Chapter XXX: Introduction (15)

The “Cochrane” was hit three times. The “Blanco” was untouched, while the “Huascar” received at least sixteen large Palliser shells, besides Nordenfelt bullets and shrapnel. The shot-holes in the “Huascar” were so jagged and irregular that no ordinary stoppers could be of any service.

The officers who have given us the account of this action make a number of practical deductions and suggestions of great importance, but not necessary to be quoted here.

BOMBARDMENT OF ALEXANDRIA. JULY 11TH, A. D. 1882.

It would be rather presumptuous for any one to attempt at this time to give the real causes of the bombardment of Alexandria, and of the subsequent operations of the British army in Egypt. The Egyptian leader, Arabi Pasha, has been tried, and the tribunal, while sparing his life, sentenced him to be banished to Ceylon, where he is now. Nothing definite was made public, however, as to the assurances of support and sympathy which he is supposed to have had, not only from the Sublime Porte, but from other nations.

Egyptian politics may be symbolized by a tangled skein which time alone can unravel. Some day it may be known whether the ostensible reasons brought a great calamity about, or whether secret and less worthy motives caused the action of the British ministry, and controlled their fleet and army.

In the summer of 1882 Arabi Pasha, who had complete control of the military force of Egypt, although the Khedive had not been formally deposed, was strengthening the forts about Alexandria, and increasing their armament. As he was opposed to English or any foreign control in Egypt, England naturally felt alarm for the safety of the Suez Canal, which is so vitally important for her communications with her great Eastern empire, as well as for her general commerce. Admiral Sir Beauchamp Seymour, with a powerful squadron of the largest ironclads and a number of gun-boats, had been ordered to Alexandria, in observation.

The city of Alexandria, named from its founder, Alexander the Great, has experienced many vicissitudes. The modern city is built on a peninsula, which was formerly the Island of Pharos, and on the isthmus connecting it with the mainland. The ancient city was on the mainland, where its ruins cover a vast extent of surface.

Founded nearly three and a half centuries before the Christian era, it rose, under the liberal and beneficent sway of the Ptolemies, to great eminence as a seat of learning, as well as of commerce. Under the Roman Empire it continued to be a very splendid and influential city, second only to Rome herself, and engrossing the lucrative traffic with India. Its library was one of the wonders of the world--400,000 volumes being in the Museum, and 300,000 in the temple of Serapis. The former was accidentally destroyed by fire during the war with Julius Cæsar; and the latter was burnt by command of Caliph Omar, upon the Mohammedan conquest, in the year 640. After the discovery by the Portuguese of the route to India by the Cape of Good Hope, its commerce fell off, and its population dwindled to a few thousands. Gradually it revived again, and for a long time has been the most important commercial city of the Levant, with a very large foreign as well as native population. But, to return: On July 6th, 1882, Admiral Seymour sent an _ultimatum_ to Arabi and his council, which had the effect of stopping work upon the fortifications for a short time, and produced a promise that such work should not be renewed.

But on the following night a powerful electric light, on board the ironclad Alexandra, of the English squadron, disclosed the fact that, under cover of the darkness, guns were being mounted on the forts commanding the entrance to the great port, or western harbor--there being two harbors, one east and one west of the isthmus. New guns were placed in position on the north side, also, on the peninsula where the Harem, or residence of the Khedive is situated, and which forms the protection to the main anchorage. Earthworks were also being thrown up there by a very large force.

Seymour telegraphed these facts to the British government, summoned a council of his officers, and made preparations for battle. He then sent a demand to the Egyptian authorities for the surrender of the forts to him within twenty-four hours, with a view to disarmament, under penalty of bombardment.

There was a French fleet in the port, which had been ordered to take no part in any aggressive measures; and there were also naval vessels of several other nations, among which were some of our own, the commanders of which had been very active in affording refuge to Americans resident in Egypt, as well as to citizens of other countries who were not represented by men-of-war.

The French fleet, seeing hostilities imminent, got under way, and steamed out into the offing, followed by the other foreign men-of-war and merchant vessels. Many of these were crowded with refugees, but there were left in the city a large number of Greeks, Italians, Maltese, and Syrians.

The British ships then proceeded to take up their stations before the forts, and a panic ensued among the inhabitants, who quitted the city, as did most of the Europeans who had remained. This they effected with great difficulty, and there was a prospect of the renewal of the massacre which had taken place some weeks before. The cash chest of the European Director of Customs, which were managed for the benefit of the foreign bondholders, was seized by Arabi, but the officials managed to get away.

On the 10th of July a deputation of Egyptian notables came off to the English flag-ship, to know the meaning of these warlike preparations. They had not heard of the _ultimatum_, which had not reached them, by some blunder, whether on the part of the English or the natives does not appear; and, indeed, the document was brought off to them while they were still on board the ship, by messengers who had been searching for them. They then went on shore, to consider it.

Very early next morning, the 11th of July, a deputation of Egyptian officials came off to say that they were willing to dismount the guns of the forts themselves. This would appear to be all that the English Admiral had originally demanded; but whether he suspected a ruse, or whether he was determined to take offensive measures at any rate, he refused to entertain the proposal, saying that the time for negotiation had expired.

