Chapter VIII: Part 8

The habits of sea otters living on the California Coast in the vicinity of Carmel have been described by Fisher (1939: 21-36). Available information on the sea otter in Washington has been given by Scheffer (1940B: 369-388). The search for sea-otter skins influenced the exploration and settlement of the northwest. Captain James Cook obtained skins of sea otter at Nootka Sound, Vancouver Island, in 1778. The mouth of the Columbia River was discovered by Captain Robert Gray on May 11, 1792, while trading for sea otter skins.

According to Scheffer, the bulk of the sea-otter population on the Washington coast was concentrated between the mouth of the Columbia River and Point Grenville at the mouth of the Quinault River. The otters were found several miles from land in extensive kelp beds. The principal food of the sea otter in Washington seems to have been the short-spined purple sea urchin (_Strongylocentrotus purpuratus_). The animals were social, living in herds of up to 400 individuals. They never came out on land, living, sleeping, and bringing forth their young on the kelp beds of the open ocean. The single young was born at any month of the year.

=Spilogale gracilis= Merriam

Civet cat or spotted skunk

_Description._--The civet cat is slightly less than 18 inches in total length, of which the tail constitutes 6 inches. Large, fat animals may weigh more than a pound. The body is long and moderately stout, heavier than that of the weasel but slimmer than that of the striped skunk. The tail is long with long, plumelike fur. The legs are slender and of moderate length. The feet are small with long claws. The head is small and triangular with low, erect ears and large, bright eyes. The fur is short but soft and silky. The ground color of the civet cat is black. Wavy lines and spots of white or salmon intercept the black in a complex pattern. Variations in color patterns include width of stripes, waviness of stripes, and breaking up of the stripes into spots.

_Spilogale_ is restricted to America; it ranges from southern British Columbia south into Central America. Several species are now recognized, but additional material probably will show intergradation between some of them and reduce the number.

The name "spotted skunk" is seldom used by trappers or other persons familiar with the animal. Nor is it appropriate, for the distinctive color pattern is composed of short stripes. Neither is the term "civet cat" appropriate, for the true civet is found in Asia. The name civet cat is well established, however, and will doubtless remain in general use.

The civet cat is principally a lowland animal, but has been recorded from the Nisqually entrance of Mt. Rainier National Park (Brockman, 1939: 70). Its rather generalized habits allow it to exist in areas that will not support larger carnivores or species with specialized food habits. It dwells in areas of thickets, brushy tangles or deep woods. In southeastern Washington it lives in rocky places as well as in river-side thickets of willow and cottonwood. Where conditions are suitable it ranges up into the Canadian Life-zone but is most abundant in the Transition Life-zone.

The civet cats, in contrast to the striped skunks, are exclusively nocturnal. They are active the year around in western Washington but move about less in spells of unusually cold weather. We have taken them, however, in freezing weather.

In spite of their abundance and wide range, civet cats are known to few persons other than trappers, perhaps because of their exclusively nocturnal habits. They do occasionally make people aware of themselves by taking up residence about old buildings. They are rather noisy at times. At the Tolt River, 10 miles southeast of Duvall, King County, we were asleep in an old building when a stamping noise from the next room awakened us. Investigation revealed a civet cat indulging in a series of short, stiff-legged hops. The forefeet were held slightly ahead and six or eight hops made. The animal would then relax, turn, and prance off in a new direction. The amount of noise made by its feet striking the board floor was surprising. The civet cat seemed to enjoy the noise it made, and the prancing may have been a method of playing. Trapped civet cats have been seen to make a similar but shorter series of hops at the trapper's approach, which might have been a warning. In the case described, however, the noise of the animal's actions was heard before the animal was seen and presumably when it was unaware of human presence. The civet cat also makes a drumming noise similar to the drumming of a wood rat. This was heard twice from wild animals that did not suspect an observer's presence, and once from a captive animal. While an animal was drumming I never had the opportunity to watch the actions closely enough to describe them. Apparently the drumming is done with the forefeet.

The civet cat is said to be a good climber and to do some of its hunting in trees. One trapped civet cat climbed to the limit of a trap chain and wire in a low bush near Cottage Lake, King County, but, in Washington, I have no other evidence of this animal climbing. Near Cottage Lake, we took a civet cat in a trap set beneath 2 inches of water at the side of a stream. The animal had either been swimming or wading.

Trapped civet cats rarely dig holes near the traps, as striped skunks often do. One caught near Ocean Park, Pacific County, did dig a hole beneath a log and forced earth and leaves over the entrance. I walked within a few feet of the animal in searching for the trap. Not until the trap chain was seen did I find the civet cat. None was taken in traps set in mountain beaver burrows, although I have caught both striped skunks and weasels in such burrows.

Some trappers state that the musk of the civet cat smells different from that of the striped skunk. I think the odor is slightly more acrid and that it does not carry so far as the skunk musk. The civet cat is far more active and nervous than the striped skunk. Whereas the striped skunk almost never throws its scent when trapped, the civet cat almost invariably does so, apparently when the trap closes about its legs. Striped skunks in traps move slowly and steadily but civet cats jump, roll and squirm erratically.

In the winter of 1934 a large male civet cat was taken near Cottage Lake, King County. It had been killed and partially eaten in the trap. The ground about the set was torn up, indicating that the civet cat had put up a fight. The area for many feet about smelled of skunk musk. The body of the civet cat was used for bait and the trap reset. The following morning a large male striped skunk was in the trap. Its skin bore superficial cuts in several places about its neck and rump, and it was doubtless the animal that had killed the civet cat. Under ordinary circumstances a striped skunk could scarcely catch the far swifter and more agile civet cat. One civet cat in a trap was killed and partly eaten by a horned owl. Save for dislodging a few feathers, the civet cat seemed to have done little damage to the owl. The thick cover inhabited by the civet cat ordinarily protects it from owls. Dead civet cats run over by cars on the highway are rarely seen.

The stomach of a specimen from Ocean Park, Pacific County, contained the remains of three red-backed mice (_Clethrionomys_ _californicus_). The stomachs of most specimens trapped were empty. Mice, birds and insects probably constitute the bulk of the food.

