Chapter IX: Part I: How to Write a Composition (2)

Probably it will demand much toil at first in rewriting for the sake of redistributing your words; acquired habit of long standing will unconsciously mould your sentences to the accustomed shape; but persevere and you will certainly succeed at last, and your words will express your thoughts precisely as you think them, and as you desire that they should be impressed upon the minds of those to whom they are addressed.

So with the sentences. Let each be complete in itself, embodying one proposition. Shun that tangled skein in which some writers involve themselves, to the perplexity of their readers and their own manifest bewilderment. When you find a sentence falling into such a maze, halt and retrace your steps. Cancel what you have done, and reflect what you design to say. Set clearly before your mind the ideas that you had begun to mingle; disentangle them, range them in orderly array, and express them in distinct sentences, where each will stand separate, but in its right relationship to all the rest.

This exercise will improve, not only your skill in the art of writing, but also in the art of thinking, for those involved sentences are almost always the result of confused thoughts; the resolve to write clearly will compel you to think clearly, and you will be surprised to discover how often thoughts, which had appeared to you definite in contemplation, are found, when you come to set them upon paper, to be most incomplete and shadowy. Knowing the fault, you can then put your wits to work and furnish the remedy.

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.

SIMPLE SENTENCES.

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

The sentence ‘John writes’ consists of two parts:—

(1) The name of the person of whom we are speaking,—_John_

and

(2) What we say about John,—_writes_.

Similarly the sentence ‘Fire burns’ consists of two parts:—

(1) The name of the thing of which we are speaking,—_fire_.

(2) What we say about fire,—_burns_.

Every sentence has two such parts.

The name of the person or thing spoken about is called the =Subject=.

What is said about the Subject is called the =Predicate=.

Exercise 1.

_Point out the Subjects and the Predicates._

William sings. Birds fly. Sheep bleat. Henry is reading. Rain is
falling. Rain has fallen. Stars are shining. Stars were shining.
Cattle are grazing. Soldiers are watching. Soldiers watched.
Soldiers were watched. School is closed. Donkeys bray. Donkeys
were braying. I am writing. We are reading.

EXAMPLES.—William sings: “William” is the subject; “sings” is the
predicate. Henry is reading: “Henry” is the subject; “is reading”
is the predicate. In like manner you should go through the list
and point out the subjects and verbs.

Exercise 2.

_Place Predicates (Verbs) after the following Subjects_:—

Baby. Babies. Lightning. Flowers. Soldiers. Lions. Bees. Gas. The
sun. The wind. The eagle. Eagles. The ship. Ships. The master.
The scholars. The cat. Cats. Bakers. A butcher. The moon. The
stars. Carpenters. The carpenter. The mower. Porters. Ploughmen.

EXAMPLES.—“Baby” smiles. “Babies” cry. “Lightning” strikes.
Supply verbs for all the subjects.

Exercise 3.

_Place Subjects before the following Predicates_:—

Mew. Chatter. Grunt. Ran. Hum. Fly. Howl. Is walking. Plays.
Played. Fell. Whistled. Shrieked. Sings. Sing. Sang. Sleeps.
Slept. Bark. Barks. Cried. Bloom. Laughed. Soar. Swim. Swam. Was
swimming. Dawns. Dawned. Gallops. Roar.

EXAMPLES.—Cats “mew.” Monkeys “chatter.” Pigs “grunt.” Go on and
write subjects for all the verbs.

SUBJECT, PREDICATE, AND OBJECT.

The Predicate always is, or contains, a Verb. In many sentences the Predicate is a Verb alone. When it is a Verb in the Active Voice, it has an =Object=, thus:—

_Subject._ _Predicate._ _Object._
Parents love children.
Children obey parents.
Boys write essays.
Haste makes waste.

Exercise 4.

_Pick out the Subjects, Predicates, and Objects._

Soldiers fight battles. Tom missed Fred. Mary is minding baby.
Job showed patience. Abraham had faith. Romulus founded Rome.
Titus captured Jerusalem. Arthur loves father. Walter threw a
stone. Tom broke a window. The servant swept the room. Masons
build houses. The girl is milking the cow. The dog bit the
beggar. Artists paint pictures. I am expecting a letter. We have
won prizes.

EXAMPLES.—The word “soldiers” is the subject; “fight” is the
predicate; “battles” is the object. “Tom” is the subject;
“missed” is the predicate; “Fred” is the object. You do not need
to be confined to the sentences here given; write others of your
own, and name the subjects, verbs and objects.

Exercise 5.

You will readily understand what is required to complete the sentences in Exercises 5, 6 and 7. A poet _writes_ poems. The smith _strikes_ the iron, etc.

_Supply Predicates._

A poet ... poems. The smith ... the iron. Horses ... carts. Cows
... grass. Cats ... milk. The sexton ... the bell. The horse ...
the groom. Grocers ... sugar. The hounds ... the fox. Birds ...
nests. The gardener ... the flowers. Miss Wilson ... a ballad.
Horses ... hay. The dog ... the thief. The banker ... a purse.
Tailors ... coats. Brewers ... beer. The girl ... a rose.

Exercise 6.

_Supply Objects._

The servant broke.... The cook made.... The hunter killed....
Farmers till.... Soldiers fight.... Tom missed.... Mary is
minding.... Romulus founded.... Titus captured.... Cæsar
invaded.... The gardener sowed.... Somebody stole.... Artists
paint.... The sailor lost.... Children learn.... Authors
write.... Farmers grow.... Birds build.... I admire.... We
like.... I hurt....

Exercise 7.

_Supply Subjects._

... dusted the room. ... is drawing a load. ... loves me. ...
met Tom. ... caught the thief. ... grow flowers. ... bit the
beggar. ... won the prize. ... has lost the dog. ... has killed
the cat. ... felled a tree. ... are singing songs. ... is making
a pudding. ... is expecting a letter. ... gives light. ... makes
shoes. ... sold a book. ... like him. ... likes him.

ENLARGED SUBJECT.

Subjects may be enlarged by =Adjuncts=. Thus the sentence “Boys work” may, by additions to the subject, become

_The_ boys work.