At seven in the morning the first shot was fired from the Alexandra, and eight English ironclads, of the heaviest description, with five heavy gun-boats, opened upon the different forts. These were the heaviest guns and the thickest armor, by far, that had ever been in action. To mention only one, the Inflexible had four 81-ton guns, and armor from sixteen to twenty-four inches thick, and measures 11,400 tons.

The Egyptian forts constituted two distinct systems of defence. The first consisted of those which protected the new port and eastern town; and the second those which covered the entrances to the outer western harbor. Seymour divided his fleet so as to simultaneously bombard the whole. His ironclads and wooden gun-boats were fitted, in addition to heavy guns, with torpedoes, and Nordenfelt and Gatling machine guns.

The Invincible (flag-ship), Monarch and Penelope, with the Téméraire outside, took up a position at the entrance of the western harbor, about opposite Fort Meks, and about twelve hundred yards from another important work, Fort Marsa-el-Kanat.

They attacked these forts, on the shore of the mainland, while the Superb, Sultan, and Alexandra attacked and totally destroyed the lighthouse fort, and another near it on the peninsula. The Inflexible took up a position between the two divisions, and with her enormous guns, assisted in the work of both.

The gun-boats attacked the “Marabout” batteries, at the entrance of the harbor, running close in, and soon silencing them. One of the gun-boats afterwards covered a landing party, which blew up the heavy guns in Fort Meks.

The Egyptian artillerists surprised the English by the determination with which they fought their guns; but they were all silenced by four o’clock in the afternoon--rather a long time, it would seem, for vessels carrying guns of such power, if they were properly pointed. By this time four of the forts had been blown up, and the Khedive’s palace and harem was in flames. The English fire ceased about half-past five in the afternoon.

The casualties of the English were five killed and twenty-eight wounded. This is rather a high number, considering the character of the vessels employed. The Egyptians seemed to have fired only solid shot, and these, in some cases, entered the ships, and caused most of the injuries by splinters.

The Egyptian loss was great, but will probably never be known. It is said that the gunners in the forts were mostly blacks--Soudanese--who are as remarkable for their bravery and bull-dog tenacity, as they are for the very dark color of their skin.

The English are reported to have burst the guns in the ruined forts with dynamite.

Fort Napoleon, a very strong work, somewhat inland, and dating from the French occupation, and Fort Gabarrie, had not been thoroughly bombarded on the first day, and still held out; and arrangements were made to have the Invincible, Monarch and Penelope go in the next day to attack them. In the meantime the Invincible had silenced some outlying batteries, and had sent on shore a party which had burst nine large guns. During the night the Egyptians had repaired an outside battery, but when the Inflexible and the Téméraire opened on it, it did not reply, and was found to be abandoned. On the morning after the bombardment the Khedive’s palace was still burning, and there were other fires in the town.

The wind had risen, and a swell was coming in, which prevented accurate firing, and at one P. M. all fire ceased, on both sides, having not, of course, been so sustained and continuous as on the preceding day. A white flag was now shown in the town, and a gun-boat was sent up the inner harbor to the Arsenal, with a flag of truce flying. The Arsenal is the official residence of the Ministers of War and Marine, but the gun-boat found no one there, in authority, and no one, in consequence, able to tell the meaning of the white flag flying in the city. The officer sent up, therefore returned to Seymour. Night now drew on, and the fires in the town were evidently extending.

At daybreak, next morning, the whole of the forts were found to be abandoned, and the English Admiral telegraphed to the fleet not to open fire. Half the city appeared to be in flames, with a dense cloud of smoke hanging over it. The conflagration was, in fact, tremendous, and involved the whole European quarter and the Grand Square. The Egyptian army had retreated.

Towards morning a body of about one hundred Europeans fought their way down to the beach, and were taken off by armed boats from the fleet. They had spent a terrible night, defending themselves in the building of the Ottoman Bank, and other buildings adjacent. During the night hundreds of people were massacred, mostly Christians, and for the two succeeding days Alexandria was the scene of horrors hardly equalled by Paris during the Commune.

An uncontrolled soldiery, released convicts and the scum of the population were let loose, and murder and pillage went on. Petroleum was used to fire many buildings in the best part of this fine and flourishing city.

The Khedive was helpless, and really in great danger of his life, in his palace at Ramleh.

Seymour and his officers and men looked on at “this sad spectacle of awful and unexpected catastrophe, which they had no power to prevent.”

It is hard to tell whether to blame most the want of statesmanlike forethought, or the want of military perception in the English naval Commander, who precipitated this dreadful state of affairs, without having the means, in the shape of troops, to land and seize the town.

To disinterested observers it was an indefensible act, to bombard a city with such a mixed population, many of whom were prone to rapine and murder, without having the power promptly to put things in order.

{Section of the Alexandra,
{showing working of Guns.

BOMBARDMENT OF ALEXANDRIA, 1882.]

The English Government seems to have thought Admiral Seymour’s conduct good, for they have just made him a Baron.

The sailors and marines of the fleet were landed as soon as it was ascertained that Arabi’s forces had retreated. These were joined by detachments from the German and American men-of-war, for the purpose of protecting their consulates, in the first place, and then they assisted in extinguishing fires, seizing marauders, and rescuing many terror-stricken people from the most imminent danger; patrolling the streets, and assisting, in every way, to restore order.