Notes on the early life of _Spilogale interrupta_, a species related to the one occurring in Washington, have been published by Crabb (1944: 213-221).

The fur of the civet cat is of little value; in recent years trappers have received from fifteen cents to a dollar for large pelts. Because of its habit of throwing scent when in the traps, most trappers discard the animals without skinning them.

=Spilogale gracilis saxatilis= Merriam

_Spilogale saxatilis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 4:13, October 8,
1890.

_Spilogale gracilis saxatilis_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 26:23,
November 24, 1906.

_Type._--Obtained at Provo, Utah County, Utah, by V. Bailey on
November 13, 1890; type in United States National Museum.

_Racial characters._--Size small; white areas extensive,
especially on tail but white triangle on head small; white areas
less often tinged with salmon or orange than _latifrons_.

_Measurements._--Howell (1906: 32) gives the measurements of a
male from Harney, Oregon, and the average of 3 females from Oregon
as, respectively: total length 455, 360; length of tail 155, 129;
hind foot 50, 40.

_Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, north to Kamiak Butte
(Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 12).

=Spilogale gracilis latifrons= Merriam

_Spilogale phenax latifrons_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 4:15, October
8, 1890.

_Spilogale olympica_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus., Publ. 32, zoöl.
ser. 1:270, March, 1899 (type from Lake Sutherland, Clallam
County, Washington).

_Spilogale phenax olympica_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 26:33,
November 24, 1906.

_Spilogale gracilis latifrons_ Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale,
Fur-bearing Mamm. California, Univ. California Press, Berkeley, p.
301, July 22, 1937.

_Type._--Obtained at Roseburg, Douglas County, Oregon, by T. S.
Palmer on July 13, 1889; type in United States National Museum.

_Racial characters._--Larger than _saxatilis_ with less extensive
white markings, especially on tail, but white markings on head
larger; white usually tinged with salmon or pale orange.

_Measurements._--Means for four males, from Pacific County, are
total length 411; length of tail 136; hind foot 47.5; ear 27. One
weighed 784 grams.

_Distribution._--Western Washington from the western edge of the
Cascades westward. Marginal records, given by Taylor and Shaw
(1929: 12) are Hamilton, on the north; Lake Keechelus, on the
east; and Carson, on the south.

_Remarks._--Comparison of adult specimens of civet cats from
western Washington and western Oregon shows no reliable character
for recognition of two races. No difference in tail length exists.
Narrowness of rostrum was the only diagnostic character found by
Howell (1906: 34) to separate _latifrons_ and _olympica_. We have
carefully compared civet cats from western Oregon, southwestern
Washington and the area about Seattle. Some local variation exists
but overlapping is great and specimens from Washington do not have
rostra that average narrower than specimens from Oregon.

=Mephitis mephitis= (Schreber)

Striped skunk

_Description._--The striped skunk is a heavy-bodied animal about the size of a house cat. The legs are of moderate length and stout and the hind feet are large. The claws of the forefeet are long, strong and curved. The head is small and pointed, with small eyes and ears. The tail is long, nearly equal in length to the head and body. The fur is long, soft and shiny, and is jet black with sharply contrasting white markings. These consist of a narrow stripe on the forehead, a broad band on the neck that diverges into two stripes on the back. The two lateral stripes fuse on the rump. The tail has long black hairs some of which are white at the base.

Striped skunks range over North America from central Canada southward to southern Mexico. Two species are recognized by Hall (1936: 64), namely _mephitis_ and _macroura_. The latter species is found in Mexico and parts of the southwestern United States.

Skunks are principally nocturnal but are sometimes active in the morning and evening, especially on cloudy days. They prefer relatively open country such as logged-over land, old fields and river-side and streamside thickets. Their dens usually consist of old _Aplodontia_ burrows or burrows which they, themselves, dig under stumps or log jams, the floors of old buildings or among rocks. They feed on a variety of animals and wild fruit. Along Puget Sound they wander over the beaches when the tide is out, eating stranded fish, crustaceans and other marine animals. The purple shore crab (_Hemigrapusus nudus_) forms a staple article of diet. Along streams and rivers they wander along low, muddy banks and sand bars searching for fish, crayfish, insects and insect larvae. The larger water beetles (_Dytiscidae_) are often eaten; feces are at times composed entirely of their shells. For the most part, however, skunks have no regular food habits but eat such insects, small mammals, birds or refuse as are available.

The skunk is famous for the musk which it uses as a defensive weapon. This highly volatile liquid is ejected from two small, nipplelike ducts situated in the edge of the anus. The consistency, color, and distance to which the musk can be discharged varies with the amount thrown. The first discharge or two is usually a fine, pale yellow spray, which can be accurately directed to a distance of 25 feet. The third discharge consists of small drops of heavy, bright-yellow liquid that travels an arching curve, 5 feet high, reaching a maximum distance of about 10 feet. Later discharges consist of heavy yellow mucus and can be thrown only a few feet. As many as seven or eight discharges are possible. Skunk musk is acrid and pungent in order. In quantity or at close range it is choking. In small quantities it is not unpleasant. It is extremely lasting, sometimes being noticeable for months on clothes or buildings. It is soluble in gasoline and clothes may be de-scented by several washings in that fluid.

The striped skunk is an even-tempered animal. Its defensive fluid is discharged only when it is cornered or attacked. A trapped skunk rarely releases musk. A man, by speaking softly and moving slowly, can come within a distance of six feet of a trapped skunk. Experienced trappers utilize this fact to approach and shoot trapped skunks through the head or neck and so produce odorless furs.

The skunk is potentially a source of considerable income to trappers in Washington. The value of their furs varies with the demand but large prime skins usually bring from $1 to $4. In eastern Washington, where trapping for coyotes and other terrestrial mammals is carried on, the skunks taken incidentally are an important source of revenue. In western Washington they are often abundant but are seldom trapped. The most sought pelts in western Washington are the mink, muskrat and raccoon; all semiaquatic species. Skunks are rarely taken in traps set for these mammals and few trappers bother to set overland trap lines for skunks.

