of sufficient material, the marten of the Cascades is referred to _Martes caurina caurina_. Fur graders distinguish between a dark "coast marten" and a paler "Cascade marten."

=Martes caurina origenes= (Rhoads)

_Mustela caurina origenes_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. at Sci.
Philadelphia, 1902:458, September 30, 1902.

_Martes caurina origenes_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:93,
December 31, 1912.

_Type._--Obtained at Marvine Lodge, Garfield County, Colorado, by
E. T. Seton on September 16, 1901; type in Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia.

_Racial characters._--Paler than _caurina_ with grayer head and
yellow or white rather than deep orange or brown throat patch.

_Distribution._--Mountainous areas of northeastern Washington and
the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. Trappers have
reported this marten from the mountains near Republic, Ferry
County.

=Martes pennanti= (Erxleben)

Fisher

[_Mustela_] _pennanti_ Erxleben, Syst. Regni. Anim., 1:470, 1777.

_Martes pennanti pennanti_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:94,
December 31, 1912.

_Mustela canadensis pacifica_ Rhoads, Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc.,
n.s., 19:435, September, 1898 (type from Lake Keechelus, Kittitas
County, Washington).

_Martes pennanti pacifica_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:94,
December 31, 1912.

_Martes pennanti_ Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, Fur-bearing Mamm.
California, Univ. California Press, Berkeley, p. 211, July 22,
1937.

_Type locality._--Eastern Canada.

_Distribution._--Originally forested areas from the eastern base
of the Cascades westward and possibly the Blue Mountains of
southeastern Washington and the mountains of northeastern
Washington; now probably confined to the Cascade and Olympic
mountains.

_Remarks._--The fisher is the size of a large cat. In general proportions it resembles the marten. Adult males measure about 3-1/2 feet in length; the tail comprises 16 inches of this. Adult females are slightly less than 3 feet in length of which the tail makes up approximately 15 inches. Males weigh up to 10 lbs. and females about 5-1/2 pounds (Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, 1937: 213). The fisher has a slim body, bushy tail, short legs, large feet, and wide, low and triangular head. The ears are low, wide, rounded and erect. The fur is an ashy, brownish gray in color with an overwash of blackish caused by long, dark hairs. The head is slightly paler than the body. The feet, rump and tail are darkest. The claws are strong and sharply curved.

The fisher is found in wooded parts of North America, extending southward in the Cascade-Sierra Nevada Chain to central California. Its near relatives are the martens. It is active all year. Like the marten, it is active by day and probably also by night. In spite of absolute protection for several years, the fisher is rare in Washington, and seems never to have been common. In consequence relatively little is known of its habits, and the little that is known has been reported by fur-trappers.

The fisher seems not to live in bands as does the marten. Most of the actual records of fishers trapped are at higher altitudes but are misleading because most trappers agree that the fisher occupied a lower zone, altitudinally, than does the marten. There are old records of its occurrence near sea level (Scheffer, 1938: 9). The animals are usually taken in marten sets or in traps set especially for fishers by trappers who find their tracks on their marten trap lines. Since marten trappers are almost the only persons who travel in the mountains in winter, and since they operate mostly above the areas where fishers live, relatively few fishers are reported.

Fishers are said to feed on chipmunks, squirrels, mice, birds and other small, warm-blooded animals, and to climb trees and catch squirrels in their natural habitat. Also, fishers are said to catch and kill martens. Their tracks in the snow resemble the marten's in that the hind feet land in the same places as the forefeet; both animals bound rather than walk.

The pelt of the fisher commands a high price. The smaller sized, females, are the more valuable. The price paid for pelts fluctuates widely and has ranged from as low as twelve dollars to as high as one hundred dollars in recent years.

In Washington more fishers live in the Olympic Peninsula and the northern Cascade Mountains than elsewhere. A few may occur in northeastern Washington, the Blue Mountains and the Willapa Hills.

The name _pacifica_ was regarded by Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale (1937: 217) as a synonym of _pennanti_.

=Mustela erminea= Linnaeus

Ermine

_Description._--Though it is similar in general characters and proportions to the long-tailed weasel, the ermine is much smaller and has a relatively shorter tail. It is darker and less reddish or yellowish in summer. Adult males measure about 10 inches in length, of which 3-1/2 inches is the length of the tail. Females measure about 8 inches and have tails 2 inches long. The upper parts are chocolate brown; the underparts are white or pale yellow. Along the coast of Washington, the pale color of the underparts is more restricted in the ermine than in the long-tailed weasel. The dark brown tail has a black tip. Ermines east of the summit of the Cascades become pure white in winter, save for the black tail tip. West of the summit of the Cascades the winter pelt is similar to the summer pelt but is slightly paler with denser underfur.