_These_ boys work.

_Good_ boys work.

_My_ boys work.

_The good_ boys _of the village_ work.

_The good_ boys _of the village, wishing to please their master_,
work.

Exercise 8.

_Point out the Subject and its Adjuncts._

Tom’s brother has arrived. The careless boy will be punished.
The laws of the land have been broken. The sweet flowers are
blooming. The poor slave is crying. The boat, struck by a great
wave, sank. The little child, tired of play, is sleeping. A short
letter telling the good news has been sent.

Exercise 9.

_Add Adjuncts to each Subject._

Birds fly. Sheep bleat. Stars are shining. Cattle are grazing.
Soldiers are watching. Donkeys bray. Lightning is flashing. The
sun is shining. The scholars are studying. The ploughman is
whistling. Monkeys chatter. Pigs grunt. The lark is soaring.
Lions roar.

ENLARGED OBJECTS.

Objects, like Subjects, may be enlarged by Adjuncts. Thus the sentence “Boys learn lessons” may, by additions to the Object, become

Boys learn _the_ lessons.

Boys learn _their_ lessons.

Boys learn _home_ lessons.

Boys learn _difficult_ lessons.

Boys learn lessons _about Verbs_.

Boys learn _the_ lessons _set by Mr. Edwards_.

Boys learn _the difficult home_ lessons _about Verbs set by Mr.
Edwards_.

Exercise 10.

_Point out the Object and its Adjuncts._

The servant dusted every room. Fred loves his sweet little
sister. We have rented a house at Barmouth. We saw our neighbor’s
new Shetland pony. I am reading a book written by my father. The
policeman caught the man accused of theft. The gardener is hoeing
the potatoes planted by him in the early spring.

Exercise 11.

_Add Adjuncts to each Object._

The soldiers fought battles. Mary is minding baby. Walter threw a
stone. Tom broke a window. The servant swept the room. The girl
is milking the cow. The dog bit the beggar. The artist painted
pictures. I am expecting a letter. We have won prizes. The fire
destroyed houses. The general gained a victory. The engineer
made a railway. The children drowned the kittens. We have bought
books. He teaches geography.

ENLARGED PREDICATE.

Predicates, like Subjects and Objects, may be enlarged by Adjuncts. Thus the sentence “Boys work” may, by additions to the Predicate, become

Boys work _diligently_.

Boys work _now_.

Boys work _in school_.

Boys work _to please their teacher_.

Boys work _diligently now in school to please their teacher_.

Exercise 12.

_Pick out Predicate and its Adjuncts._

Tom’s brother will come to-morrow. The careless girl was looking
off her book. The laws of the land were often broken by the rude
mountaineers. Pretty flowers grow in my garden all through the
spring. The poor slave was crying bitterly over the loss of his
child. The corn is waving in the sun. The great bell was tolling
slowly for the death of the President. The trees are bowing
before the strong wind. I am going to Montreal with my father
next week.

Exercise 13.

_Add Adjuncts to each Predicate in Exercises 8, 9, 10 and 11._

VERBS OF INCOMPLETE PREDICATION.

Some Verbs do not convey a complete idea, and therefore cannot be Predicates by themselves. Such Verbs are called =Verbs of Incomplete Predication=, and the words added to complete the Predicate are called the =Complement=.

_Examples of Verbs of Incomplete Predication._

The words, “London is,” do not contain a complete idea. Add the
words, “a great city,” and you have a complete sentence. “William
was,” needs a complement, and you can finish the sentence by
writing, “Duke of Normandy.”

Exercise 14.

_Point out the Verbs of Incomplete Predication and the Complements._

Thou art the man. I am he. It is good. He is here. The house is
to be sold. The horse is in the stable. The gun was behind the
door. Jackson is a very good gardener. Those buds will be pretty
flowers. Old King Cole was a merry old soul. I’m the chief of
Ulva’s isle. William became King of England. The girl seems to be
very happy. The general was made Emperor of Rome.

_Supply Complements._

London is.... Paris is.... Jerusalem was.... The boy will
be.... He has become.... We are.... I am.... He was.... Richard
became.... The prisoners are.... The man was.... Those birds
are.... Grass is.... Homer was.... The child was.... The sun
is.... The stars are.... The sheep were.... Charleston is....
Havana was....

PRACTICE IN SIMPLE SENTENCES.

A sentence when written should always begin with a capital letter, and nearly always end with a full stop.

A sentence which is a question ends with a note of interrogation
(?), and one which is an exclamation ends with a note of
admiration or exclamation (!).

Exercise 15.

_Make sentences about_

Fire. The sun. The moon. The sea. Bread. Butter. Cheese. Wool.
Cotton. Linen. Boots. Hats. A coat. The table. The window. The
desk. Pens. Ink. Paper. Pencils. Lead. Iron. Tin. Copper. Gold.
Silver. A knife. The clock. Books. Coal. The servant. A chair.
Breakfast. Dinner. Supper. The apple. The pear. Oranges. Lemons.
Water. Milk. Coffee. Tea. Cocoa. Maps. Pictures.

Exercise 16.

_Make sentences introducing the following pairs of words_:

Fire, grate. Sun, earth. Moon, night. Bread, flour. Pen, steel.
Wool, sheep. Cotton, America. Boots, leather. Ink, black. Paper,
rags. Walk, fields. Pair, gloves. Learning, to paint. Brother,
arm. Wheel, cart. London, Thames. Bristol, Avon. Dublin, Ireland.
Paris, France. Columbus, America. Shakespeare, poet. Threw,
window. Useful, metal. Carpet, new. Wall, bricklayer. Road,
rough. Lock, cupboard. Jug, full. Hawaii, island. Pencils, made.
Drew, map.

Exercise 17.

_Write complete sentences in answer to the following questions_:—

EXAMPLE. _Question._ What is your name?
_Answer._ My name is John Smith.

If you said simply “John Smith” your answer would not be a
complete sentence.