The young of the striped skunk usually number four to six. They are born in late May or early June in western Washington; possibly later in eastern Washington.

=Mephitis mephitis hudsonica= Richardson

_Mephitis americana_ var. _hudsonica_ Richardson, Fauna
Boreali-Americana, 1:55, 1829.

_Mephitis hudsonica_ Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 26:536,
July 31, 1895.

_Chincha hudsonica_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 20:24, August 31,
1901.

_Mephitis mephitis hudsonica_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington,
Publ. 473:65, November 20, 1936.

_Type._--Obtained on the "plains of the Saskatchewan, Canada."

_Racial characters._--Size moderate; stripes diverging anteriorly
on back of neck; tail long with white stripe reaching well out,
nearly to tip; zygomatic arches nearly parallel.

_Measurements._--Howell (1901: 24) gives the average of 3 males
from Saskatchewan, Montana and Wyoming, and of 3 females from
Montana and Idaho, as, respectively: total length 726, 602; length
of tail 268, 250; hind foot 82, 71.

_Distribution_.--Northeastern Washington and the eastern edge of
the northern Cascades, south probably to the Wenatchee Mountains.
Recorded west to Oroville (W. W. D.) and Timentwa (W. W. D.) and
south to Spokane (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 12).

=Mephitis mephitis major= (Howell)

_Chincha occidentalis major_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 20:37, August
31, 1901.

_Mephitis mephitis major_ Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl.,
37:2, April 10, 1931.

_Type._--Obtained at Fort Klamath, Klamath County, Oregon, by B. L.
Cunningham on January 5, 1898; type in United States National
Museum.

_Racial characters._--Slightly larger than _hudsonica_ with white
stripes diverging on shoulders rather than neck.

_Measurements._--A young male from 1 mile north of Burbank, Walla
Walla County, measures: total length 474; length of tail 205; hind
foot 68; ear 30; weight 815 grams.

_Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, south of the Snake River
and east of the Columbia River, occurring west to Burbank (M. V.
Z.).

=Mephitis mephitis notata= (Howell)

_Chincha occidentalis notata_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 20:36, August
31, 1901.

_Mephitis mephitis notata_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ.
473:67, November 20, 1936.

_Type._--Obtained at Trout Lake, south base of Mt. Adams, Klickitat
County, Washington, by P. Schmid on March 22, 1897; type in United
States National Museum.

_Racial characters._--Similar to _hudsonica_ but larger; stripes
narrower, diverging anteriorly on neck or back of head; tail
shorter, sometimes without long, white hairs.

_Measurements._--Howell (1901:37) gives the average of 3 adult
males from Trout Lake, Klickitat County, as: total length 633;
length of tail 249; hind foot 76.

_Distribution._--The Columbia River Valley of the southern
Cascades from the Wind River east to the Snake River and the
Yakima Valley area (trappers' reports).

=Mephitis mephitis spissigrada= Bangs

_Mephitis spissigrada_ Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:31,
March 24, 1898.

_Mephitis foetulenta_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus., Publ. 32, zoöl.
ser., 1:269, March, 1899 (type from Laguna, near Port Angeles,
Clallam County, Washington).

_Chincha occidentalis spissigrada_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 20:35,
August 31, 1901.

_Mephitis mephitis spissigrada_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Publ. 473:67,
November 20, 1936.

_Type._--Obtained at Sumas [prairie], British Columbia, by A.
Brooks on September 30, 1895; type in Museum of Comparative
Zoölogy.

_Racial characters._--Similar to _hudsonica_ but larger; stripes
broader, usually diverging on shoulders; hairs of stripes often
cream color or yellowish near base; end of tail usually white.

_Measurements._--An adult male from 2-1/2 miles southeast of
Chinook, Pacific County, measures: total length 578; length of
tail 260; hind foot 30. A female from the same place and one from
Renton, King County, average: 575; 233; 72; 27.

_Distribution._--Lowlands of western Washington. This form rarely
goes far into the mountains except along the valleys of the larger
rivers. Marginal records are Skykomish (W. W. D.) and Washougal
River (W. W. D.).

=Taxidea taxus taxus= (Schreber)

Badger

_Ursus taxus_ Schreber, Saugethiere, 3:520, 1778.

_Taxidea taxus_ Rhoads, Amer. Nat., 28:524, June, 1894.

_Taxidea taxus neglecta_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R.
Conner Mus., no. 2:12, December, 1929.

_Taxidea taxus taxus_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ.
473:78, November 20, 1936.

_Type._--None. Type locality probably southwest of Hudson Bay
(Hall, 1936: 78).

_Measurements._--Two males from northern Nevada measure,
respectively: total length 780, 762; length of tail 113, 150; hind
foot 136, 120; ear 55, 54; weight 15, 11 pounds.

_Distribution._--Of general distribution over open country east of
the Cascades. Marginal records are Wauconda (Taylor and Shaw,
1929: 12), Chelan (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 13), Goldendale (W. W.
D.) and "Divide above Trout Lake" (trapper's photograph).

_Description._--The badger is the size of a small dog, measuring up to 32 inches in total length and weighing up to 20 pounds. The body is heavy, powerful and remarkably flat and compressed. The tail and legs are short. The forelegs are thick and strong, armed with long heavy claws for digging. The ears are wide and low. The color of the upper parts is a grizzled yellowish brown, not unlike the color of the yellow-bellied marmot. The underparts are buffy, often with a white area on the abdomen. The legs, feet, top of head, ears, and small areas on the cheeks are blackish. Triangular areas about the eyes are buffy. A white stripe extends from the nose pad backwards, between the eyes, to the shoulders and serves as the best recognition mark.

Badgers are found over central and western United States, Canada and northern Mexico. They are commonest on the plains and desert, principally because the burrowing mammals upon which they feed are most abundant there. The badger is a powerful and rapid digger, being able to overtake and capture mice, ground squirrels, and even pocket gophers. Perry (1939: 49-53) in her interesting accounts of the habits of a pet badger obtained at Lakeside, Chelan County, found the animal powerful enough to dig through a concrete floor! Evidence of badger's activities are usually seen at any ground squirrel colony in eastern Washington. This evidence consists of large holes in the ground. Rarely a horizontal tunnel begins at the depth of two to four feet and extends for an unknown distance. Earth removed in excavating is heaped beside one or both of the narrower sides of the surface opening.