Ermines in America range from the Arctic southward, in mountainous areas, to the southern end of the Sierra Nevada in California, and in the Rocky Mountains to northern New Mexico. In Washington they are found over the entire state except the arid parts of eastern Washington, where only the long-tailed weasel occurs. So far as my observations go, the ermine is principally nocturnal in Washington; I have seen only one abroad in the daytime. It dashed from a roadside thicket near Glacier, Whatcom County, and was crushed beneath the wheels of a car. Taylor and Shaw (1927: 53) note several instances of diurnal activity of the ermines at Mount Rainier National Park.

The ermine seems to feed principally upon mice. Its small size adapts it to entering burrows that larger weasels cannot enter. It probably eats chipmunks, birds, and other small, warm-blooded animals. Ermines climb readily and are often taken in traps set in trees for martens. Near Skykomish, King County, William Hoffman took two ermines in traps set in burrows of mountain beavers. The mountain beavers were needed for use as bait on his trap line. The traps were reset and later caught mountain beavers. Seemingly the ermines were traveling through the burrows, perhaps to catch the mice which utilize the burrows as highways, rather than to prey upon mountain beavers. It is difficult to see how the tiny ermine could kill an adult mountain beaver, which outweighs it many times. Should the incisors of the mountain beaver close even once upon an ermine it would most certainly be seriously wounded or killed. Judging by the forest habitat occupied by the ermine in Washington, one might expect its principal food to consist of deer mice (_Peromyscus maniculatus_), red-backed mice (_Clethrionomys_) and meadow mice (_Microtus_).

In observing the activities and habits of mammals in their natural habitat, I have often relied on tracking in fresh snow. Strangely enough, tracks of ermines were seldom found, and the few that were seen came from beneath a log, bush or wind-fall and disappeared beneath similar cover, rarely extending 20 feet on the surface of the snow. The larger, long-tailed weasels often traveled for miles on the surface of the snow. Possibly the ermines were following the burrows of mice through the snow, or perhaps they kept beneath the surface from fear of owls. This suggests a reason why ermines are so seldom seen abroad. They may be following burrows and runways of mice and seldom come to the surface of the ground.

On November 18, 1936, we saw three ermines and two long-tailed weasels taken by a trapper on Deception Creek near Stevens Pass, King County. All were in the white winter coat. In December, 1938, we obtained two ermines at Skykomish, King County, 18 miles west of Stevens Pass. These were in the brown winter coat. In that area the break between the brown and white winter coat seems to come just west of the main Cascade Summit, or at the same point that the break occurs between the brown and white winter coats of the long-tailed weasel.

Ermine skins have little value and usually bring from 10 to 35 cents. They are saved incidentally by trappers, for it takes but a few moments to skin and prepare them. They possess the strong, musk odor so typical of the long-tailed weasel.

=Mustela erminea invicta= Hall

_Mustela erminea invicta_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:75, February 27,
1945.

_Type._--Obtained at Benewah, Benewah County, Idaho, by W. T. Shaw
on October 24, 1926; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy.

_Racial characters._--Largest of the Washington ermines; winter
coat entirely white; upper lips white; black of tail more than
half length of tail vertebrae.

_Measurements._--Ten males and 5 females from central Idaho
average, respectively (Hall, 1945): total length 291, 255; length
of tail 86, 71; hind foot 40, 32. 3.

_Distribution._--Northeastern Washington and the northeastern
Cascades, west to Chilliwack River and Hannegan Pass (Hall, 1945:
78).

=Mustela erminea fallenda= Hall

_Mustela erminea fallenda_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:79, February 27,
1945.

_Type._--Obtained at Huntingdon, British Columbia, by C. H. Young
on May 21, 1927; type in National Museum of Canada.

_Racial characters._-Size large; winter coat usually brown; pale
color of underparts much restricted; color of upper parts dark;
color of lips variable; tail with more than distal half black.

_Measurements._--Seven males and 2 females average, respectively
(Hall, 1945: 79): total length 278, 232; length of tail 77, 60;
hind foot 36.5, 27.

_Distribution._--The extreme north coast of Washington, from the
Canadian boundary south through Whatcom County (Hall, 1945:
80-81).

_Remarks._--The range of this ermine is similar to that of the yellow-pine chipmunk, _Eutamias amoenus felix_.

=Mustela erminea olympica= Hall

_Mustela erminea olympica_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:81, February 27,
1945.

_Type._--Obtained near head of Sol Duc River, Clallam County,
Washington, by V. Bailey, on April 28, 1897; type in United States
National Museum.

_Racial characters._--Similar to _streatori_ but smaller,
especially females.

_Measurements._--Twelve males and 6 females average, respectively:
total length 243, 196; length of tail 65, 52; hind foot 31, 23.4
(Hall, 1945: 81).

_Distribution._--The Olympic Peninsula, extending southeastward to
Olympia.

=Mustela erminea streatori= (Merriam)

_Putorius streatori_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:13, June 30. 1896.

_Mustela streatori streatori_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
79:96, December 31, 1912.

_Mustela cicognanii streatori_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R.
Conner Mus., no. 2:11, December, 1929.

_Mustela erminea streatori_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:76, February 23,
1945.