As regards the bombardment itself, it may be said that the Egyptian batteries were served steadily and rapidly; and their aim was good. The officers appear to have set a good example to their men, appearing often upon the parapet, to watch the effect of their shot. All the batteries facing the sea were destroyed by the heavy guns opposed to them, and their guns dismounted. An explosion of a magazine, in one fort, is said to have killed all of the garrison. The faces of the batteries were pulverized, and large holes were made in the masonry of the lighthouse, and the large stone fort adjoining was reduced to ruin, and all its guns dismounted. The loss of life in the garrisons of these forts must have been frightful. The harem palace was damaged extensively by shell and by fire.

The Arab quarter behind Fort Pharos caught all the shell which missed the batteries; and here all was chaos and destruction.

Of the English ships, the Penelope was struck five times, and had eight men wounded, and one gun disabled. The Invincible was struck many times, and six shots penetrated. She had six wounded, and some spars shot away. The Monarch, which kept under way, was not hit. The Superb had her funnel injured, and plates damaged. The Alexandra suffered slight damage in her hull. The Sultan had her main-mast and funnel shot through, and her hull pierced several times in the unarmored part. Two of the 18-ton guns of the Alexandra were disabled by shot, which passed in at the port-holes.

(Ironclad, English Navy. Her appearance after being launched.)]

THE WAR BETWEEN CHINA AND JAPAN.

THE OPENING OF JAPAN TO FOREIGN NATIONS.

We may well be proud of the fact that our country was the first to open the empire of Japan to the free intercourse which, in common with the rest of the world, we now enjoy with that formerly mysterious country. In former years the Dutch, Portuguese, English, and others had a limited intercourse with the Japanese, but were cut off from that, and, with the exception of the Dutch, entirely expelled from the country two centuries and a half ago. The Dutch alone, of all Christian nations, were allowed to remain for the purposes of traffic, “and they purchased the privilege at the price of national humiliation and personal imprisonment, for which all the profits of gainful barter offer but an inadequate compensation.”

This self-isolated empire, Japan, has experienced more radical and startling changes within the last generation than any people or nation of which history treats. It seemed as if, once freed from the trammels which had so long confined it, the empire was determined, at one bound, to place itself abreast of other nations which had attained a high civilization and enlightenment by slow and painful steps. With a wealth of the best models before them, and the intelligence to be able to throw off their prejudices and avail themselves of those models, the feat was easier, but still remains wonderful, the more we consider it.

Situated at the eastern extremity of Asia, between 31° and 49° north latitude, the empire consists of a large group of islands, many of them small and surrounded by a sea which is not very easy to navigate at all times.

There are three very large islands--Niphon, or Nippon, seven hundred miles long, but so narrow that its breadth in the centre is not more than fifty miles; Kiusiu, about two hundred miles long and fifty miles wide; and Yesso, formerly sometimes called Xicoco, eighty-five or ninety miles long and fifty wide.

There are many mountains, some of them volcanic, and the country is subject to earthquakes, often of a serious character.

The number of inhabitants is given as about forty millions; but it is said by late observers that, dense as the population appears to be in certain regions, the country could support many more.

The Japanese appear to be a mixture of the Malay and Mongolian races, like the Chinese, from whom there seems little doubt they derived their civilization, ages ago.

The first knowledge of Japan which the Western world had was given by the Venetian traveller, Marco Polo, at the end of the thirteenth century. When he returned from a long sojourn in Asia he was hardly believed when he spoke of a large island off the coast of Cathay, or China, which he called Zipangu. That island is the modern Nippon.

There is no doubt that Marco Polo’s written story and accompanying maps had much to do with the determination of Columbus to find the farthest east by sailing west. Although he was not able to find and open Japan, he did discover a country which has performed a part of his contemplated work--a nation which, if it did not discover Zipangu, was to become the instrument of bringing it into free and full communication with the rest of the world.

It is to the Portuguese that we owe the first real knowledge of Japan. When Mendez Pinto, on a voyage to China in 1542, was driven by a storm to Japan and landed there, the event was considered so important by the authorities of that isolated country that they not only entered it in their archives, but preserved portraits of persons who seemed most strange to them in complexion, features, dress, and language.

The authorities and the visitors were so much pleased with each other that an arrangement was entered into by which a Portuguese ship was to be yearly despatched--probably from Macao--laden with articles of trade. The returns were made in gold, silver, and copper, of which latter metal there was abundance in Japan.

Then came the establishment of a mission under Francis Xavier, afterwards canonized by the Catholic Church, and a man of wonderful ability and with all the requisites for a Christian missionary of his time. He and his assistants did not meddle with Japanese affairs or politics, soon made friends, and many converts; but St. Francis Xavier died in 1552, and his successors were not so wise or so Christian-like as he had been. They differed among themselves and meddled with matters which did not concern them. The Franciscans and Dominicans quarrelled with the Jesuits, but they obtained, among them, a very large number of converts, among whom were numbered some of the princes or feudal lords.

The Dutch came next in establishing a footing in Japan, about 1598. One of their first vessels had an English pilot named William Adams, who has left us a narration of his long residence there--a romantic story, but which can only be alluded to here. He arose to high distinction, and, among other things, instructed the Japanese in the art of ship-building and mathematics.

An English factory was established at Hirado in 1613, but the enterprise was soon abandoned.