In examining badger workings in ground squirrel colonies I have been impressed by the fact that most of the holes ended not more than four or five feet from the entrances--perhaps at the places where the ground squirrel nests were located, although it may be that the digging of the badger so terrified the squirrels that they dashed out in an attempt to escape past the badger, before he reached the nests. Kangaroo rats and pocket mice often attempt to escape by dashing past a person when he is excavating their burrows.

The power of the short, thick and slightly bowed foreleg of the badger is tremendous. The claws are stout and fully an inch long. The animal is able to break up and remove at a scoop, the baked, claylike loess of the Columbian Plateau. Clods of this same material are so firm that only by twisting and exerting considerable power was I able to break them. The soil a foot beneath the sunbaked crust is softer and more easily worked.

It is difficult to estimate the size of badger populations. In the arid land of eastern Washington their diggings may exist almost unchanged for many years. Interviews with professional trappers serve to indicate their range and numbers as follows: southeastern edge of the Cascades and Yakima Valley, not common, rarely straying up into mountains--average trapper's catch, only one to three a year; Okanogan Valley and northeastern edge of Cascades, not common--average trapper's catch is six to ten a year, occasional trappers catching as many as 35; Columbia, Kettle River, and other valleys in northeastern Washington, uncommon, a few records only; Columbian Plateau, fairly common--average professional trapper's yearly catch includes 10 to 20 badgers; southeastern Washington, now rare because of overtrapping, formerly common.

Trappers state that the badgers taken in northeastern Washington are usually classified as "hair badger" by fur buyers and bring only a dollar or two. The badgers of the eastern Cascades are "fur" badgers but do not bring top prices. The badgers of the Columbian Plateau bring the best prices. Seemingly some geographic variation exists among badgers in Washington. Those from the more humid areas of northeastern Washington and the eastern Cascades are darker and bring poorer prices than the paler "silver" badgers of the more open desert areas.

The principal food of the badger in Washington seems to be ground squirrels, _Citellus washingtoni_, _townsendii_, _columbianus_, or _saturatus_, depending on locality. Pocket mice, gophers, and other mammals are also eaten, as are grasshoppers, sword-tailed crickets, other insects, and birds.

Young of badgers number 3 to 5 and are born in late April, May, or early June.

=Vulpes fulva cascadensis= Merriam

Red fox

_Vulpes cascadensis_ Merriam, Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., 2:665,
December 28, 1900.

_Vulpes fulvus cascadensis_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:281, August
29, 1936.

_Type._--Obtained at Trout Lake, Klickitat County, Washington, by
P. Schmid on March 3, 1898; type in United States National Museum.

_Racial characters._--Skull heavy, narrow; color yellowish.

_Measurements._--A male from Crater Lake, Klamath County, Oregon,
measures: total length 1113; length of tail 441; hind foot 180;
ear 112; weight 9 pounds.

_Distribution._--From Trout Lake northward, through the higher
Cascades, to Loomis (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 13).

_Description._--The red fox of the Cascades is large and measures about 4 feet in total length, of which the tail comprises 15 inches. The body is slender and doglike; the legs long and slim; the tail thick and bushy, and the ears are large and erect. In the red phase the red fox of the Cascades is distinctly more yellowish than the red fox of the eastern United States; the head is especially yellow. The body has more red on the shoulder area than posteriorly, and is darkest on the rump. The tail is rather pale with a dusky, not black, area distally and a white tip. The ears are dusky. The lower legs and feet are black. The throat, chest and underparts are white. The "cross" phase, according to Cowan (1938: 202-206), is rather common in the Cascades. In cross foxes the color is darker, brown rather than yellowish, and the area from the nape of the neck back between the shoulders, including a bar across the shoulders, is deep blackish or grayish brown. In a pelt that is stretched out a cross is formed by the dark areas. The black and silver phases of the red fox are also said by Cowan to be relatively common in the Cascades, constituting 48 per cent of the population. Of 3,163 foxes traded at Fort Colville, in northeastern Washington, only 19 per cent were silver or cross. One fox, trapped in Okanogan County, is said by its captor to have been black above and straw colored beneath, with no white on the body.

Red foxes range from Alaska and northern Canada well southward into the United States. Related forms occur in Eurasia.

The red fox of Washington is an alpine animal, ranging at or slightly below timber-line. Here food is abundant in summer and fall but must be scarce in winter. In winter its habitat is difficult for man to reach and few persons penetrate the dangerous terrain where the fox lives. A few professional trappers regularly catch foxes in the Cascades but know little of their habits.

The feces of red foxes examined by Taylor and Shaw on Mt. Rainier contained remains of insects and berries (Taylor and Shaw, 1927: 43).

The red fox is rare in Washington; it lives in inaccessible territory and its fur is not especially valuable. The animal is of relatively little economic importance.

The brood den of a red fox found by Livezey and Evendan (1943: 500) near Corvallis, Oregon, was two-thirds of the way up a 300-foot hill in a strip of oaks (_Quercus garryana_). Well-packed trails led to an entrance concealed in poison oak (_Rhus diversiloba_). Remains of a turkey, 5 ground squirrels, and a jack rabbit were found near the den. The entrance was 8 inches wide and 15 inches high. The tunnel tapered to 5 inches in diameter and was 47 feet long. Seven pups, 4 males and 3 females, were found in the den.

=Canis latrans= Say

Coyote

_Description._--The coyote is a large carnivore, about the size and general proportions of a small collie dog but with bushier tail, and more slender body. Adults measure about four feet in length, of which the tail comprises a fourth. Adult males weigh about 30 pounds. The color is somewhat variable, yellowish, buffy, or grayish. The muzzle and backs of the ears are more reddish, and the legs brown. The tail is yellowish gray with a dusky tip. The throat, chest and underparts are white.

The coyote ranges from Alaska southward, over western North America, to Central America.

