Chapter XXXI: Section IV

HERE we deal with two genera, Pandanus and Barringtonia, where inland endemic species occur in the same group with the wide-ranging coast species, but possess fruits concerning which it is either difficult or almost impossible to suggest a mode of dispersal by existing agencies. This section is especially concerned with Fiji, and represents the peculiar “Fijian difficulty” that is illustrated by other genera as—for instance, the Coniferous genus Dammara—which are not in any sense littoral. Further investigation is, however, requisite in the case of Barringtonia, and to a less degree with Pandanus; and I can only here point to the general indications of the data at my disposal. We have in these genera to assume either that the inland species are derived from the coast species, or that the seeds were brought by one of the extinct birds of the Western Pacific, by a megapode or by one of the Columbæ, or by some Struthious bird like the moa or the cassowary, or, if these two assumptions fail, that there has been a continental connection through the islands to the westward with the mainland beyond.

PANDANUS.

I take this genus first because the recent monograph on the Pandanaceæ by Dr. Warburg (Engler’s _Das Pflanzenreich_, 1900) enables me to tread on relatively safe ground in making my deductions. The three genera of the order, Freycinetia, Pandanus, and Sararanga, each tell their own story; and in each and all of them I have taken an especial interest from the standpoint of their dispersal. Freycinetia is fully discussed in Chapter XXV., and presents no difficulties respecting its dispersal. In the discovery of Sararanga the author has had a share. It was first established by Mr. Hemsley from specimens sent by me to Kew in 1885; and it has received from the botanist the name given to it by the natives of the islands of Bougainville Straits in the Solomon Group, where I first collected it. It contains only one species and was also discovered by Dr. Beccari, the celebrated Italian botanist, in Jobie Island, New Guinea. From the other two genera of the order, Pandanus and Freycinetia, it stands quite apart; and it apparently presents us with a relic of some ancient flora on the western borders of the Pacific. Its fleshy drupes (one-half to three-quarters of an inch in size) inclosing several small osseous pyrenes seem suited for dispersal by birds; and it is not at first sight easy to understand why its distribution should be so limited, unless this is connected with its diœcious habit (see Guppy’s _Solomon Islands_, p. 302; _Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot._ vol. xxx.; and Warburg’s monograph).

It is, however, with the genus Pandanus that we are here especially concerned. If the advocate of the previous continental connections of Fiji and the groups around were to look for evidence in support of his views, he apparently could not do better than take this genus. Whilst P. odoratissimus, the littoral species of tropical Asia and Malaya, is found on the coasts of almost all the Pacific islands from Fiji to Tahiti and northward to Hawaii, it is only in the archipelagoes of the Western Pacific, namely, in Fiji and Samoa, that inland endemic species have been found. (Such species occur also in the more western islands not dealt with here—New Caledonia, Solomon Islands, &c.) Not even in Hawaii, with all its botanical evidence of antiquity, has an inland endemic species been found, although the coast species extends miles inland, and for nearly 2,000 feet up the mountain slopes. When, however, we turn to Fiji and Samoa, we find in each group two endemic inland species. To endeavour to connect the inland species of Fiji and Samoa with the widespread littoral Pandanus odoratissimus, that owes its dispersal largely to the currents, is out of the question, at least for the student of plant-dispersal, since they belong to different sections of the genus, and in their characters are often far removed (see Note 58).

As regards the agency of birds, it is of course possible that fruit-pigeons that can disperse the “stones” of Canarium and Elæocarpus could transport the smaller drupes of Pandanus to oceanic islands like the Fijis, Samoa, and the Mascarene Islands; and in Note 58 reference is made to the size of the drupes of the endemic species of Pandanus in those groups. But my difficulty is that I have not come upon any record of birds eating these fruits; and I should imagine that amongst living birds only those like the cassowary and its kin would prefer such a kind of diet; whilst the only pigeon that could have ever attempted it must have been able to swallow pebbles like the dodo. It is remarkable that the Mascarene Islands, the home of the extinct Columbæ, possess more endemic species of Pandanus than any other groups.

Dr. Warburg points out that, with the exception of some three or four species dispersed by the currents (P. dubius, P. leram, P. polycephalus, P. odoratissimus), almost all the species (156 in number) are very restricted in their areas. When we look at his table of the distribution of the genus we notice that, excepting the islands of the Hawaiian and Tahitian regions, nearly all the elevated or mountainous islands of the tropical and subtropical latitudes of the Indian and Pacific oceans have their peculiar species, whether in the case of Mauritius, Rodriguez, Réunion, and the Seychelles in the one ocean, or of Lord Howe Island, New Caledonia, Fiji, and Samoa in the other. The student here hesitates even to raise the question of present plant-dispersal in the face of such evidence of isolation all over the area of the genus. He is almost inclined to evade the issue and to place the matter beside that of the dying or extinct Columbæ that have been found in some of these islands, as in Mauritius, Rodriguez, Réunion, and Samoa.

For reasons above given in the instance of Fiji and Samoa, it would seem futile to attempt to connect in their origin the inland with the coast species; and it may be inferred that, excepting the few dispersed by the currents, the species are in the main inland in their stations. Those peculiar to Fiji, for instance, occur in the swampy forests of the lower regions of the interior, as well as high up towards the mountain summits. When traversing the Fijian forests I often used to speculate on the modes of dispersal of the plants familiar to me; but the sight of a strange Pandanus usually brought my speculations to a close. Many of the enigmas of insular floras would be solved if we could interpret aright the 156 species of Pandanus that are enumerated and described by Dr. Warburg in his monograph. Observers like myself obtain little peeps into the conditions of existence of these interesting plants; and the travelled botanist, who becomes a systematist in his later years, attains to a far more extensive view, yet even he can only penetrate the mystery for a little way.