_Type._--Obtained at Mount Vernon, Skagit County, Washington, by D.
R. Lucky on February 29, 1896; type in United States National
Museum.

_Racial characters._--Similar to _fallenda_ but pale color of
underparts less restricted; tail with less than distal half black.

_Measurements._--Two males and 2 females from extreme southwestern
Washington average, respectively: total length 245, 210; length of
tail 72, 54; hind foot 31.5, 25.5; ear 17, 14; weight 72.3, 46.

_Distribution._--The lowlands of western Washington; north to
Skagit County and Whidby Island (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 11),
southward and westward to Ilwaco (M.V.Z.) and eastward to Carson
(U.S.N.M.).

=Mustela erminea gulosa= Hall

_Mustela erminea gulosa_ Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:84, February 27,
1945.

_Type._--Obtained at Trout Lake, Klickatat County, Washington, by
P. Schmid on February 3, 1897; type in United States National
Museum.

_Racial characters._--Similar to _invicta_ but smaller; winter
coat usually white; tail less than one-half black; upper lips
white.

_Measurements._--Five males from Mount Rainier, and 4 females from
the Cascade Mountains, average, respectively (Hall, 1945: 84):
total length 253, 208; length of tail 76, 54; hind foot 30.2,
24.3.

_Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains. Known from Skykomish
(W.W.D.) and southward to Mount Adams (Trout Lake, Hall, 1945:
85).

=Mustela erminea murica= (Bangs)

_Putorius (Arctogale) muricus_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zoöl. Club,
1:71, July 31, 1899.

_Mustela muricus_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:96, December
31, 1912.

_Mustela cicognanii lepta_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R.
Conner Mus., no. 2:11, December, 1929.

_Mustela cicognanii muricus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:292,
August 29, 1936.

_Mustela erminea murica_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:77, February 27,
1945.

_Type._--Obtained at Echo, El Dorado County, California, by W. W.
Price and E. M. Nutting on July 15, 1897; type in Museum of
Comparative Zoölogy.

_Racial characters._--Similar to _invicta_ but smaller and paler.

_Measurements._--A young female from Stay-a-while Spring, Columbia
County, measured: total length 201; length of tail 46; hind foot
24; ear 14; weight 45.8. A female from Butte Creek, Columbia
County, measured: 185; 50; 26. A male from Baker Creek, White Pine
County, Nevada, measured: 220; 56; 26; 14.5; weight 57.7.

_Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington.

_Remarks._--Two specimens available from the Blue Mountains are
darker than typical _murica_.

=Mustela frenata= Lichtenstein

Long-tailed Weasel

_Description._--Male long-tailed weasels measure about 16 inches in total length of which 6 inches is the length of the tail. Females are smaller, measuring about 14 inches in length with a tail 5 inches long. The body is long and exceedingly thin. The legs are short and stout with rather large feet and strong, curved claws. The tail is well-furred, not tapered, but lacks the bushy appearance of the tail of the fisher. The head is low, wide at the base and abruptly tapering to the muzzle. The ears are erect, low and rounded. The fur is short but dense and rather soft. In summer the color of the head, back, sides and outside of the legs is brown. The throat, chest, underside of body and insides of legs are yellow or orange. In winter they may be entirely white, save for the black tip of the tail. The tail is slightly darker than the back in summer and possesses a long black tip.

Long-tailed weasels do not hibernate even in the coldest parts of Washington. They are active both by day and by night, apparently doing their hunting at the time of day or night when they can most easily obtain food. In the Cascade Mountains where diurnal mammals such as squirrels, chipmunks and pikas are common, weasels are not uncommonly seen by day. In the lowlands of western Washington, where they feed on more nocturnal mammals, they are seldom seen.

The long-tailed weasel is relatively unspecialized in habits. They climb readily and skillfully. They are active on the surface of the ground and follow the burrow systems of fossorial animals such as gophers and mountain beavers.

Weasels seen in the wild rarely exhibit fear of man but rather are curious and apt to watch his actions. Weasels are also often hit by cars and the number so killed seems to me to be out of proportion to their actual numbers.

In moving on the surface of the ground the weasel arches its back and contracts the body until the four feet are rather close together. When the long neck and small head are held upright the animal presents a surprisingly giraffelike appearance. When climbing, the long, slim body has a snakelike appearance. A weasel travels swiftly and erratically in a series of bounds and seems always to know where the next hole is situated.