At the present time the coyote ranges over almost all of Washington, except for the highest parts of the mountains and the dense forest areas of western Washington. According to available information it was not found about Puget Sound or the Olympic Peninsula until relatively recent times. Some old trappers are of the opinion that coyotes did not come into western Washington until the timber wolves became rare there. The scarcity of the timber wolves seems to coincide with settlement, clearing and lumbering. Probably coyotes did not become common in western Washington until lumbering provided extensive clearings and open areas more suitable to them than forest. Certainly coyotes and wolves existed together in eastern Washington.

It is difficult to determine whether coyotes were completely absent from western Washington in the early days or simply scarce. The glacial prairies of the Puget Sound area provide suitable habitat for coyotes and coyotes are abundant there at the present time. If coyotes were present at all in western Washington in the early days it is reasonable to suppose that they would have been common on the prairies. Yet I was told by an old trapper who had lived near Scotts Prairie, Mason County, for many years, that he had never seen or _heard_ coyotes there until about 1910. Although a coyote might be mistaken for a small wolf, the call, as this trapper pointed out, is distinctive.

The principal habitat requirement of the coyote seems to be extensive areas of open country. This it finds in the desert area of the Columbian Plateau, the open forests of northeastern Washington and the eastern Cascades, and in the extensive timbered and burned-over lands in western Washington. In summer coyotes range well up into the Hudsonian Life-zone of the Cascade and Olympic mountains. Their principal range is lower, in the Transition and Upper Sonoran life-zones.

The coyotes are both nocturnal and diurnal. In the vicinity of human habitations they are most active at night. In the heat of the day they take refuge in brushy areas or small gullies. Many actions of the coyote are doglike, and were it not for the large, round, bushy tail, a coyote might easily be mistaken for a dog. The tail is carried in a drooped position with the tip bowed slightly backwards. When badly frightened and running at full speed the tail is stretched out straight behind. The ordinary gait is a purposeful trot with the head held erect, the ears pricked up, and the legs moving smoothly and effortlessly. Near Moses Lake, Grant County, I watched a coyote trot along the side of one of a series of small sand dunes. At the report of the small shotgun fired at it, the coyote's dignified trot changed to terrified bounds, its feet dug into the dune, throwing showers of sand into the air, as it crossed several successive dunes in full flight before turning to take advantage of the shelter of a draw between two dunes. A coyote chased by an automobile attained a speed of 43 miles an hour for a short distance (Zimmerman, 1943: 400).

I have not watched a coyote stalk game, but as described to me it creeps up to within a few yards of its prey and catches it with a sudden dash. In hunting a jack rabbit, the coyote is said to pursue it, taking advantage of short cuts, until close enough to seize it.

Better known than the coyote itself is its howl--several doglike barks, each successive one of a series shorter and higher pitched, the last one ending in a long, drawn-out howl. In the winter of 1936 the coyotes near Cottage Lake, King County, were especially vociferous. They ordinarily began to howl about 9 p.m., but could be induced to howl earlier by imitating their call. Their howling was a signal for all nearby ranchers' dogs to howl in reply. In the desert areas of eastern Washington I heard coyotes most often just at dusk or at dawn.

The coyote is principally carnivorous, feeding on any mammals and birds easy to kill. It willingly eats carrion, even when much decayed. Large insects such as grasshoppers and crickets are eaten when they are abundant and easily caught. Fruit and berries are eaten when available.

Sperry (1941) reported on the analysis of the contents of 8,339 coyote stomachs from various places in the United States, 1,186 of the stomachs being from Washington. The following information is from his report on all of the 8,339 stomachs: rabbits formed one-third of the food; _Microtus_ was found in 7 per cent of the stomachs; _Peromyscus_ in 6 per cent; _Neotoma_ in 4 per cent. _Reithrodontomys_ were found in 53 of the 8,339 stomachs and in insignificant numbers. _Onychomys_ occurred in 11 of the 8,339 stomachs; _Clethrionomys_ in 8. _Ondatra_ occurred in 8 of the 8,339. Two muskrats were in stomachs obtained from Washington. _Citellus_ (exclusive of _beecheyi_, _lateralis_, and _saturatus_) were found in 4 per cent and were locally important; _Citellus beecheyi_ occurred in 84 stomachs, including 1 from Washington; _Citellus lateralis_ and _saturatus_ occurred in 50 stomachs, including 5 from Washington. _Marmota_ were found in 1 per cent of the stomachs. They were included in stomachs from Washington but the number was not reported. _Tamias_ (= _Eutamias_) were found in 43 stomachs from western United States and were present in 1 per cent of the 1,186 stomachs from Washington. _Sciurus_ and _Tamiasciurus_ occurred in 33 stomachs. Included were 3 _Tamiasciurus douglasii_, a _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_, and a _Sciurus griseus_ from Washington. _Glaucomys_ occurred in 6 Washington-taken coyotes, of a total of 11 from the entire United States. _Perognathus_ occurred in 3 per cent of the stomachs, and 274 individuals were represented. They were found in 10 per cent of the 1,186 Washington stomachs. _Thomomys_ occurred in 4 per cent of the stomachs examined and in 7 per cent of the stomachs from Washington. _Erethizon_ appeared in 2 per cent of the stomachs (135 records), including some from Washington. _Aplodonta_ occurred in only 11 stomachs, all taken in Washington. Locally, it is concluded, mountain beavers are important coyote food. House mice occurred in but five stomachs, including 2 from Washington. _Zapus_ did not occur in coyote stomachs from Washington. Domestic sheep and goats formed 7 per cent of the food of Washington coyotes. Calves occurred in 3 stomachs of coyotes from Washington. Pigs occurred in 8. Deer formed 3 per cent, by volume, of coyote food in Washington. A part of the stock and deer reported was doubtless carrion.

One shrew was found in the stomach of a coyote from Washington, and two stomachs contained moles. A house cat was eaten by one Washington coyote, and another coyote had eaten a raccoon. Birds occurred in 13 per cent of the stomachs examined but formed only a small part by volume. Poultry formed one-fourth of this volume. Reptiles formed 0.08 per cent of the food eaten by coyotes and occurred in 3 per cent of the stomachs. A coyote from Washington had eaten a garter snake. No frogs were found in coyote stomachs. A coyote from Washington had eaten a salamander. Another had eaten a fish. Insects formed 1.08 per cent of the total food eaten by coyotes. Fruit formed 3.63 per cent. Carrion constituted 25.2 per cent of the total food eaten.