What is your name? When were you born? How old are you? Where
do you live? How long have you lived there? What school do you
attend? Of what games are you fond? During what part of the year
is football played? And lawn-tennis? Are you learning Latin? And
French? And German? Can you swim? And row? And ride? And play the
piano? Do you like the sea? Have you ever been on the sea? Have
you read “Robinson Crusoe?” What is the first meal of the day?
And the second? And the third? Where does the sun rise? And set?
How many days are there in a week? And in a year? And in leap
year? How often does leap year come?

Exercise 18.

_Make three sentences about each of the following_:—

The place where you live. France. India. Australia. America. A
horse. A cow. A dog. A sheep. A lion. A tiger. Spring. Summer.
Autumn. Winter. The sun. The moon. Stars. Holidays. Boys’ games.
Girls’ games. A railway. A steam-engine. The sea. A ship.
Flowers. Fruits. A garden. Wool. Cotton. Leather. Silk. Water.
Milk. Rice. Wheat. Books. Tea. Coffee. Sugar. Cocoa. Paper.
Houses. Bricks. Stone. A field. Guns. A watch. A farm. Knives.
Bees. Shellfish. Fresh-water fish. Coal. Glass. Gas. The United
States. New York. The Mississippi. Canada. Indians. Chicago. St.
Louis. Oakland. Philadelphia. Bicycle. Golf.

Exercise 19.

_Combine each of the following facts into a sentence and write it out_:

EXAMPLE: Take the first name below, thus:—“Joseph Addison, the
essayist, was born at Milston in Wiltshire, in the year 1672.”
Pursue the same plan with all the other sets of facts here
furnished.

_Name._ _What he was._ _Where born._ _When born._

Joseph Addison Essayist Milston, 1672
Wiltshire
William Blake Poet and painter London 1757
John Bunyan Author of the “Pilgrim’s Elstow, 1628
Progress” Bedfordshire
Lord Byron Great English poet London 1788
Geoffrey Chaucer Great English poet London About 1344
(probably)
George Washington First President of the Virginia 1732
United States
Justin S. Morrill United States Senator Vermont 1810
William McKinley President of the United Ohio 1844
States

_Name._ _What he was._ _Where he died._ _When he died._

Matthew Arnold Poet and essayist Liverpool 1888
Daniel Defoe Author of “Robinson London 1731
Crusoe”
Henry Fielding Novelist Lisbon 1754
Henry Hallam Historian Penshurst 1859
William Greatest English Stratford-on-Avon 1616
Shakespeare poet
William H. Great English Hawarden 1898
Gladstone statesman
Henry W. American poet Cambridge 1882
Longfellow
Abraham Lincoln President of the Washington 1865
United States

_Battle._ _Date._ _Between._ _Victor._

Senlac, near Hastings 1066 English and Normans Normans
Bannockburn 1314 English and Scotch Scotch
Cressy 1346 English and French English
Waterloo 1815 English and French English
Marston Moor 1644 Royalists and Parliamentarians
Parliamentarians
Bull Run 1861 Unionists and Confederates
Confederates
Manila 1898 Americans and Spaniards Americans

These facts should be combined into sentences in various ways, thus:

_The Normans defeated the English at Senlac, near Hastings, in the year 1066._

_The English were defeated by the Normans at Senlac, near Hastings, in the year 1066._

_In the year 1066, at Senlac, near Hastings, the Normans beat the English, etc. etc._

_Event._ _Place._ _Date._ _Person._

Printing introduced 1476 William Caxton
into England
Discovery of America 1492 Christopher Columbus
Defeat of the Spanish English Channel 1588 Howard, Drake and
Armada others
Gunpowder Plot Westminster 1605 Guy Fawkes and others
Conquest of England 1066 William, Duke of
Normandy
Surrender of British Yorktown 1781 Lord Cornwallis
Destruction of Spanish Santiago 1898 Admiral Schley
fleet

SENTENCES COMBINED.

A number of simple sentences may sometimes be combined so as to form one.

EXAMPLE:—The girl was little. She lost her doll. The doll was
pretty. It was new. She lost it yesterday. She lost it in the
afternoon.

These sentences may be combined in one, thus:—The little girl
lost her pretty new doll yesterday afternoon.

The combined sentence tells us as much as the separate sentences, and tells it in a shorter, clearer, and more pleasing way.

Exercise 20.

_Combine the following sets of sentences_:—

1. The man is tall. He struck his head. He was entering a
carriage. The carriage was low.

2. Tom had a slate. It was new. He broke it. He broke it this
morning.

3. The cow is black. She is grazing in a meadow. The meadow is
beside the river.

4. The apples are ripe. They grow in an orchard. The orchard is
Mr. Brown’s.

5. The corn is green. It is waving. The breeze causes it to wave.
The breeze is gentle.

6. The father is kind. He bought some clothes. The clothes were
new. He bought them for the children. The children were good.

7. The boy was careless. He made blots. The blots were big. They
were made on his book. The book was clean.

8. The bucket was old. It was made of oak. It fell. It fell into
the well. The well was deep.

9. Polly Flinders was little. She sat. She sat among the cinders.
She was warming her toes. Her toes were pretty. They were little.

10. Tom Tucker is little. He is singing. He is singing for his
supper.

11. There were three wise men. They lived at Gotham. They went to
sea. They went in a bowl. They had a rough trip.

12. The man came. He was the man in the moon. He came down soon.
He came too soon.

13. I saw ships. There were three. They came sailing. They sailed
by. I saw them on Christmas day. I saw them in the morning.

14. Cole was a king. He was old. He was a merry soul.

15. A great battle began. It was between the English and the
Scotch. It began next morning. It began at break of day. It was
at Bannockburn.

Sentences are often combined by means of Conjunctions or other connecting words.

Sentences are combined, by means of the Conjunction _and_.

EXAMPLES:—1. The boy is good. The boy is clever.

2. William is going to school. John is going to school.

3. I admire my teacher. I love my teacher.

These may be combined into single sentences, as follows:—

1. The boy is good and clever.

2. William and John are going to school.

3. I admire and love my teacher.

Note the use of the comma when more than two words or sets of words are joined by _and_:—

I met Fred, Will and George.

Faith, Hope and Charity are sometimes called the Christian Graces.