All went well with the Portuguese until about the year 1617, when a revolution occurred in Japan which placed in power those who were hostile to both foreign traders and to missionaries. This revolution had a fatal effect upon the Portuguese influence, especially as they had, as has been said, showed imprudence in mingling in the politics of the country, while their ambassador exhibited great pride and haughtiness, in marked contrast with the Dutch. The latter, attending strictly to their mercantile transactions and moved by hatred and jealousy of their rivals, the Portuguese, took good care to give the assurance that they themselves were of a different creed from the Jesuits.

When, therefore, in 1637, the Portuguese--traders, missionaries, and all--were banished from the country, after many persecutions and much bloodshed, the Dutch were allowed to keep up an intercourse, but under severe restrictions.

Once rid of the Portuguese, there then began a persecution of the native Christians, which continued for many years, during which it is said that several millions suffered for their faith. The number sounds large, but all accounts agree in regard to it.

Then the Dutch fell under suspicion, for several good reasons, and were only permitted to remain at all on condition of residing at one spot, where they could be guarded and every motion observed. In 1641 they were ordered to remove to Dezima, a small island near Nagasaki, which Kæmpfer said “was more like a prison than a factory.” But, unwilling to quit the prospect of profitable trade, they willingly underwent this imprisonment and agreed to forego any of the outward signs of Christianity, such as leaving off divine service, etc.

The island Dezima is shaped like a fan, and is very small, only about six hundred by two hundred and fifty feet, and mostly of artificial construction. It was connected with the town of Nagasaki by a bridge, on which there was always a strong guard. The whole island was surrounded by a high fence with iron spikes. No stone houses were permitted to be built, and the interpreters, clerks, and servants were spies, whom the Dutch were obliged to pay. The few ships allowed to come annually were searched and their arms and powder taken away. “A more annoying and thorough system of imprisonment and espionage was never devised.”

Although subject to this oppression and contumely, the Dutch continued their trade--one or two ships going from Batavia every year--until Japan was thrown open to the world by means of the action of the American expedition of 1853. But before speaking of that expedition we must allude to the idea which has been extensively entertained that there were formerly, and until quite recently, two Emperors at the same time in Japan. This erroneous idea was conceived in this way. About the year 1200, of our era, the then Emperor created a supreme general, called Shógun. Each Shógun owed allegiance to the Emperor, and was invested by him, but his position as supreme head of the military organization, which gave him immense influence with the powerful nobles or feudal lords, made him almost the equal of the sovereign. Several years after Japan had been opened to the world and treaties made with many nations, in 1868, the Shógun’s power was shattered during a war which might be denominated a revolution. Military domination was swept away and the Mikado reinstated in his position of supreme authority. In that year the powerful Tokugawa clan, and others who supported the Shógun, were overcome by the great clans of Satsuma, Choshin, and Tosa, and a powerful northern opposition was put down by the Mikado’s forces.

It is a curious fact that the Stonewall Jackson, an ironclad, took part in this war. She had been built in France for the Confederates, taken to Havana, and then claimed by our government as a spoil of war. She was sold by the United States to Japan, and taken out there and delivered by one of our naval officers.

And now to relate some of the events in Japan in which our country was most concerned.

In 1831 our first effort at intercourse began. A Japanese junk which had been blown off their coast had drifted about the Pacific for a long time, and at length went ashore near the mouth of the Columbia River. Her crew were kindly treated and sent to China, whence they were sent, on board an American merchant ship, the Morrison, to Japan. People were not then aware of a Japanese law which prohibited the return of any Japanese who had left their country. At any rate, it was an errand of mercy. When the Morrison entered Jeddo Bay the Japanese, finding she was unarmed, fired at her with shotted guns, and she was forced to go to Kagosima. Meeting the same reception there, she returned to Macao with the shipwrecked Japanese on board.

Complaints having multiplied that American seamen wrecked on the coast of Japan had been harshly treated by the authorities of that country--which was very true, for the writer was a shipmate of one who had been so treated, and often talked with him of his adventures--our government was anxious to make a treaty which would provide that such unfortunates should be kindly treated, and also that American vessels in distress should be able to enter Japanese ports for needed supplies. So Commodore Biddle, with the Columbus, of 90 guns, and the sloop-of-war Vincennes, of 20 guns, entered the Bay of Jeddo, in 1846. The ships were at once surrounded by guard boats--four hundred of them. The ships remained ten days, but no one belonging to them landed, and an application for license to trade was met by the answer: “No trade can be allowed with any foreign nation but Holland.”

The next attempt was in 1849, when the United States sloop-of-war Preble, Commander Glynn, was sent to inquire as to the detention in Japan of sixteen American seamen who had been shipwrecked on the coast of the islands. As the Preble approached Nagasaki harbor she was surrounded by boats and warned off. But the ship stood in with a fair breeze, and anchored in spite of them. Troops were hurriedly gathered and heavy batteries erected on the elevated shores, all bearing upon the ship. But Commander Glynn persisted, in spite of threats and subterfuge, demanding the prisoners and saying that the government meant to protect its citizens and means would be at hand to enforce its demands. Afterwards he sent word that the men must be delivered to him in two days’ time; and then the Japanese, finding him in earnest, gave them up. They had been very cruelly treated. Other attempts than those we have mentioned were made at different times, without success, by other nations, the English and the Russians especially.