It is extremely difficult to draw conclusions regarding the economic value of any species. Much depends on the outlook of the individual, his occupation, the locality where the animal occurs and local conditions there. Furthermore it is impossible to understand and fairly weigh all the factors involved.

Coyotes destroy game and stock. They also eat carrion and destroy sick animals, thus preventing the spread of disease. They eat jack rabbits which are pests, and snowshoes and cottontails which are game. They eat mice, which are a pest in agricultural areas, a benefit on rangelands where they destroy weed seeds, and of neutral importance elsewhere. To analyze the economic value of the coyote, the economic importance of all animals on which it feeds must be considered and the "good" and "bad" balanced--a well-nigh impossible task.

In any event, the coyote has been judged and found guilty. Coyotes are controlled by poison, trapping, and bounty. In spite of control measures the coyote is holding its own in numbers or increasing.

Stimulated in part by the bounty, professional trappers take many coyotes each year in Washington. The pelts fluctuate in value from year to year but a large, prime skin usually brings from 5 to 10 dollars.

=Canis latrans lestes= Merriam

_Canis lestes_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:25, March
15, 1897.

_Canis latrans lestes_ Taylor and Shaw, Mamm. and Birds Mt.
Rainier Nat. Park, p. 41, 1927.

_Type._--Obtained in the Toyabe Mountains near Cloverdale, Nye
County, Nevada, by V. Bailey on November 21, 1890; type in United
States National Museum.

_Racial characters._--Frontal region of skull only slightly
concave.

_Measurements._--A male from 20 miles south of Ephrata, Grant
County, on the Columbian Plateau, measures: total length 1185;
length of tail 365; hind foot 198; ear 125; weight 26-1/2 lbs. A
female from 10 miles northeast of Goldendale, Klickitat County, in
the southern Cascades, measured: 1105; 280; 197; weight 19 lbs. A
female from Cashmere, Chelan County, in the northern Cascades,
measured: 1209; 410; 210; 131. A female from the middle fork of the
Nooksack River, Whatcom County, in western Washington, measured:
total length 1185; length of tail 358.

_Distribution._--Suitable areas of the entire state, except for
northeastern Washington.

_Remarks._--Pending a revision of the coyotes, those of western Washington are referred to _lestes_.

=Canis latrans incolatus= Hall

_Canis latrans incolatus_ Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl.,
40:369, November 5, 1934.

_Type._--Obtained at Isaacs Lake, 3,000 ft. elevation, Bowron Lakes
Region, British Columbia, by T. T. and E. B. McCabe on October 23,
1928; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy.

_Racial characters._--Similar to _lestes_ but frontal region more
concave.

_Measurements._--A male from 20 miles east of Tonasket, Okanogan
County, measures: total length 1033; length of tail 291; hind foot
163; ear 110.

_Distribution._--Northeastern Washington, west to Okanogan and
Conconully (W. W. D.).

_Remarks._--Several series of coyote skulls from northeastern
Washington are more variable than series of _lestes_ from
California and _incolatus_ from British Columbia. The "dish-faced"
character of _incolatus_ is more strongly represented in some
coyotes from northeastern Washington than in topotypes of
_incolatus_ but others are more like _lestes_. In average
measurements they are nearer _incolatus_.

=Canis lupus fuscus= Richardson

Timber Wolf

_Canis lupus_ var. _fusca_ Richardson, Mammalia, Zoölogy, Captain
Beechey's voyage of the Blossom, p. 5, 1839.

_Lupus gigas_ Townsend, Jour. Acad. Sci. Philadelphia, 2:75,
November, 1850 (type from near Vancouver, Clark County,
Washington).

_Canis gigas_ Miller, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 59 (no. 15):4, June
8, 1912.

_Canis occidentalis gigas_ Taylor and Shaw, Birds and Mamm. Mt.
Rainier Nat. Park, p. 39, 1927.

_Canis lycaon gigas_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:272, August 29,
1936.

_Type locality._--Banks of the Columbia below The Dalles in Oregon
or Washington.

_Racial characters._--A large, relatively dark colored wolf with
wide skull and heavy dentition.

_Distribution._--Probably occurred from the eastern base of the
Cascades westward to the Pacific. Now extinct over most of its
range.

_Description._--The wolf is a large carnivore of the general proportions of a large collie dog. Wolves closely resemble coyotes but are larger, with stouter body, larger feet, thicker muzzle and more massive, powerful skull and teeth. The fur of wolves is long and rather stiff. In general color of the body they resemble coyotes, but the underparts are less white and the legs and feet are more contrastingly reddish.

Wolves of the species _Canis lupus_ range over the northern parts of both the Old and New World. In America they are found from the Arctic south into Mexico.

Wolves occurred in western, northeastern and southeastern Washington. They seem not to have occurred on the Columbian Plateau. Wolves are generally associated with the larger, hooved mammals upon which they feed. In Washington these probably once included the elk, deer, mountain sheep and mountain goat. Hooved animals, except mountain sheep and deer, may not have occurred on the Columbian Plateau in historic times, and even the deer and sheep probably were scarce. There was probably little food for wolves on the Plateau.

The early settlers found wolves to be common and a serious pest. By 1900 they had nearly disappeared. In the settled parts of western Washington they were doubtless exterminated at an early date but it is difficult to account for their disappearance on the Olympic Peninsula. To the best of my knowledge, two wolves killed on the north fork of the Quinault River in 1920, or a few years earlier, were the last ones from that peninsula. Previously they were common and I doubt that man killed them all; perhaps some introduced disease, such as rabies, brought about their extinction.