I bought a pound of tea, two pounds of coffee, ten pounds of
sugar and a peck of flour.

The comma is used in the same way with _or_.

Exercise 21.

_Combine the following set of sentences by means of the Conjunction =and=_:—

1. Jack went up the hill. Jill went up the hill.

2. The lion beat the unicorn. The lion drove the unicorn out of
town.

3. Edward is honest. Edward is truthful.

4. The child is tired. The child is sleepy.

5. Tom will pay us a visit. Ethel will pay us a visit. Their
parents will pay us a visit.

6. The grocer sells tea. He sells coffee. He sells sugar.

7. Maud deserves the prize. She will get it.

8. Coal is a mineral. Iron is a mineral. Copper is a mineral.
Lead is a mineral.

9. The boy worked hard. He advanced rapidly.

10. Little drops of water, little grains of sand make the mighty
ocean. Little drops of water, little grains of sand make the
pleasant land.

Sentences are combined by means of the Conjunction _or_, thus:—

1. The boy is lazy. The boy is stupid.

2. I want a pen. I want a pencil.

3. The horse is lost. The horse is stolen.

These sentences may be combined as follows:—

1. The boy is lazy or stupid.

2. I want a pen or a pencil.

3. The horse is lost or stolen.

Remember to put in the commas when more than two words or sets of words are joined by _or_, thus:—

We could have tea, coffee or cocoa.

The beggar asked for a piece of bread, a glass of milk or a few
pennies.

Exercise 22.

_Combine the following sets of sentences by means of the Conjunction =or=_:—

1. The child was tired. The child was sleepy.

2. My father will meet me at the station. My mother will meet me
at the station.

3. Will you have tea? Will you have coffee?

4. The colonel must be present. One of the other officers must be
present.

5. The cup was broken by the servant. The cup was broken by the
dog. The cup was broken by the cat.

6. I must find the book. I must buy another.

7. The horse is in the stable. The horse is in the barnyard. The
horse is in the meadow.

8. The prize will be gained by Brown. The prize will be gained by
Smith. The prize will be gained by Jones.

Sentences may be combined by _either_ ... _or_, and _neither_ ... _nor_, thus:—

James was at school this morning. His sister was at school this
morning.

These sentences may be combined thus:—

Either James or his sister was at school this morning.

Neither James nor his sister was at school this morning.

Exercise 23.

_Combine the following sets of sentences:—(a) By =either= ... =or=. (b) By =neither= ... =nor=._

1. The man can read. The man can write.

2. He is deaf. He is stupid.

3. That shot will strike the horse. That shot will strike the
rider.

4. The king was weak in mind. The king was weak in body.

5. The king was loved. The queen was loved.

6. The cow is for sale. The calf is for sale.

Sentences may be combined by _both_ ... _and_, thus:—

The man is tired. The horse is tired.

These sentences may be combined in the following:—

Both the man and the horse are tired.

Exercise 24.

_Combine, by means of =both= ... =and=, the sets of sentences given in Exercise 23._

Sentences may be combined by means of Conjunctions of Cause, Consequence or Condition, such as _if_, _though_, _although_, _because_, thus:—

1. You are tired. You may rest.

2. The boy was not bright. He was good.

3. He is liked. He is good tempered.

Combine these sentences as follows:—

1. If you are tired you may rest.

2. Though the boy was not bright he was good.

3. He is liked because he is good tempered.

Exercise 25.

_Combine the following sets of sentences_:—

(a) _By means of =if=._

1. You will get the prize. You deserve it.

2. He might have succeeded. He had tried.

3. You are truthful. You will be believed.

4. Send for me. You want me.

5. You do not sow. You cannot expect to reap.

6. You are waking. Call me early.

7. I will come with you. You wish it.

8. We had known you were in town. We should have called on you.

(b) _By means of =though= or =although=._

9. The man was contented. He was poor.

10. The little girl has travelled much. She is young.

11. The story is true. You do not believe it.

12. He spoke the truth. He was not believed.

13. It was rather cold. The day was pleasant.

14. He is often told of his faults. He does not mend them.

(c) _By means of =because=; also by means of =as= and =since=._

16. I came. You called me.

17. I will stay. You wish it.

18. The dog could not enter. The hole was too small.

19. You are tired. You may rest.

20. Freely we serve. We freely love.

21. The hireling fleeth. He is a hireling.

22. We love him. He first loved us.

Sentences may be combined by means of Conjunctive Adverbs (such as _where_ with its compounds, also _when_, _whence_, _why_), and of Conjunctions of Time (such as _after_, _before_ _while_, _ere_, _till_, _until_, _since_).

Exercise 26.

_Combine, by means of one of the words given in the last paragraph, the following sets of sentences_:

1. This is the place. My brother works.

2. Mary went. The lamb was sure to go.

3. The boy was reading. His master came up.

4. The moon rose. The sun had set.

5. It is now three months. We heard from our cousin.

6. Do not go out. The storm has abated.

7. The man arrived. We were speaking to him.

8. I remember the house. I was born.

9. I know a bank. The wild thyme blows.

10. There is the field. The money was found.

11. The workman did not hear. He was called.

12. He goes out riding. He can find time.

_Supply the omitted clauses_:

The tree is still lying where.... Wherever ... was my poor dog
Tray. William came after.... My brother cannot stay till....
The merchant has been here since.... Go where.... Smooth runs
the water where.... She stayed till.... The boy has worked hard
since.... We shall be pleased to see you whenever.... The train
had gone before.... The little girl was tired after.... Make hay
while....

Sentences may be combined by means of Relative Pronouns, thus:

1. That is the boy. The boy broke the window.

2. That is the man. The man’s window was broken.

3. Mary is the girl. You want Mary.

4. This is the house. Jack built the house.

5. The knife was lost. The knife cost fifty cents.

Combine as follows:

1. That is the boy who broke the window.

2. That is the man whose window was broken.

3. Mary is the girl whom you want.

4. This is the house that Jack built.

5. The knife which was lost cost fifty cents.

Exercise 27.