The weasel has been accused of killing birds and doubtless does so when opportunity presents itself. However, in Washington I have no actual evidence of its killing birds other than domestic fowls. At Republic, Ferry County, a companion and I saw a weasel enter the burrow of a ground squirrel (_Citellus columbianus_). The following day we returned to the area. The weasel was not seen but a ground squirrel dashed into the hole at our approach. Seemingly the ground squirrel had eluded the weasel. At Conconully, Okanogan County, we set a number of gopher traps in an alfalfa field. The following morning an adult male long-tailed weasel was found in a trap but not a gopher was taken. Near Moses Lake, Grant County, an adult male weasel was caught in a gopher trap, but no gophers were taken. At Shelton, Mason County, 50 gopher traps were set. At daylight the following morning the first trap visited was found to be pulled into the burrow. When a gentle tug was given the wire fastening the trap, a decisive jerk at the other end showed that the catch was alive. If trapped gophers that pull the traps back into their burrows are pulled out by main strength, their skins are often torn and damaged. Therefore an attempt was made to reach into the burrow and pull back the sod. An adult female long-tailed weasel promptly fastened its teeth into my forefinger and clung on, bulldog fashion, to be lifted into the air with the attached trap swinging. When the left hand was used to force the animal to release its grip, it fastened onto the left thumb. With right thumb and forefinger I forced it to release its grip, but was unable to elude its teeth which again fastened to my right forefinger. Only by laying it on the ground and crushing its chest with my foot could I free myself from the vicious little beast. No gophers were taken in traps set less than 150 feet from where the weasel was trapped. In the three instances mentioned above, weasels had seemingly killed all the gophers in their immediate vicinity. As regards the gophers near Moses Lake, none was found a year later in the area where the weasel was taken and only old, abandoned burrows were seen. T. H. Scheffer (1932: 54) records other instances of the capture of weasels in gopher burrows.

At the northern limits of the city of Seattle, steel traps were set for mountain beavers in a rather dense colony of these mammals. Well-used burrows indicated that approximately 10 individuals were present. The following morning an exceptionally large male weasel was found in a trap, but all others were empty. The traps were left out for two additional nights but no mountain beavers were taken. A month later the colony seemed abandoned and no evidence of recent digging was noted. It could only be concluded that the weasel had killed the animals comprising the colony. A large mountain beaver weighs three or four pounds, which is 6 or 8 times as much as a weasel. Edson (1933: 76) recounts trapping 7 weasels in burrows of mountain beavers near Bellingham, Whatcom County.

Near Forks, Clallam County, a weasel was seen pursuing a young snowshoe rabbit (_Lepus americanus washingtonii_) along the edge of a concrete highway. As our car approached and passed the animals, they separated, the weasel retreating to the cover of horsetail (_Equisetum_) beside the road. The car was stopped 50 feet ahead. As we emerged the weasel dashed from cover to intercept the rabbit in the center of the road. The weasel knocked the rabbit to its side and, placing its feet on the rabbit's shoulders, bit fiercely at its neck. It then dashed back to the cover of the horsetails. The rabbit stood up, made two hops and died. It was approximately two weeks old.

The pelts of weasels bring the trapper from twenty-five cents to a dollar and a half. Only skins in the white winter coat command the higher price. They are usually taken in traps set for other animals.

In the western part of the state, long-tailed weasels do not turn white in the winter; the back is slightly less reddish than in summer and the underparts are pale yellow or white or may be both yellow and white. From the summit of the Cascades eastward weasels become white. The break in winter color seems to occur slightly west of the main summit of the Cascades. Specimens taken by marten trappers at Tye and Scenic, near Stevens Pass, were white on November 15, 1936, but specimens from Skykomish and Baring, 18 miles to the west, were brown.

The long-tailed weasel possesses a distinctive odor. It results from a glandular secretion and, although it has no great carrying power or lasting quality, it does affect some persons strongly. It is a heavy, rather sickening scent.

The gestation period of _Mustela f. nevadensis_ has been recorded as more than 131 days (Hall, 1938B: 250). The gestation period of the long-tailed weasel of eastern United States has been recorded as more than 70 days. Three to five young are born in a litter, usually four.

=Mustela frenata nevadensis= Hall

_Mustela arizonensis_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. Conner
Mus., no. 2:11, December, 1929.

_Mustela washingtoni_ Taylor and Shaw, in part, Occ. Pap. Chas. R.
Conner Mus., no. 2:11, December, 1929.

_Mustela frenata nevadensis_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington,
Publ. 473:91, November 20, 1936.

_Type._--Obtained 3 miles east of Baker, White Pine County, Nevada,
by E. R. Hall and W. C. Russell on May 30, 1929; type in Museum of
Vertebrate Zoölogy.

_Racial characters._--Size medium; colors pale; back near Brussels
Brown in summer, chin white and underparts yellow, rarely orange;
color in winter white with black tip on tail.

_Measurements._--A male from Neppel, Grant County, measures: total
length 412; length of tail 151; hind foot 43; ear 19. Two males
from Yakima, Yakima County, average: 379; 135; 42.5; 21; weight
176.5. A female from Ellensburg and one from 4 miles east of
Ellensburg, Kittitas County, average: 284; 98; 33; 17.

_Distribution._--From the high Cascades eastward, save for the
Blue Mountains area. Marginal occurrences are Barron (Hall, 1936:
93) and Easton (W. W. D.).

_Remarks._--Specimens from the northern Cascades are intergrades
between _nevadensis_ and the form to the west, _altifrontalis_.
Specimens from extreme northeastern Washington might be referred
to _oribasa_ Bangs as readily as to _nevadensis_.