In the Cascade area they probably still exist in small numbers and in remote places. There are said to be some near Mount Adams. They have been reported from Mount Rainier as recently as 1920. Trappers state that there are a few in the northern Cascades, between Lake Chelan and Mount Baker. There are no recent records for southeastern Washington. The last wolves killed on the Columbian Plateau were two taken at Wahluke, Grant County, on September 17, 1917. Only rumors--no authentic reports--of wolves are available from northeastern Washington in recent years. The reappearance of the caribou there may attract wolves from British Columbia.

Any report of wolves, even from experienced trappers, is open to some question. An unusually large coyote often is mistaken for a wolf. A large, wild and wolflike dog is even more likely to be mistaken for a wolf.

The wolf no longer is an important element in the mammalian fauna of Washington and will probably never be so again. The species, like the grizzly bear, is nearly extinct in the state.

=Canis familiaris= Linnaeus

Dog

_Canis familiaris_ Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, 1:56, 1766.

_Type locality._--Sweden.

Dogs were present with aboriginal man in Washington, previous to the arrival of the white man. For greater detail see Bailey (1936), Suckley and Gibbs (1860) and Allen (1920).

=Felis concolor= Linnaeus

Cougar or mountain lion

_Description._--The cougar is a large cat and has the general proportions of the house cat. Large cougars measure more than seven feet in length of which the tail comprises two feet. Large males weigh more than 150 pounds. Females are smaller and lighter than males. In color the head, back, tail and outside of the legs are reddish brown. The throat, underparts and inside of the legs are white. The tip of the tail, or area near the tip, is black or blackish.

Cougars, often called mountain lions, pumas and panthers, range from Canada to southern South America.

The cougar feeds extensively upon deer and its habits and habitat are accordingly specialized. It is active in both winter and summer and zonally ranges from the Transition through the Canadian to the Hudsonian life-zones.

The number of deer killed by the average cougar is unknown. Some trappers believe that a cougar kills a deer at least every other day while others feel that only one a week is taken. Other food is eaten when available. Because cougars kill deer, they are incessantly warred upon by hunters and sportsmen. Bounties, often generous, have long been paid in Washington. Although many cougars are killed each year they are still numerous in many areas. So many remote areas in the mountains are not easily accessible to man and dogs that the cougar, as a species, probably will persist for many years.

A cougar is one of the most secretive animals in the wilds. Rarely are individuals seen by man. They are difficult to trap, principally because they are such wide-ranging animals and partly because they prefer to feed on fresh deer meat and hence are not apt to be attracted to trap bait. For these same reasons they are difficult to poison. By using poisoned hamburger, a government agent did poison one near Leavenworth, Chelan County. The principal method of killing cougar is to hunt them with packs of especially trained hounds which pursue the cougar until it takes refuge in a tree or other supposed place of safety, where it is shot.

A common gait is a swift, smooth trot in which the body is kept low and the tail droops with the terminal part bent backwards. A wild cougar seen near Leavenworth, Chelan County, traveled with effortless speed until fired upon. At the sound of the shot it made two great bounds and disappeared into the brush fringing a canyon.

Although the cougar is a large and powerful carnivore it almost never makes unprovoked attacks upon man. An exception was the cougar that partially devoured a thirteen-year old boy near Lake Chelan, Chelan County (Finley, 1925: 197-199).

The hunting range of an individual cougar is many miles in extent. These ranges are traveled periodically and any particular area may be visited regularly every few days. The cougars may travel many miles each night in search of deer. Their ranges must overlap to a certain extent for as many as 12 have been taken from a single drainage area. Over most of the year they are solitary but breeding females may attract several males and hunters occasionally capture a female and several males at one locality. Breeding occurs in almost any month of the year. The young are cared for by the female and follow her for perhaps a year. Young individuals have been taken at the same time and in the same locality as an adult female and several adult males that supposedly were breeding. There are from one to three young in a litter. For the first months of their life cougar kittens are spotted. In this they differ from the young of the bobcat which are plain or slightly mottled and do not become spotted until later in life. Cougar kittens differ further from bobcat kittens in possessing a long tail.

The pelage of the cougar is short and of no value as fur although the skins often are sold at a good price as trophies when prepared as rugs.

=Felis concolor oregonensis= Rafinesque

_Felix [sic] oregonensis_ Rafinesque, Atlantic Journal, 1:62, 1832.

_Felis hippolestes olympus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
11:220, July 15, 1897 (type from Lake Cushman, Mason County,
Washington).

_Felis oregonensis_ Stone, Science, n. s., 9:35, January 6, 1899.

_Felis oregonensis oregonensis_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
128:158, April 29, 1924.

_Felis concolor oregonensis_ Nelson and Goldman, Jour. Mamm.,
10:347, November 11, 1929.

_Type locality._--"Oregon Mountains, or east or west of them."

_Racial characters._--Light, rounded skull, dark color, extensive
black on tip of tail and short, rather coarse fur.

_Distribution._--From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains
westward to the Pacific. Marginal records are (trappers'
specimens): Ruby, Leavenworth, and Goldendale.

=Felis concolor missoulensis= Goldman

_Felis concolor missoulensis_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 24:229, June 8,
1943.

_Type._--Obtained 10 miles southwest of Missoula, Missoula County,
Montana, by R. and C. Thompson, on December 30, 1936; type in
United States National Museum.

_Racial characters._--A large cougar with heavy, wide skull, pale
color and rather long, soft fur.

_Distribution._--Northeastern Washington west at least to Republic
(W.W.D.) and the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington.

_Remarks._--Goldman (1943: 229) states "Between the Rocky
Mountains and the Cascade Range _missoulensis_ intergrades with
_oregonensis_." My own comparison of specimens reveals differences
of considerable magnitude between the cougars of western and
northeastern Washington. I suppose that intergradation takes place
in a limited area in, and west of, the Okanogan River Valley in
Washington.

=Lynx canadensis canadensis= Kerr

Canadian lynx

_Lynx canadensis_ Kerr, Anim. Kingd., 1: systematic catalogue
inserted between pages 32 and 33 (description, p. 157), 1792.

_Lynx borealis canadensis_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:611,
1885.

_Lynx canadensis canadensis_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
128:160, April 29, 1924.

_Type locality._--Eastern Canada.