Commodore Perry’s successful expedition left the United States in November, 1852, several vessels intending to join it being already in Chinese ports.

It was well known that our government contemplated such an expedition, and it had been the subject of much comment in several European countries more immediately concerned. The general opinion was that the mission would, like the many others which had been attempted by various powers, prove fruitless, from the prejudices and obstinacy of the Japanese. But they did not reckon upon the great tact, skill, and firmness which were to be displayed in the accomplishment of this difficult task. The President’s letter was presented on July 14th, 1853, when the squadron left with a promise to return next season for an answer. On March 31st, 1854, a treaty of peace and amity, providing especially for the protection of American sailors, was signed.

In June, 1857, a new treaty was made at Simoda, by Townsend Harris, American Consul-General to Japan, who succeeded in the next year in reaching Jeddo in spite of opposition, where he negotiated a third treaty, covering many more points than the first ones.

Other nations soon followed us in making treaties, until Japan was in full intercourse with the world at large.

It is impossible, here, to give more than a sketch of the many interesting incidents of Perry’s first visit, but we will endeavor to give a few points.

On the 7th of July, 1853, the Susquehanna and the Mississippi, paddle-wheel frigates, with the Plymouth and the Saratoga, sloops-of-war, entered the Bay of Yedo, the sailing sloops-of-war being in tow of the steamers, and the crews of the junks which were overhauled showed every evidence of surprise at the sight of the first steamships they had ever seen, taking to their oars and sweeps and hastily getting out of their course. At 5 o’clock in the afternoon the squadron anchored off the city of Uraga, and from their position distinctly saw the sacred mountain, Fusiyama, although it was at a distance of about sixty miles. Previous to anchoring a number of guard boats were observed coming off, and, contrary to the practice permitted during the visit of the Columbus, the Commodore determined to exclude casual visitors, so that they were not permitted even to make fast their boats to the ships, much less to come on board--a proceeding which seemed to anger the Japanese officials, but had a good effect in the end. Soon after an official came to warn the ships off, and he made signs to have the gangway ladder of the flag-ship lowered for him. But the interpreter told him that the Commodore was a very high officer of his government, and that he would receive no one but a functionary of the highest rank, and was asked why the Governor himself did not come off. He replied that he was forbidden by law to do so, and asked that he (the speaker, who was Vice-Governor,) should be received. After some delay this was done, but he only saw the Commodore’s aide, who told him that the Commodore’s intentions were perfectly friendly, and that he brought a letter from the President of the United States addressed to the Emperor. The Japanese official insisted that the ships must go to Nagasaki and there deliver the letter, as that was the only place, under their law, for the transaction of business with foreigners. He was told that the Commodore would not go to Nagasaki, but expected to be duly and properly received where he was, near Yedo, and intimated that force might be used to deliver the message with which he was charged. He was prepared to meet the Japanese on their own ground and imitate their own policy. The result was that the squadron was left free from all annoyance, an event unprecedented in the intercourse of Japan with foreign ships for two centuries.

There were a good many forts and batteries to be seen on the shore, however, and every precaution was taken against a sudden attack, especially as bodies of soldiers could be seen moving about. But the next day the Governor of the city appeared and came on board. Being an official of the third rank, however, the Commodore would not personally meet him. The Governor still insisted upon the ships leaving there and going to Nagasaki, and was again told that they would deliver the letter there, as the nearest point to the capital. At a later interview he was informed that unless an answer was given in three days, and the business which had brought the squadron there was arranged at the present visit, the Commodore would be obliged to return with a larger force, and, as Uraga was an unsafe anchorage, he should go much nearer to Yedo.

It would take many pages to give all the arguments for delay offered by the Japanese; but the firmness of Perry, who had not been personally seen--as too exalted a person--at last gained the day. The Emperor consented to have a meeting of high officers deputized by him and Commodore Perry in a house built for the purpose, on shore, where the letters could be formally exchanged. All the officers of the squadron who could be spared accompanied the Commodore, in full uniform, and a large force of marines and sailors, under arms, formed a guard of honor. The United States flag and the Commodore’s pennant were borne in front by two stalwart seamen, and two boys, appropriately dressed, bore, in an envelope of scarlet cloth, the President’s letter and the Commodore’s credentials.

After long ceremonial conversations, everything was settled pleasantly, and an answer promised upon the return of the squadron the next spring.

On the 12th of the following February, Perry returned for his answer. The Japanese were quite friendly, and the squadron, of three steamers and four sailing men-of-war, anchored about twelve miles beyond the town of Uraga and about twenty miles from the capital city, Yedo. Even then the Japanese tried to change the place of meeting, but without success, for the Americans persisted in having it at that place, which is now known as Yokohama. Here a fine building was erected as a “Treaty House,” and, on the 8th of March, 1854, Perry landed in state for the second time, and on that and the following days conferences were held and handsome presents interchanged. Among arms, implements, wines, and other things, was a small locomotive and tender, with a passenger car, and enough rails to form a track. The Japanese Government sent to the President a great quantity of things peculiar to the country, and all ended in a good understanding and the granting of the demands of the American Government.

Thus, not within the lifetime, but _within the naval lifetime_ of the writer, has a nation emerged from complete isolation and become so powerful as to challenge and successfully meet in battle a neighboring nation, some of the provinces of which contain as many inhabitants as the whole of Japan.