=Mustela frenata effera= Hall

_Mustela frenata effera_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ.
473:93, November 20, 1936.

_Type._--Obtained at Ironside, Malheur County, Oregon, by H. E.
Anthony on September 8, 1912; type in American Museum of Natural
History.

_Racial characters._--Similar to _nevadensis_ in color but
smaller, with smaller, lighter skull. Color in winter white with
black tip on tail.

_Measurements._--A female from Prescott, Walla Walla County,
measures: total length 310; length of tail 105; hind foot 34.

_Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, south of the Snake
River. Specimens from Walla Walla and Prescott have been examined.

=Mustela frenata washingtoni= (Merriam)

_Putorius washingtoni_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:18, June 30,
1896.

_Mustela washingtoni_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:98,
December 31, 1912.

_Mustela frenata washingtoni_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington,
Publ. 473:106, November 20, 1936.

_Type._--Obtained at Trout Lake, Skamania County, Washington, by D.
N. Kaegi on December 15, 1895; type in United States National
Museum.

_Racial characters._--Color rich, dark; hind feet free of color of
underparts.

_Measurements._--A male from Spray Park, Pierce County, measures:
total length 423; length of tail 164; hind foot 52.

_Distribution._--Higher Cascades from Mt. Rainer (M. V. Z.) south
to Mt. Adams (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 11).

=Mustela frenata altifrontalis= Hall

_Mustela saturata_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers Chas. R. Conner
Mus., no. 2:11, December, 1929.

_Mustela frenata altifrontalis_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington,
Publ. 473:94, November 20, 1936.

_Type._--Obtained at Tillamook, Tillamook County, Oregon, by A.
Walker on July 10, 1928; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy.

_Racial characters._--Similar to _nevadensis_ but darker above in
summer and richer orange beneath; winter color of upper parts dark
brown, underparts pale yellow or white.

_Measurements._--Four males and 2 females from western Washington
average, respectively: total length 411.5, 267; length of tail
145, 137.5; hind foot 50, 43; ear 26, 21.5; weight 227, 136.7
grams.

_Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains to the Pacific.
Marginal occurrences are Rockport (Hall, 1936: 95) and Tye (W. W.
D.).

=Mustela vison energumenos= (Bangs)

Mink

_Putorius vison energumenos_ Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.,
27:5, March, 1896.

_Mustela vison energumenos_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:101,
December 31, 1912.

_Type._--Obtained at Sumas, British Columbia, by A. C. Brooks on
September 23, 1895; type in Museum of Comparative Zoölogy.

_Measurements._--A male from Seattle, King County, measures: total
length 540; length of tail 180; hind foot 66; weight 1 pound, 15
ounces.

_Distribution._--Throughout the state save for the Columbian
Plateau; recorded from Neah Bay (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 11) in the
northwest, Ilwaco (M.V.Z.) in the southwest, Metaline (W.W.D.) in
the northeast, and the Blue Mountains (Dice, 1919: 12) in the
southeast.

_Description._--Because of the value and lasting popularity of its fur, the mink is known to all. Few persons, however, recognize the animal in the wild. The mink possesses the long, slim body and short, rather stout legs of a weasel but has a more bushy tail. The mink is larger than the weasel. Large males weigh up to 3 pounds; females 1-1/2 pounds. Males measure about 2 feet in length, of which the tail comprises eight inches. Females measure about 20 inches and have tails 7 inches long. The color is rich, dark reddish or chocolate brown. The underparts are slightly paler than the back. There are usually small white markings on the chin, chest or other part of the ventral surface. These markings sometimes take the form of narrow white lines.

The mink ranges from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Alaska south to Florida, New Mexico and central California. It is active throughout the year and is principally, though not exclusively, nocturnal. McMurry (1940: 47) records three mink seen at 3:30 p. m. on August 8, 1939, at Packwood Lake, Lewis County, one of which was carrying a garter snake two feet in length. This mustelid is semiaquatic, living along rivers, streams, lakes and salt water and spends most of its time along the shore, on muddy or sandy beaches. In this respect it resembles the raccoon. Whereas the raccoon spends a part of its time on the land, the mink spends a corresponding amount of its time in the water. It is an excellent swimmer, able to overtake and capture fish in the water.

In the San Juan Islands minks have forsaken the shoreline and roam over the uplands, feeding on the abundant, feral domestic rabbits. I found evidence of their presence far inland, miles from water, in grassy and bushy wastes; along the beaches their tracks were rarely seen. Along Puget Sound, minks spend part of their time on the beaches, feeding on dead fish and other marine animal life. These animals, however, seem to live along the rivers and streams flowing into the sound. Along the ocean coast, some minks seem to live exclusively in the marine shoreline habitat.

The mink ascends some distance into the Cascade and Olympic mountains along the larger watercourses. There are reliable reports of minks from Heart Lake and Lake Dorothy, King County, high in the Cascades. These animals were seen in the summer but they may live in higher parts of the Cascades, at least about some of the larger lakes throughout the year. As far as is known there are no minks on the Columbian Plateau.