_Measurements._--A female from Buttermills Creek, Twisp River,
Okanogan County, measured: total length 900; length of tail 95;
hind foot 205.

_Distribution._--Higher parts of the Cascade Mountains, Blue
Mountains and mountains of northeastern Washington, recorded from
Oroville on the north (W. W. D.) to Mount Adams (Taylor and Shaw,
1929: 13) on the south.

_Description._--The Canadian lynx weighs about 20 pounds and is catlike in general proportions but differs in possessing longer, stouter legs, much larger feet, a short tail, tufted ears and long, very soft fur. The pelage of the upper parts is soft gray with a slightly yellowish tone; the ears and tail are black; and the underparts are gray with indistinct black spots. The pelage is shorter and more reddish in summer. Bailey (1936: 271) records a maximum weight of 28 pounds.

The lynx ranges over the forested parts of North America from the Arctic south into the northern United States. It has a restricted range in Washington, occurring in the same areas as does the red fox. Although the lynx is an important fur bearer in Canada and Alaska, it is unimportant in Washington because only a few are trapped each winter. Most of the natural range is in the remote and wilder parts of the mountains. Here, each of several trappers regularly takes a dozen or more each year. Mr. Lester Fairbrother of Oroville, Okanogan County, regularly traps lynxes in the northern Cascades. They are taken in wooded areas where snowshoe rabbits, their principal food in winter, are abundant. In the more accessible parts of the animal's range, such as the Blue Mountains and the mountains of northeastern Washington, lynxes are rare. As much as sixty dollars each is offered for large skins.

=Lynx rufus= (Schreber)

Bobcat

_Description._--The average male bobcat weighs approximately 20 pounds. The female is about one-fourth lighter. A bobcat has longer, stouter legs and larger feet than a house cat and a short tail. The ears are short, with pointed tufts of hair.

Bobcats range from southern Canada south to central Mexico. Whereas the Canadian lynx occupies the boreal region, the bobcat occupies the temperate region. It is thought to be principally nocturnal but is occasionally active by day. One that I watched near Lake Samamish, King County, when it was unaware of my presence, was decidedly uncatlike as it strolled with a smooth but stiff-legged gait on a forest trail, with head held up, short tail erect and wagging back and forth with each step. The general impression was of a large, extremely long-legged animal. There was nothing stealthy in its movements. Another individual seen in the same locality on a later date saw me. As it bounded away the body was kept low and the legs were bent with the forelegs appearing almost bowlegged.

Like many other carnivores, each bobcat has a home range which varies with the available food supply. The range may include deep forest, dense thickets and open grasslands, but country with considerable edge-environment seems to be preferred to dense cover, and rocky areas to smooth soil. Perhaps the abundance of mice and wood rats attracts bobcats to the rocks, but the cover afforded is also a factor.

The bobcat is almost universally regarded as a predator and the state of Washington now offers a bounty on it. The animals doubtless do kill a certain amount of game, but kill also other animals which man regards as pests because they interfere with reforestation and growing of food crops. One of the best natural checks on these pests is the bobcat which, in certain areas, does more good than harm. Where doing damage to game or livestock bobcats may be eliminated by trapping or hunting with dogs.

Trappers report that bobcats have a poor sense of smell but very keen sight. They are easily trapped. The fur is soft and handsome but does not wear well. Fur buyers designate the large, pale bobcats of eastern Washington as lynx cats and reserve the name bobcat for the more reddish race of western Washington. Immature and unprime pelts from eastern Washington also are classed as "bobcat."

The difference between the pale bobcat of eastern Washington and the dark race of western Washington is greater than that which separates many subspecies. Dewey Smith of Guler, Klickitat County, showed me skins of bobcats taken on his trap-line along the White Salmon River, which drains southward to the Columbia, and over into the watershed of the Lewis River. Bobcats from the White Salmon River were pale and gray, and those from along the Lewis River were more reddish. The difference was striking. A very few intermediate skins indicated that interbreeding occurs. The geographic variation between the two races is reminiscent of that in the snowshoe rabbits of the western Cascades.

=Lynx rufus fasciatus= Rafinesque

_Lynx fasciatus_ Rafinesque, Amer. Monthly Mag., 2:46, November,
1817.

_Lynx fasciatus fasciatus_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:160,
April 29, 1924.

_Lynx rufus fasciatus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:269, August 29,
1936.

_Type locality._--Near mouth of the Columbia River on "Netul" River
(Lewis and Clark River) near Astoria (Bailey, 1936: 269).

_Racial characters._--Size moderate; fur short; color distinctly
reddish.

_Measurements._--A male from Forks, Clallam County, measured:
total length 890; length of tail 190; hind foot 167; ear 80;
weight 24-1/2 pounds.

_Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains westward, including
the valleys of rivers draining westward in the Cascades. Marginal
occurrences are: Skykomish (W. W. D.), Mt. Rainier (Taylor and
Shaw, 1927: 60) and headwaters of Lewis River (W. W. D.).

=Lynx rufus pallescens= Merriam

_Lynx fasciatus pallescens_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 16:104,
October 28, 1899.

_Lynx rufus uinta_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:267, August 29,
1936.

_Lynx rufus pallescens_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:268, August 29,
1936.

_Type._--Obtained at Trout Lake, Klickitat County, Washington, by
D. Kaegi on January 10, 1895; type in United States National
Museum.

_Racial characters._--Size large; skull heavy with extensive
crests and ridges; fur long and soft; color pale, more grayish and
less reddish than in _fasciatus_.

_Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains eastward, including
the valleys of rivers in the Cascades which drain southward and
eastward. Marginal records of occurrences are Oroville (W. W. D.),
Lake Keechelus (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 15) and Trout Lake (W. W.
D.).

=Zalophus californianus= (Lesson)

California sea lion

_Otaria californiana_ Lesson, Dict. Class Nat. Hist., 13:420, 1828.

_Zalophus californianus_ Allen, Monogr. N. Amer. Pinnipeds, U. S.
Geol. and Geogr. Surv. Terr., Misc. Publ., 12:276, 1880.

_Type locality._--California.

_Distribution._--Rare or casual along the coast of Washington.