_Combine, as in the examples just given, the following pairs of sentences_:

1. The boy is crying. The boy is called Tom.

2. The man was hurt. The man is better now.

3. The grocer has sent for the police. The grocer’s goods were
stolen.

4. The child is very naughty. The father punished the child.

5. My uncle gave me the book. The book is on the table.

6. The horse goes well. I bought the horse.

7. The lady sings beautifully. You see the lady.

8. They did not hear the preacher. They went to hear the preacher.

9. The gentleman is very kind to the poor. You see the
gentleman’s house.

10. I have just bought an overcoat. The overcoat is waterproof.

11. The tree was a chestnut. The wind blew the tree down.

12. Tom had just been given the dollar. He lost it.

13. The boy drove away the birds. The birds were eating the corn.

14. The girl is very clever. You met her brother.

15. The dog fetched the birds. Its master had shot them.

16. Where is the book? You borrowed it.

17. The cow has been found. It was lost.

PUNCTUATION.

If the proper stops are left out, the meaning of a sentence may be doubtful. Take, for example, the toast at a public dinner:

Woman without her man is a brute.

This might mean that woman without man is a brute. Punctuate the
sentence correctly by the right use of the comma, and you will
see that the meaning is quite different. Thus: Woman, without
her, man is a brute.

The misplacing of the stops may make nonsense of a sentence. Take the sentence:

Cæsar entered, on his head his helmet, on his feet sandals, in
his hand his trusty sword, in his eye an angry glare.

This may become: Cæsar entered on his head, his helmet on his
feet, sandals in his hand, his trusty sword in his eye, an angry
glare.

The barber’s sign also had two meanings according to its
punctuation:

1. What do you think?
I shave you for nothing and give you a drink.

2. What! Do you think
I shave you for nothing and give you a drink?

THE FULL STOP.

A =Full Stop= is placed at the end of every sentence.

Exercise 28.

_Insert full stops where wanted. Place a capital letter after each._

The old man was sitting under a tree the house was burned the
roses were scattered by the wind the carpet was beaten this
morning the mower was bitten by a snake that book is liked
England was conquered by William the corn was ground by the
miller the father was called by a little girl the cheeses were
eaten by mice that fish is caught with a hook the flowers were
gathered by Ellen that carving is much admired the lady was
nearly stunned snow had newly fallen the sun had just risen the
moon was almost setting Amelia is always reading Nelly had often
driven the horse the week has quickly gone the bells were merrily
ringing.

EXAMPLES:—The old man was sitting under a tree. The house was
burned. The roses were scattered by the wind, etc.

_Write the following, insert stops where wanted, and make good sense of it._

The celebrated Rabelais was once staying at a remote country inn
he wished to go to Paris but had no money to pay his traveling
expenses he therefore hit upon a plan of traveling at the expense
of the government out of brickdust he made up three little
parcels on the first he wrote “For the king” on the second
“For the king’s son” on the third “For the king’s brother” the
landlord seeing these on the table where they had been purposely
left sent word to the king’s ministers they ordered a messenger
to fetch the traitor when he reached Paris he was recognized he
proved that he was no traitor and his trick was discovered.

EXAMPLE:—The celebrated Rabelais was once staying at a remote
country inn. He wished to go to Paris, but had no money to
pay his traveling expenses. He, therefore, hit upon a plan of
traveling, etc.

Exercise 29.

_Correct the punctuation._

A farmer had several sons. Who used to quarrel with one another.
He tried to cure them of this bad habit. By pointing out how
foolish and wicked it was. But he found. That he did no good. By
talking to them. So one day he laid a bundle of sticks before
them. And he bade them break it. The eldest put out all his
strength. But in vain. The other sons tried in vain. But they all
failed. Then the father. Untying the bundle. Gave his sons the
separate sticks to break. And they broke them easily. “Remember,”
he said, “the lesson. Which this bundle teaches. While you help
each other. None can harm you. When you quarrel. You are easily
hurt.”

THE NOTE OF INTERROGATION.

Every direct question is followed by a =Note of Interrogation=; as, “How do you do?” “When did you see your father?” “I suppose, sir, you are a doctor?”

Sometimes a question forms part of a larger sentence, as,

They put this question to the committee, “Will you grant us a
hearing?” in a manner that proved their earnestness.

Except in such cases, a note of interrogation is always followed by a capital letter.

_Carefully observe the full stops and notes of interrogation in the following_:

A Paris fortune-teller was arrested and brought before a
magistrate. He said to her, “You know how to read the future?” “I
do, sir.” “Then you know what sentence I mean to pass on you?”
“Certainly.” “Well, what will happen to you?” “Nothing.” “You are
sure of it?” “Yes.” “Why?” “Because if you had meant to punish me
you would not be cruel enough to mock me.”

Exercise 30.

_Insert full stops and notes of interrogation._

Is the gardener pruning the trees has the baker been here is
the teacher liked were those roses cut to-day had the gentleman
lost his hat was the thief caught is the water boiling have the
girls learned their poetry has the window been broken was the
ship wrecked has the crew been saved was Susan knitting will Mr.
Robinson sing has Frank started

A boy was going away without his mother’s leave she called after
him “Where are you going, sir” “To the village” “What for” “To
buy ten cents worth of nails” “And what do you want ten cents
worth of nails for” “For a nickel”

THE COMMA.

The =Comma= is the most frequently used of all stops.

As a general rule, it may be stated that when, in reading, a slight pause is made, a comma should be inserted in writing; thus:—

The Spaniards were no match for the Roosevelt fighters, however,
and, as had been the case at La Quasina, the Western cowboys and
Eastern “dandies” hammered the enemy from their path. Straight
ahead they advanced, until by noon they were well along toward
San Juan, the capture of which was their immediate object.
Fighting like demons, they held their ground tenaciously, now
pressing forward a few feet, then falling back, under the
enemy’s fire, to the position they held a few moments before.

Without books God is silent, justice dormant, natural science at
a stand, philosophy lame, letters dumb and all things involved in
Cimmerian darkness.

When a Noun or Pronoun in Apposition is very closely connected with the preceding word, no comma is needed, as,

William the Conqueror.

My cousin Fred.