The food probably varies with locality. Along the ocean beaches they eat dead sea birds, stranded fish, crustaceans, and mollusks. Along Puget Sound their tracks are commonly seen following the caked, decaying seaweed and debris that collects at the high tide mark. Svihla and Svihla (1931: 22) captured a mink that was feeding on the beach of the Olympic Peninsula. This individual, in captivity, was able to open and feed on clams. Fur trappers report that minks feed on mountain beavers, and that the flesh of the mountain beaver is the best bait for attracting minks. Along streams and lakes, minks are thought to feed on mice, birds, fish, crayfish and thin-shelled, fresh-water mussels. The muskrat forms an important item of diet near the larger lakes and streams. Muskrats trapped near Seattle were often attacked by minks and either eaten or so slashed and torn that their pelts were worth but a fraction of what they would bring in an undamaged condition.

The tracks of a mink noted in freshly fallen snow about a garbage dump on the shore of Lake Washington, Seattle, indicated that the animal had been hunting house rats, which were numerous there. Minks are not uncommon in the marshes along Lake Washington near the University of Washington campus, Seattle, where I discovered evidence of their preying on ducks and coots. The ducks included mallards and green-winged teal, species most apt to alight in small pools in the rushes where a mink might find cover. I found the fresh tracks of one mink about a half-eaten golden tench 8 inches long. The tench is a fish of the sucker tribe, introduced into the lake. Tracks of minks are not uncommonly seen along rivers and streams under conditions that indicate they were hunting crayfish.

The raw pelt of the mink sells usually at from 10 to 20 dollars. The fur is in constant demand and fluctuates in price less than most furs. The average trapper takes a few minks each year along with his catch of muskrats, raccoons, and skunks but some trappers have taken as many as 100 minks in a winter in areas where the animal is especially numerous.

=Gulo luscus luteus= Elliot

Wolverine

_Gulo luteus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus., Publ. 87, zoöl. ser.
3:260, December, 1903.

_Gulo luscus luteus_ Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale, Fur-bearing
Mamm. California, Univ. California Press, Berkeley, p. 251, July
22, 1937.

_Type._--Obtained on Mt. Whitney, Tulare County, California, by E.
Heller; type in Field Museum of Natural History.

_Measurements._--The dried skin of a wolverine taken 3 miles south
of Riverside, Okanogan County, was 4 feet in length. The animal
weighed 40 pounds (Scheffer, 1941: 37).

_Distribution._--Timber-line region of the Cascades Mountains.
From Robinson Creek (Scheffer, 1938: 8) south to Mount Rainier
(Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 12).

_Remarks._--Specimens from Washington are intermediate in
character between _luteus_ and the race inhabiting British
Columbia, although available skulls are closer to _luteus_.

_Description._--Large males measure more than three feet in length, of which the tail makes up 10 inches; they weigh as much as 50 pounds (Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, 1937: 253). The body is wide and stocky; the tail is short; the legs, especially the forelegs, are short, thick and powerful; the feet are large and are armed with long, curved claws; the head is wide; the jaws are powerful with heavy teeth. The pelage is long and rather shaggy. Face, legs, back and terminal portion of the tail are dark, blackish brown but the forehead is grayish, contrasting with the dark color of face and top of the head. Two broad, yellowish-brown bands begin on the side of the shoulders and pass back, low on the sides, to the hips where they join across the back and base of the tail.

The wolverines, nominally of several species, form a compact group that ranges over the boreal regions of the Old and New world. In North America they range southward from the Arctic to California and Colorado.

The wolverine is adapted to boreal conditions and is most abundant in the arctic. In the Cascades it occurs only at or near timber-line. Except the wolf and the possibly extinct grizzly bear, the wolverine is the rarest carnivore in Washington. Probably it has been rare since the retreat of the continental glaciers, for suitable habitat for wolverines is not abundant and each animal requires a large area over which to range. An unusual record, possibly of a wandering animal, is given by Scheffer (1941: 37). This is of an adult male taken in the Okanogan Valley 3 miles south of Riverside, Okanogan County, on March 22, 1941.

=Lutra canadensis= (Schreber)

River otter

_Description._--The otter has the long body of many mustelids, but is specialized for aquatic life. Males are slightly larger than females. Large adults measure more than 3-1/2 feet in length, of which the tail comprises 18 inches. The largest adults may weigh as much as 25 pounds. The body is elongate but rather plump. The forelimbs are small and laterally placed. The hind legs are the heavier, and are situated posteriorly. The feet are large and webbed for swimming. The tail is long, thick at the base and gradually tapering to a narrow tip. The head is small and rounded. The ears are tiny and the eyes are of moderate size. The upper lips are large, somewhat spaniel-like, and support a mustache of stiff vibrissae. The fur is short, dense and soft. The tail is sleek with short, posteriorly-directed fur, and is not bushy. The fur is rich, dark chocolate brown in color, slightly paler on the animal's underparts than on its upper parts.