No matter what may be the result of the war which is now going on, it is certain that none of the great Western nations which have hitherto controlled, more or less directly, the course of events in the extreme East, will in future venture to take political steps without reckoning Japan as a first-class power. Her resources, military and naval, are present, while those of the Western nations must be transported halfway round the world to reach them.

Before war was actually proclaimed the ships of China and Japan had two or three conflicts on the Korean coast, one of which involved quite a battle, and the destruction of a small Chinese cruiser which was protecting the landing of Chinese troops, from transports, on the coast of Korea. The second was the sinking of the Kow-Shing, which steamer, in spite of her Chinese name, was an English vessel, and one of the fastest and best employed in the Chinese coast trade.

When the news of the sinking of the Kow-Shing, which took place on the 25th of July, first appeared, there was great bluster in the English papers about holding Japan responsible; but, when the true facts came to light all this talk quickly died away, as it was clearly seen that the Japanese were within their own right in preventing the landing of their enemy’s troops in Korea. Of their merciless treatment of the Chinese when struggling in the water a difference of opinion may probably be held.

The “Kow-Shing incident” was as follows:--This vessel, of about 1400 tons, had a crew of Chinese, but the captain, the three mates, and three engineers were Englishmen. She was chartered by the Chinese government, by the month, for military purposes. Toward the end of July she took on board twelve hundred Chinese troops, with two generals, and their body-guards, of about one hundred and fifty men.

War was not formally declared, but two other Chinese troop ships trying to land men, and under escort of men-of-war, accomplished their purpose, but an action succeeded between the convoying vessels and some Japanese cruisers, in which one of the Chinese ships suffered great loss, and was set on fire. Her commander ran her on shore, where she shortly blew up.

The Japanese succeeded in intercepting the Kow-Shing, and determined to force her to return without landing the troops she had on board.

But one of the Chinese cruisers, the Tsi-Yuen, accompanying the two which had landed troops, observing the Japanese cruiser Naniwa taking note of the operation, is said to have approached the Naniwa with the Japanese flag flying and suddenly opened fire upon her, as evidence of which an officer of the Kow-Shing was shown a shell, which happily did not explode, in the ward-room of the Naniwa. “What happened afterwards was probably done, at least in part, as retaliation for this act of fighting under false colors.”

On July 25th at 8 o’clock in the morning, the Kow-Shing, with the Chinese troops on board, sighted the Naniwa, which signalled her to stop and then to anchor; she did so, and then signalled “Can we proceed?” As an answer to this the Japanese cruiser sent a boat, with an armed crew and two officers, who proceeded to the captain’s cabin, where they examined the ship’s papers. They were told that the Kow-Shing was a British steamer, with the British Consul’s clearance, flying the British flag, and that war had not been declared when she left port.

Major Von Hanneken, the German officer in Chinese employ, told the Chinese generals what had passed, and the latter said they had rather die where they were, and said that if the British officers attempted to leave the Kow-Shing they would be killed by their body-guard. The English captain tried his hardest to show them how useless it was to resist the Naniwa, but without success. By this time the boat had returned to the Naniwa, and the latter signalled, “weigh, cut or slip, wait for nothing” meaning that the English captain was to carry his ship back to the place whence she had come, and not attempt to land the generals and their troops in Korea. If they had obeyed the order there would have been no loss of property or life. But the Chinese would not allow the captain to move, and threatened death again if he did so. The Naniwa then steamed abeam of the Kow-Shing, on the port side, about 500 yards off. Then she blew her whistle, ran a red flag up to her foremast head, and discharged a torpedo, which however fell short. Immediately afterward, seeing that the torpedo had missed, the Naniwa fired a broadside which hulled the Kow-Shing, which keeled over to starboard and immediately began to sink.

The English officers at once jumped overboard, and began to swim for the land, through swarms of Chinamen, dead or drowning. Bullets were striking on every side. They came from the Chinese soldiers who were herded on the only part of the Kow-Shing left above water. Then the Englishmen swam toward the Naniwa, and after being a long time in the water were picked up by her boats. By this time only the Kow-Shing’s masts were visible, and two of her boats, while crowds of Chinese in the water were swimming about. The officer of the Japanese cutter which had picked up the Englishmen said he was ordered to sink the boats. He did fire at them and then returned to the Naniwa without picking up any of the Chinese. The next day the Naniwa joined the rest of the Japanese fleet, and the Englishmen were sent by despatch boat to Japan, where they were set at liberty a few days afterwards.

The Chinese and Japanese have for ages been in communication, mercantile and otherwise, but there has always, so far as history goes, been an underlying hostility in the feelings of the two nations. These feelings have been aggravated by collisions at various periods in regard to sovereignty, and the commercial intercourse with the Loo-choo Islands, as well as in regard to Formosa, a very large and immensely valuable possession for the nation which may be fortunate enough to hold it. At present the greater part of the island is in the possession of native clans, and the Chinese control the country for only a short distance inland, upon the southwestern portion mostly.