Cromwell the Protector.

When the connection is not so close, or when the words in apposition are qualified, the phrase should have commas before and after, as,

William, the Norman conqueror of England, lived a stormy life.

My cousin, the bold and gallant Fred, fell in battle.

Cromwell, the great Protector, died in 1658.

Exercise 31.

_Insert the necessary commas._

Napoleon the fallen emperor was sent to St. Helena. I live in
Washington the capital of the United States. The children love
their uncle Mr. Holmes. That coat was made by Brown the village
tailor. It was the lark the herald of the morn. Tom the piper’s
son stole a pig. Frank the jockey’s leg is broken. Rome the city
of the emperors became the city of the popes. He still feels
ambition the last infirmity of noble minds. Julius Cæsar a great
Roman general invaded Britain.

EXAMPLES:—Napoleon, the fallen emperor, was sent to St. Helena.
I live in Washington, the capital, etc. The children love their
uncle, Mr. Holmes, etc.

A Nominative of Address is marked off by commas, as,

Are you, sir, waiting for anyone?

Should the Nominative of Address have any qualifying words joined to it, the whole phrase is marked off by commas, as,

How now, my man of mettle, what is it you want?

Exercise 32.

_Insert the necessary commas._

O Romeo wherefore art thou Romeo? In truth fair Montague I am too
fond. O grave where is thy victory? I pray you sire to let me
have the honor. Exult ye proud patricians. Put on thy strength O
Zion. My name dear saint is hateful to myself. I am sorry friend
that my vessel is already chosen. O night and darkness ye are
wondrous strong. Good morrow sweet Hal. Now my good sweet honey
lord ride with us to-morrow. Come my masters let us share. For
mine own part my lord I could be well content to be there.

EXAMPLES:—O Romeo, wherefore art thou, Romeo? In truth, fair
Montague, I am too fond. I pray you, sire, to let me have the
honor, etc.

An Adverbial phrase or clause let into a sentence should be marked off by commas, as,

His story was, in several ways, improbable.

The letter was written, strange to say, on club paper.

A time there was, ere England’s griefs began,
When every rood of ground maintained its man.

They sat, as sets the morning star, which goes
Not down behind the darkened west.

Exercise 33.

_Supply commas where necessary._

You will hear in the course of the meeting a full account of
the business. The story is however true. The wounded man is
according to the latest news doing well. He arrived in spite
of difficulties at his journey’s end. He explains with perfect
simplicity vast designs affecting all the governments of Europe.
In France indeed such things are done. I will when I see you tell
you a secret. I had till you told me heard nothing of the matter.
There where a few torn shrubs the place disclose the village
preacher’s modest mansion rose. You may if you call again see
him. You cannot unless you try harder hope to succeed.

EXAMPLES:—You will hear, in the course of the meeting, a full
account, etc. The story is, however, true. You cannot, unless you
try harder, hope to succeed, etc.

Words, phrases, or clauses of the same kind, coming after one another, must be separated by commas, except when joined by Conjunctions, as,

Let Rufus weep, rejoice, stand still or walk....
Let him eat, drink, ask questions or dispute.

Her lower weeds were all o’er coarsely patched
With diff’rent colored rags, black, red, white, yellow.

On I walked, my face flushed, my feet sore, my clothes dusty and
my stomach as empty as my purse.

Exercise 34.

_Supply commas where necessary._

I met Fred Will and George. Faith hope and charity are the
Christian graces. The grocer sold four pounds of cheese two
pounds of bacon and seven pounds of sugar. Little drops of water
little grains of sand make the mighty ocean and the pleasant
land. We could have tea coffee cocoa lemonade or ginger beer. The
beggar asked for a piece of bread a glass of milk or a few pence.
The prize will be won by Smith Brown or Jones. The first second
third and fourth boys in the class will be promoted.

EXAMPLES:—I met Fred, Will and George. Faith, hope and charity
are, etc. The first, second, third and fourth boys, etc.

A participial phrase is generally marked off by commas; as,

The general, seeing his soldiers turn, galloped up to them.

The baby lying asleep, the children were very quiet.

Exercise 35.

_Insert commas where necessary._

James leaving the country William was made king. The storm having
abated the ships ventured to sail. Henry returning victorious
the people went forth to meet him. My friend Sir Roger being a
good churchman has beautified the inside of his church. The woman
being in great trouble was weeping. Fearing the storm we returned.

EXAMPLES:—James leaving the country, William was made king.
Fearing the storm, we returned, etc.

Exercise 36.

_Insert commas where necessary in the following sentences_:—

On their bridal trip they took a palace car went down the
Cumberland Valley stopped awhile at a watering place and wondered
at the divorce cases recorded in the newspapers.

In those distant days as in all other times and places where the
mental atmosphere is changing and men are inhaling the stimulus
of new ideas folly often mistook itself for wisdom ignorance gave
itself airs of knowledge and selfishness turning its eyes upward
called itself religion—_George Eliot._

When I was running about this town a very poor fellow I was a
great arguer for the advantages of poverty but I was at the same
time very sorry to be poor.—_Johnson._

Sail on Three Bells forever
In grateful memory sail!
Ring on Three Bells of rescue
Above the wave and gale!

As thine in night and tempest
I hear the Master’s cry
And tossing through the darkness
The lights of God draw nigh.—_Whittier._

THE SEMI-COLON.

It may be generally stated that a =Semi-colon= is used in a complex sentence when a comma would not be a sufficient division.

Co-ordinate clauses or sentences, especially if not joined by Conjunctions, are generally separated by semi-colons.

_Examples of the use of semi-colons._

The first in loftiness of mind surpassed;
The next in majesty; in both the last.—_Dryden._

Many a man lives a burden to the earth; but a good book is the
precious life-blood of a master-spirit, embalmed and treasured up
on purpose to a life beyond life.—_Milton._

All nature is but art unknown to thee;
All chance, direction, which thou canst not see;
All discord, harmony, not understood;
All partial evil universal good.—_Pope._

Exercise 37.