Otters range over Eurasia, North America and South America. Those occurring in North America north of Mexico are thought to belong to a single species, _canadensis_. Several species from tropical America may eventually be shown to also be races of _canadensis_.

The aquatic habits of the otter allow it to exist in several life-zones, in both marine and fresh-water habitats. The principal environment is the streams, rivers and lakes of the Transition Life-zone, but along the larger rivers, otters range up into the Canadian Life-zone and along the Snake and Columbia rivers they enter the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. They are active throughout the year. As we have observed them, they are principally nocturnal.

Otters are extremely powerful swimmers. Tracks along the North Fork of the Tolt River, King County, showed where otters had entered water that flowed over a stony bottom at the velocity of rapids. Their occurrence in the Tolt, Skykomish and Snoqualmie rivers where these are swift mountain streams indicates exceptional swimming ability. After emerging from the water, an otter often follows along the shore, sometimes for miles.

In the San Juan Islands the otters have taken to a marine existence. In the summer of 1938, abundant opportunity offered to observe the otters at Thatcher Bay, Blakely Island. Here, in the evening, bats were shot as they flew over the calm water of the bay. Specimens killed were retrieved by rowing out to them with a dory. For the first two nights bats were collected and retrieved without incident. On the third night, several of the bats vanished between the time they were killed and the time that the boat was launched from the rocky beach. The presence of a shark or other large fish was at first suspected, but observation showed a group of three or possibly four otters to be the thieves. On succeeding nights the animals became bolder. A dead bat became the object of a race between otters and collector. They completely ignored shouts, dodged stones hurled at them, and stole almost all the bats shot. Only a sense of humor and desire to study the animals saved them from a load of fine shot. Bat collecting was given up in disgust.

These otters were remarkably seallike in many actions. In swimming their heads, shoulders and part of their back were exposed. In resting in the water, only the round head remained above the surface. They were never seen to float prone on the surface or rest on their backs, as does the sea otter. They were noisy swimmers, splashing with paws or heads as they dived. Their eyesight was remarkable. Stones the size of a walnut were hurled at them from distances as short as 25 feet. All were dodged with little effort. In this connection the experience of two trappers who caught an otter in the Samamish River near Woodinville, King County, is interesting. The trap holding the otter had been attached by a wire 6 feet long to a pole on the bank. The wire was detached from the pole; while one trapper held the wire, the other tried to strike the otter with an oar as the boat drifted over deep water. The otter was free to swim and dive for the length of the wire and trap chain. It detected, and evaded by dodging or diving, every blow directed at it and not until the animal tired, a half hour later, could it be killed. The trappers then noted that the splashing of oars and otter had nearly filled the boat with water. The trappers were exhausted.

The otters of Blakely Island were not unique in occupying a marine habitat. At Strawberry Bay, Cypress Island, on July 5, 1938, fishermen brought in a "strange animal" caught by them at Black Rock, a tiny bare and isolated islet 5 miles to the west. The heavy box holding the animal was opened, disclosing a very frightened young otter. Questioned, the fishermen stated that four young and one adult had been seen in the surf. They had thought the animals a species of seal, and were somewhat surprised at being successful in their attempts to catch one. The otter was too young to fare for itself and was kept in camp in the hope that it might be reared and released. It ate a few fresh herring and candlefish and drank some condensed milk. It refused whole salmon and sea bass but ate some skinned and boned strips of these fish. It died a week after it was captured. This young otter made a ticking sound, almost a chirp. A variety of crying and whimpering sounds were also made, and when petted it grunted in satisfaction. If surprised or when first picked up it gave a deep harsh growl, unexpectedly vicious in sound, for such a small animal.

The otters at Blakely Island fed on a great variety of food. The only food they were actually seen to eat was candlefish, a slim silvery fish 6 inches in length. On several occasions an otter was seen swimming with the head of a candlefish held fast in its mouth and the fish's body extending out in a silvery bow. Many feces of these otters were composed entirely of the feathers of grebes and scoters. These birds were probably not killed by the otters but died a natural death or were shot by men. At that camp scarcely a day passed in which at least one person was not seen firing a .22 caliber rifle from a cabin cruiser into the flocks of scoters at the mouth of the bay. Dead sea birds were common on the shore and doubtless furnished food for otters as they did for crows and eagles. The majority of the otter feces examined at Blakely Island were composed of the remains of invertebrates. The small mussel (_Mytilus edulis_) was most abundant. Crabs formed an important part of their diet. Strangely enough the shore crab (_Hemigrapsus nudus_) and the porcelain crab (_Petrolisthes eriomerus_) were seldom eaten though they were abundant beneath the rocks upon which the feces were found, and formed the principal food item of raccoons. These species of invertebrates live beneath rocks and the raccoon probably reaches beneath the rocks to catch the crabs with its handlike forefeet, as the otter is unable to do. The edible crab (_Cancer productus_) and kelp crab (_Telmessus cheiragonus_) were most often eaten by otters. Also eaten were snails (_Margarites_, _Littorina_), bitter oysters (_Pododesmus macroschisma_), unidentified pelecypods, barnacles (_Balanus_), one chiton (_Mopalia muscosa_), and once a starfish. The invertebrate remains, save for the snails, were crushed and broken.