Then again, China and Japan have been at difference for a long time in regard to the Korean territory, over which China has always claimed a jurisdiction, which however she has not practically exercised, except by intriguing in the state affairs of the country and demanding acts of vassalage. When Japan, whose interests in her neighbors are very important, protested against Chinese intrigue and influence, she was received with ill-disguised contempt. Upon war being declared by Japan, the Emperor of China and his advisers, not recognizing the forward state of preparation of the Japanese, is said to have ordered his military and naval commanders to “exterminate the Japanese vermin.” How far the effort at “extermination” went, the whole world now knows.

Japan solemnly declared, in a diplomatic note, that her whole object in the war was to settle and secure once for all the separation and independence of Korea. Of course, if successful, she would demand compensation for the immense outlay incurred in her campaigns by land and sea; and, while not approaching the sum paid by France to Germany at the close of the Franco-German war, it will be very large indeed, and one which will hamper the Chinese government for a generation to come, as their fiscal methods do not readily lend themselves to such an emergency.

THE NAVAL BATTLE OF THE YALU, SEPT. 17, 1894.

Since the advent of modern battle-ships of the new type, armed with high-powered rifled ordnance, naval officers of all nations had been eagerly looking for an occasion when the use of such ships and guns would be an object lesson to them, and various theories in regard to naval warfare would be put to the test of actual practice. While most people were looking to movements in other and widely distant parts of the world--some predicting a naval battle in the North Sea, while others looked for a battle of giants in the Mediterranean--the problem was in part solved for them by a pitched battle in the far Orient, between the Japanese and Chinese fleets, and which will be known in history as the battle of the Yalu.

The rival fleets may be said to have illustrated each a different principle. That represented by the Chinese was the principle of the school which puts material above _personnel_, for their fleet contained the heaviest ships and the largest guns, although these were not so numerous as those of the Japanese. They had also the most extensive torpedo equipment.

The Japanese represented the school which believes in lighter, more active ships, and in “the man behind the gun”--that is, the greater rapidity and accuracy of fire and ability in manœuvring--much the same as Farragut’s conviction that the best protection for a ship was a rapid and accurate fire from her battery.

Before proceeding to describe the battle it would be well to give some account of the strength of the contending fleets. By this we mean the available naval strength of each nation at the outbreak of the conflict.

The Chinese navy owes its existence principally to the fostering care of the Imperial Viceroy, Li Hung-Chang, now in disgrace. He employed Captain Lang, an Englishman, and other Europeans to drill the ships’ companies. But Captain Lang was forced to leave that service some time before the war began, and Captain Von Henneken, a German, who constructed the forts at and near the naval port of Wei-hai-wei, appears to have taken his place as adviser to Admiral Ting--as much as a military man can advise upon naval matters. The Chinese had five heavy ironclads--Ting-Yuen, Chen-Yuen, King-Yuen, Lai-Yuen, and Ping-Yuen--with armor from fourteen to eight inches thick, and armed with Krupp guns, from twelve-inch to eight-inch calibre, mounted in barbette. They had also some quick-fire and a number of machine guns. All of these vessels, except the Ping-Yuen, were built at Stettin, in Germany.

The Chinese protected and partly protected cruisers were nine in number, with armaments of Armstrong and other guns, and a number of quick-fire guns in two of them, the Tschi-Yuen and Ching-Yuen. Most of them were built in Germany and in England, but three of the smaller ones were constructed in the Chinese building yard at Foo-choo. Some of the vessels named were quite fast, but as the speed of a fleet is that of its slowest ship, we must put it down at ten or eleven knots--the speed of the ironclad Ping-Yuen.

The torpedo flotilla included twenty-eight boats of over one hundred feet in length and thirteen over eighty, all built in Stettin.

As regards the Japanese fleet, of the armor-clads (Riujo, Fuso, Kongo, Hi-Yei, and Tschiyoda), all are stated to be practically obsolete but the last, and she was much damaged in the battle by the Chinese Tschi-Yuen. They were all built in England at different dates, from 1864 to 1879. The Tschiyoda, armored cruiser, is a modern ship of about 2500 tons, built in Glasgow. She has a four-and-a-half-inch belt, one-inch deck plating, and mounts 24 quick-fire guns. Her best speed is about nineteen knots.

The modern protected cruisers which took part in the battle on the Japanese side were the Naniwa, Takachiko, Itsukushima, Hashidate, Matsushima, Akitsushima, and Yoshino. The lowest speed of any of these ships was seventeen and a half knots, and they were armed with Armstrong, Canet, and Krupp heavy guns and a very large number of quick-fire 4.7-inch, and smaller guns.

The Akitsushima and Hashidate were built in Japan; the Itsukushima and Matsushima at La Seyne, in France. The Naniwa and Takachiko were English built, as was also the new Yoshino, with a speed of twenty-three knots, 4150 tons, and one of the finest cruisers afloat in any navy.

The Japanese torpedo flotilla consists of 41 boats more than 100 feet in length; but, as we shall have occasion to see later on, torpedoes were of not much importance in the Yalu battle, owing to the manner in which it was fought, and few of those were present.

The principal dock-yard and naval arsenal of Japan is at Yokosuka; and the whole country is divided into two naval districts or departments, each subject to a vice-minister under the naval minister at Tokio, the capital. The discipline and regulations of the Japanese fleet are modelled upon those of Europe and America much more closely than that of China, and the ships are manned by efficient and well-trained crews, who have excellent and well-instructed officers. So many of the population are engaged in maritime pursuits--either in the fishery or in coasting and carrying on the active communication between the islands composing the empire--that there is a large reserve of hardy, seasoned men to draw upon for service in the navy.