_Supply semi-colons where necessary._

Of the great men by whom Milton had been distinguished at his
entrance into life some had been taken away from the evil to come
some had carried into foreign climates their unconquerable hatred
of oppression some were pining in dungeons and some had poured
forth their blood on scaffolds.

Then palaces shall rise the joyful son
Shall finish what his short-lived sire begun
Their vines a shadow to their race shall yield
And the same hand that sowed shall reap the field.—_Pope._

EXAMPLES:—Of the great men by whom Milton had been distinguished
at his entrance into life, some had been taken away from the
evil to come; some had carried into foreign climates their
unconquerable hatred of oppression; some were pining in
dungeons, and some had poured forth their blood on scaffolds.

Then palaces shall rise; the joyful son
Shall finish what his short-lived sire begun;
Their vines a shadow to their race shall yield;
And the same hand that sowed shall reap the field.—_Pope._

THE NOTE OF ADMIRATION OR EXCLAMATION.

The =Note of Admiration= or =Exclamation= is used

1. After Interjections; as,

Alas! he is already dead.

2. After a phrase in the nature of an address or exclamation; as,

Vital spark of heavenly flame!
Quit, oh quit this mortal frame;
Trembling, hoping, ling’ring, flying,
Oh the pain, the bliss of dying!—_Pope._

3. As a mark of surprise; as,

Two and two are five!

Prepare the way, a god, a god appears!
“A god! a god!” the vocal hills reply.

Exercise 38.

_Insert notes of exclamation where necessary._

Alas he is already dead. Alas poor Yorick. Tush never tell
me that. Well-a-day it is but too true. Tut, tut that is all
nonsense. Hey come here. O for a falconer’s voice. Hurrah our
side has won. Bravo that was well done. Hush the baby is asleep.
Ah the cowards. Oh what beautiful flowers. Heigh-ho I am tired of
waiting.

Hush hush mee-ow mee-ow
We smell a rat close by.

Hurrah, hurrah a single field hath turned the chance of war
Hurrah, hurrah for Ivry and Henry of Navarre

Ho maidens of Vienna ho matrons of Lucerne,
Weep, weep for those who never will return.

EXAMPLES:—Alas! poor Yorick. Tut, tut! that is all nonsense. Bravo!
that was well done, etc.

Ho! maidens of Vienna, ho! matrons of Lucerne,
Weep, weep! for those who never will return.

QUOTATION MARKS.

A =Quotation= is said to be =direct= when the exact words are given; it is said to be =indirect= when the substance is given, but not the exact words; thus:—

_Direct quotations._

1. Mr. Brown said, “I am going for a walk.”

2. Mrs. Evans writes, “I hope to see you soon.”

3. He asked me, “What is your name?”

_Indirect quotations._

1. Mr. Brown said he was going for a walk.

2. Mrs. Evans writes that she hopes to see us soon.

3. He asked me what my name was.

Exercise 39.

_Turn the direct quotations into indirect._

Johnson said, “I am a very fair judge.” “I doubt the story,”
observed Mrs. Beckett. “That was not quite what I had in my
mind,” answered the widow. “I am very tired,” added Mr. Brown.
“That is false,” we all shouted. “You must be a born fool,”
shouted the old man to me. “Our host is an inferior person,” he
remarked. “Are you better?” inquired she. Some one asked, “Do you
mean to stay till to-morrow?” “Little kitten,” I say, “just an
hour you may stay.” “I’ll have that mouse,” said the bigger cat.
Bun replied, “You are doubtless very big.”

EXAMPLES:—Johnson said he was a very fair judge. Mrs. Beckett
observed that she doubted the story. Some one asked if you mean
to stay, etc. Bun replied that he was doubtless very big, etc.

A direct quotation always begins with a capital letter, and is placed within inverted commas, thus:—

But his little daughter whispered,
As she shook his icy hand,
“Isn’t God upon the ocean,
Just the same as on the land?”

The man said, “Where are you going?”

The titles of books are generally placed within inverted commas, thus:—

Defoe wrote “Robinson Crusoe.”

Thackeray is the author of “Vanity Fair,” “Pendennis,” “Esmond,”
“The Newcomes,” and other novels.

Exercise 40.

_Place all direct quotations within inverted commas._

Oh Charley, this is too absurd ejaculated Mrs. Beckett. Why, Mr.
Paton must be going mad exclaimed Mrs. Beckett. Oh dear! dear! I
can indeed gasped the widow. The butler announced Major and Mrs.
Wellington de Boots. You will give my love to your mother when
you write said Mary warmly. He smiled as though he were thinking
I have it not to give. The elder replied I was, as usual,
unfortunate. How naughty he is said his mother. Do you understand
the language of flowers? inquired Uncle Ralph. Why, that is
lightning exclaimed the knight. Juan replied Not while this arm
is free. He thought The boy will be here soon. Tom broke in with
You do not know whom I mean. He will soon be back continued Mr.
Brooke. Remember the proverb Small strokes fell great oaks.
Provoking scoundrel muttered the antiquary. Out with those boats
and let us haste away cried one. Hearts of oak! our captains
cried.

Shoot, if you must, this old gray head,
But spare your country’s flag she said.

Who touches a hair of yon gray head
Dies like a dog. March on he said.

He woke to hear his sentries shriek
To arms! They come! The Greek! The Greek!

Out spake the victor then,
As he hailed them o’er the wave,
Ye are brothers! ye are men!
And we conquer but to save.

EXAMPLES:—“Oh! Charley, this is too absurd,” ejaculated Mrs.
Beckett. “Why, Mr. Paton must be going mad,” exclaimed Mrs.
Beckett. “Hearts of oak!” our captains cried.

“Shoot, if you must, this old gray head,
But spare your country’s flag,” she said.

He woke to hear his sentries shriek,
“To arms! They come! The Greek! The Greek!”

The student should write out all of the above sentences and place the quotation marks where they belong. You have enough examples to guide you.

Sometimes, in the course of a quotation, words are inserted which form no part of the quotation; thus,

“Out with those boats and let us haste away,”
Cried one, “ere yet yon sea the bark devours.”

In such cases every separate part of the quotation is marked off by inverted commas. A capital letter is placed only at the beginning of the quotation, or after a full stop.