Fish of many species were abundant in these waters. Salmon were often seen leaping near the playing otters. Yet no scales or other remains of fish were detected in the feces. Candlefish possess tiny scales that could probably be seen by microscopic examination only. As for the bird remains, the quantity of feathers consumed is notable. The otters apparently do not pluck birds, as do minks. Indeed, of the material eaten, the food value by volume seems extraordinarily low. A great quantity must be eaten to nourish an animal as large and as active as an otter. The number of fecal droppings seen each morning indicates that this is the case.

seems extraordinarily low. A great quantity
must be eaten to nourish an animal as large and as active as an
otter. The number of fecal droppings seen each morning indicates
that this is the case.

The favored food of the otter in fresh water streams and lakes is the crayfish. The greater part, perhaps 80 per cent, of otter feces seen in the lowlands of western Washington, were composed of crayfish remains. Some fish are also eaten and locally otters may do damage among the steelhead trout. Even worse, from the fisherman's standpoint, they frighten and scatter the schools of steelhead trout. Frogs are eaten, as well as the thin-shelled mussels. The feathers of coots were twice seen in otter feces near Cottage Lake, King County.

The fur of the otter is dense and beautiful but the skin is rather heavy. Changes in styles cause great fluctuation in the value of the otter's pelt.

=Lutra canadensis pacifica= Rhoads

_Lutra hudsonica pacifica_ Rhoads, Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., n.
s., 19: 429, September, 1898.

_Lutra canadensis pacifica_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,
10: 460, November 10, 1898.

_Type._--Obtained at Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, Washington
(altitude 3,000, rather than 8,000 feet as stated in original
citation); type in Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.

_Measurements._--An adult male from the Lower Calawah River, near
Forks, Clallam County, measured (skinned carcass): total length
1205; length of tail 490; weight (entire) 23 pounds. A male from
Puget Island, Wahkiakum County, measured (skinned carcass): total
length 1250; length of tail 490. A female from Satsop, Grays
Harbor County, measured (skinned carcass): total length 1205;
length of tail 440. A female from Calawah River near Forks,
Clallam County, measured: total length 1062; length of tail 430;
hind foot 120; ear 23; weight 14-3/4 pounds.

_Distribution._--Watercourses throughout the state, scarcer east
of the Cascades; recorded at Forks (V. B. S.) in the northwest,
Puget Island (V. B. S.) in the southwest, Colville (Taylor and
Shaw, 1929: 12) in the northeast, and Touchet (Taylor and Shaw,
1929: 12) in the southeast.

=Lutra canadensis vancouverensis= Goldman

_Lutra vancouverensis_ Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 48:
186, November 15, 1935.

_Type._--Obtained at Quatsino, Vancouver Island, British Columbia,
by H. O. Berg in 1905; type in United States National Museum.

_Racial characters._--No adults, referred to this race from
Washington, have been examined. Said to have broader skull than
_pacifica_.

_Measurements._--The only available specimen, a young female from
Black Rock, San Juan County, measured: total length 792; length of
tail 247; hind foot 103; ear 22.

_Distribution._--The San Juan Islands of northern Puget Sound and
adjacent marine waters.

_Remarks._--The otters of the San Juan Islands are referred to
this race on geographical grounds. Numerous islands connect
Vancouver Island with the San Juan Islands, and intervening
channels are not too wide for otters to swim. Adult material may
show that the otters of the San Juan Islands are referable to
_pacifica_ or to an undescribed race rather than to
_vancouverensis_.

=Enhydra lutris nereis= (Merriam)

Sea otter

_Latax lutris nereis_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 17:
159, October 6, 1904.

_Enhydra lutris nereis_ Grinnell, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl.,
21: 316, January 27, 1923.

_Type._--Obtained on San Miguel Island, Santa Barbara Islands, by
G. M. McGuire in 1904; type in United States National Museum.

_Distribution._--Formerly occurred along the ocean coast of
Washington. Now extinct there.

_Description._--Adult sea otters reach a length of six feet. The body is stout, long and round; the tail is short, flattened and about a foot in length. The legs are short and thick. The hind feet are webbed for swimming. The head is rounded with small eyes and ears, and a seallike mustache of stiff bristles on the muzzle. The upper lip is thick and heavy, drooping over the sides of the mouth in a spaniel-like fashion. The fur is long, soft and extremely dense. The color of the body is various shades of rich, dark brown. Scattered white hairs often give the coat a frosted appearance. The heads of the adults are pale grey, occasionally almost white.

The sea otter once ranged from the Gulf of California north along the west coast of North America to Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, Siberia and Japan. It is now found only in a small area along the coast of California and in remote islands of the north Pacific. Once abundant along the coast of Washington, it is now completely extinct there.