Many of the officers have been educated abroad, some of them being graduates of our own Naval Academy at Annapolis, where, as a rule, they have always stood well in their classes in spite of the difficulty of carrying on their studies in a foreign language. These naval cadets were received at the request of the Japanese government and wore the uniform and were treated in precisely the same way as our own cadet midshipmen, but the Japanese government paid all their expenses.

Thus, though apparently weaker than the Chinese fleet, except in the matter of swift cruisers, the Japanese navy had qualities which gave it the real, practical advantage in the battle of the Yalu. More than ever has it confirmed the theory that speed is the greatest requisite in the sea-fighting of the present day; for it was the swiftness of the Japanese vessels which gained them the advantage in the first place, seconded by rapid and accurate gun-fire.

We shall see that torpedoes had not much opportunity for action, and when used by the Chinese (rather clumsily), failed in taking effect, while there was no use of the ram at all--a manner of offence which many looked to see exemplified in the first great naval battle.

The great sea-fight at the Yalu will not be completely elucidated for some time to come--probably many months--but we know enough about it to be able to give its leading features, mostly from the report made to the Japanese Emperor by an aide of Admiral Ito, who commanded the fleet of Japanese vessels.

This fleet had been for several days in the estuary of Ping-Yang, in the Bay of Korea, co-operating with the land forces upon the river Ta-Tong. On the morning of September 16th the Admiral was advised that Ping-Yang had been captured, and he at once got under way, proceeding to the northward with eleven ships, the names of which have already been given, and the Saikio, a light-armed vessel having on board Admiral Kabiyama, who was senior to Ito, but who did not assume command, as he was only upon a tour of inspection and his vessel was not intended for fighting. The ships were in two divisions.

On the 17th, in the bay of Takuchao, on the coast of Manchouria, they discovered the Chinese fleet, of fourteen ships and four torpedo-boats. It was then about mid-day. As the opposing forces rapidly approached each other it was seen that the Chinese were coming out of the bay in a formation not unlike a closed crescent or wide V; the Japanese fleet being in line abreast, with the Admiral in the centre in the Matsushima. The little Saikio also took place in line, in spite of her feeble armament.

When about 4000 metres distant the Chinese Admiral and some other of his vessels opened fire, but the Japanese waited until the distance had decreased to 3000 metres before making any reply. Even then they fired but a few shots, after which Admiral Ito, seeing that the Chinese retained their peculiar and very disadvantageous formation, signalled to the van squadron to attack the enemy on the right and the rear squadron to attack the left. At the same time he ordered the Akagi and the Saikio to get on the port or outer side of the rear squadron, for safety. The presence of the two large and heavily plated German-built battle-ships in the Chinese fleet convinced Admiral Ito that he would have to fight the battle under full steam, and, by attacking the Chinese on their flanks, break their formation and throw them into confusion. Seeing that he was exposing first one wing and then the other of his fleet to a concentrated fire which he could only partially return, Admiral Ting now tried to get his vessels into line, and a tremendous cannonade ensued, at a distance varying from a mile to a mile and a half. The ocean fairly shook as the ships swept on, rapidly firing pieces of heavy modern ordnance. The Chinese vessels presented a strange appearance, for not a moving man could be seen upon their upper decks, nor were there any boats at their davits or on their decks. It was said that they had purposely left their boats behind to prevent their crews from deserting.

At first the Chinese fire was fairly accurate; but that of the Japanese, coolly handled, and with the newest pattern of guns, had a terrible precision. The wheeling movement of the Japanese on the right and left flanks, and the terrific effect of their rapid-fire guns, seemed to throw the line of their enemies into disorder and to demoralize their gunners.

During this tremendous and incessant fire one of the Chinese vessels, the Lai-Yuen, an armored cruiser, was badly injured, and the Japanese particularly concentrated their fire upon her as well as others of the Chinese fleet which seemed to be damaged. The Lai-Yuen then began to get low in the water, but her gunners continued to fire almost to the last, when she sank, stern foremost. As her stern went under, her bows rose out of the water, and she is said to have remained in this position for about a minute and a half before she finally disappeared. This fine vessel was sunk by shot, as not a torpedo had been discharged. Then came the turn of the Tschi-Yuen, which showed signs of being in trouble, and with a concentrated fire directed upon her she soon sank, with every soul on board.

While the rear of the Japanese main squadron was turning the left of the Chinese the Hi-Yei came so close to the latter that, to avoid receiving their fire broadside on, she left the main squadron and steamed straight for the Chinese line, passing between the two large ironclads, the Ting-Yuen and Lai-Yuen. Both these great floating forts fired at her as she passed, and also launched two torpedoes, both of which missed, and on went the Hi-Yei, cheering and firing from both batteries. She had a great number of killed and wounded, but had passed more than half-way through, without serious damage to hull or machinery, when a shell from one of the battle-ships hit her aft, about three feet above the water line, and shattered her mizzenmast and killed her paymaster, both her surgeons, all the medical attendants, the men at the spare steering-gear, and many of the powder division. These were all in the ward-room, which was the surgeon’s quarters in action. Besides this damage the shell set her on fire, and her commander, named Sakurai, was obliged to run out of the line of fire until he could subdue the flames.