Exercise 41.

_Place all direct quotations within inverted commas._

I cannot tell you that replied the young man; it would not be
fair to others. It was not answered the other; your house has
always seemed like home. But, surely, argued the widow it must be
a comfort to feel that. In the meantime said Edgar I will write
to you. A common rose, said Uncle Ralph, like common sense and
common honesty, is not so very common. Poor faithful old doggie!
murmured Mrs. Currie, he thought Tacks was a burglar. Capital
house dog! murmured the colonel; I shall never forget how he made
poor Heavisides run. Cloudy, sir, said the colonel, cloudy; rain
before morning, I think. I don’t see the dog I began; I suppose
you found him all right, the other evening. Oh, uncle, pleaded
Lilian; don’t talk like that.

Little kitten, I say,
Just an hour you may stay.

Agreed, said Ching, but let us try it soon:
Suppose we say to-morrow afternoon.
They’re there, said Chang, if I see anything
As clear as day-light.

May Heaven look down, the old man cries
Upon my son and on his ship.

Nay, Solomon replied,
The wise and strong should seek
The welfare of the weak.

Oh king! she said; henceforth
The secret of thy worth
And wisdom well I know.

EXAMPLES:—“I cannot tell you that,” replied the young man; “it
would not be fair to others.” “It was not,” answered the other;
“your house has always seemed like home.”

“Little kitten,” I say,
“Just an hour you may stay.”

“May Heaven look down,” the old man cries,
“Upon my son and on his ship.”

When double inverted commas are used for an ordinary quotation, a quotation within a quotation is marked by single inverted commas; thus,

Miriam sang, “The enemy said, ‘I will pursue, I will overtake, I
will divide the spoil.’”

Exercise 42.

_Place all direct quotations within inverted commas._

Mr. Brocklehurst said When I asked him which he would rather
have, a gingerbread nut to eat or a verse of a Psalm to learn he
says Oh the verse of a Psalm: angels sing Psalms. He continued,
On her return she exclaimed Oh, dear Papa, how quiet and plain
all the girls at Lowood look. I shall remember I said how you
thrust me back though I cried out Have mercy! Have mercy, Aunt
Reed. The father said Remember the proverb Keep not evil men
company lest you increase the number. But said the lecturer you
must note the words of Shakespeare

Spirits are not finely touched
But to fine issues.

The teacher asked in what play do the words All the world’s a
stage occur? My sister writes in her last letter Will you please
get me a copy of the song Tell me, my heart. In a poem on Dr.
South preaching before Charles II. we read

The doctor stopped, began to call,
Pray wake the Earl of Lauderdale.

EXAMPLES:—He continued, “On her return she exclaimed, ‘Oh! dear
Papa, how quiet and plain all girls at Lowood look.’” “But,” said
the lecturer, “you must note the words of Shakespeare,

‘Spirits are not finely touched
But to fine issues.’”

A =colon= (:) is used to separate parts of a sentence that are complete in themselves and nearly independent, often taking the place of a conjunction, thus:—

Labor is the first great law: labor is good for man.

A =period= (.) brings the sentence to a full stop, thus:—

He rode down the valley, over the hill, and finally coming to a
farmhouse, there he stopped.

Exercise 43.

You now come to a very important part of these exercises. You are to turn to practical account what you have learned concerning Punctuation. Write the lines that follow, and make good sense by dividing them into sentences and placing the punctuation marks where they belong. Take time for this and do it thoroughly.

The following Example will aid you in carrying out your instructions. The sentences are first printed without punctuation. I then construct the sentences and give them punctuation marks:

The smoke from the Spanish fleet rose above the headlands of
Santiago Harbor are they coming out I shouted to Fowler aye sir
there they come he cried instantly we took in the situation and
being ready for battle stood to our guns did you ask if it was
a hot chase well our captains gunners and marines can answer
that what thunder of guns our victory was complete the President
cabled congratulations.

Divided into sentences and punctuated, you have the following:
The smoke from the Spanish fleet rose above the headlands of
Santiago Harbor. “Are they coming out?” I shouted to Fowler.
“Aye, sir, there they come,” he cried. Instantly we took in the
situation, and, being ready for battle, stood to our guns. Did
you ask if it was a hot chase? Well, our captains, gunners and
marines can answer that. What thunder of guns! Our victory was
complete; the President cabled congratulations.

_Insert the necessary stops and capital letters._

Mr. Rich had much money and little politeness he thought it
beneath him to be civil to ordinary people one wet day he was
driving in his carriage along a turnpike road when he came to the
toll gate he called out what’s to pay five cents if you please
sir said the keeper Mr. Rich instead of handing the money rudely
flung a quarter on the muddy ground and cried there take your
change out of that the keeper stooped for the quarter and picked
it up then placing twenty cents exactly on the same spot he
coolly walked back into his cottage.

The statement is beyond doubt true. They set out and in a few
hours arrived at their father’s. We live in an old beautiful and
interesting town. Sir I believe you. He is guilty of the vice of
cowards falsehood. The horse tired with the long gallop could
go no further. Yes I am coming. Nay you are wrong. Philosophers
assert that nature is unlimited in her operations that she has
inexhaustible treasures in reserve that knowledge will always
be progressive and that all future generations will continue to
make discoveries of which we have not the least idea. Is this the
gray-haired wanderer mildly said the voice which we so lately
overheard Hark ’tis the twanging horn. O what a fall was there
my countrymen Oh why has worth so short a date Such inquiry
according to him was out of their province. The conflict was
terrible it was the combat of despair against grief and rage.

EXERCISES IN EASY NARRATIVES.

In the preceding pages you have been advised to practice the writing of compositions by reading the productions of authors, and then writing from memory what you have read. This may not be easy at first. You will, however, find it less difficult as you proceed. You could not become an expert typewriter or pianist without faithful practice, yet we have expert typewriters and pianists.

It is so with learning to express your thoughts in writing. What is hard at first becomes “second nature” afterward. I have prepared some helpful rules and examples to aid you.

=When writing a Story which you have read or heard, observe the following directions=:—