It is doubtful whether Pandanus odoratissimus, the shore-tree of the tropical beaches of the islands of the Pacific and Indian oceans, of Australia, Malaya, and Southern Asia, can aid us much in any one locality, since its distribution has no doubt been often assisted by man. Yet it is probable that the currents have played a predominant part in its dispersal. Its fruits occur commonly in beach-drift, both in the Indian and Pacific oceans, and are often incrusted with serpulæ, polyzoa, and cirripedes. At certain seasons the currents bring them to Keeling Atoll in abundance. When, however, we come to inquire why it is that this beach species is the only representative of the genus in Hawaii and Tahiti, we are met with the possibility of its having been introduced by the aborigines. The tree is almost as useful to a Polynesian as the coco-nut palm, and it has been cultivated by him in some of the atoll-groups, as in the Marshall and in the Radack archipelagoes. In Chapter VII. good reasons are advanced for regarding it as an aboriginal introduction into Hawaii. When, therefore, we learn that in the group just named it extends from the sea-coast to nearly 2,000 feet above the sea, that in Samoa it may at times be found at a similar elevation though usually restricted to the sea-border, and that in the same way in Tahiti and in Fiji it may leave the coast-region and extend into the heart of the islands, we are not inclined to look for any marked differentiation in its character. This indeed appears to be the case. Numerous varieties in different regions are referred to by Dr. Warburg; but the only important one in the Pacific islands here mentioned is a cultivated form from the Marshall Group. A variety from Hawaii is distinguished chiefly by the smaller size of its drupes.

Assuming, therefore, that the inland species are as a rule not derived from littoral species originally brought by the currents, and that no birds of our own time are in the habit of carrying the drupes of Pandanus to oceanic islands, in order to explain the distribution of such species we have to choose between the possibility of the agency of extinct Columbæ and birds similar in their habits and the alternative of a continental connection. Dr. Warburg, who says but little of the mode of dispersal of Pandanus drupes, regards the genus as having now two centres, one in the East African islands (Madagascar, the Mascarenes, and the Seychelles), and the other in Papuasia (New Guinea, extending doubtless to New Caledonia). My readers will recall to their minds that zoologists have at times felt bound to postulate a continent in both the centres of the genus Pandanus. There is the well-known Lemuria of the Indian Ocean, and then we have in the Western Pacific Forbes’ Antipodea and Hedley’s Melanesian Plateau.

Before, however, we accept the indications of the distribution of Pandanus as favouring a continental hypothesis for either area it is essential to exclude the agency of the extinct Aves. In this connection it is of prime importance to notice that the Mascarene Islands are remarkable, when contrasted with all other oceanic islands, not only for the predominance of peculiar species of Pandanus, but also as having been the home of extinct Columbæ like the dodo and the solitaire. The dodo’s habit of swallowing pebbles of the size of a nutmeg (_Encyclopædia Britannica_, vii., 322), and the solitaire’s inclination for swallowing stones as large as a hen’s egg (_Birds_, by A. H. Evans, p. 331), doubtless represent, as explained below, a capacity for the dispersal of large fruits and seeds that would be regarded as “impossible” for distribution by birds now. It is quite possible that at some time the ancestors of these birds possessed the powers of flight now owned by the Nicobar pigeon, in the gizzard of which, in the Solomon Islands, I found quartz pebbles half an inch across (_Solomon Islands_, p. 324). In the work just quoted I refer on page 325 to the observation of Messrs. Chalmers and Gill that the Goura pigeon of New Guinea usually carries a good-sized pebble in its gizzard. We do not, however, seem to possess any record of extinct Columbæ in the tropical islands of the Western Pacific. The nearly extinct Didunculus of Samoa apparently prefers berries and soft fruits. Dr. Reinecke says that it especially favours the berries of Cananga odorata, the seeds of which are not over a third of an inch (8 mm.) in length.

It would appear from Mr. Hamilton’s note in the _Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute_ (vol. 24) that the extinct Struthious birds of New Zealand, as in the case of the moa, carried crop-stones sometimes as large as a pigeon’s egg. These pebbles are, of course, swallowed by birds to enable them to crush the hard seeds, and “stones” of fleshy fruits, on which they feed. In the Solomon Islands I noticed that the Nicobar pigeon was able in this way to crack the seeds of Adenanthera pavonina, which for their fracture require a blow with a hammer. The implication is that the extinct Columbæ were able to transport to oceanic groups seeds and “stones” which no existing pigeon could now carry over a tract of ocean. I am inclined to extend this view also to extinct Struthious birds, and to suppose that they were able, like the cassowary (see page 152), to fly across tracts of sea in ages gone by. Though such an agency would come under discussion in connection with the floras of New Zealand and Madagascar, we have no evidence to show that birds of this family ever reached the tropical islands of the open Pacific.

The Megapodidæ of the Western Pacific are a family of birds that suggest themselves in this connection. Their distribution corresponds with that of Pandanus in the Western Pacific, excepting the littoral species; and like Pandanus the Megapodes have “differentiated” in every group. The limited powers of flight possessed by existing species would unfit them for crossing wide tracts of sea; but the parent form or forms of all these species must have been able to traverse broad tracts of ocean. These birds subsist on fallen fruits, seeds, &c.; but I have no data relating to them as seed-dispersers.

It is evident from the endemic character of most of the species of Pandanus in oceanic islands that, except with a few widely-spread littoral species, the dispersal of the genus has been for ages suspended. Whether the explanation is to be found in the isolation and differentiation of the extinct Columbæ of the Mascarene Islands, where the endemic species of Pandanus are most numerous, has yet to be established. It seems to offer the only way out of the difficulty, unless we accept the old view concerned with the continent of Lemuria.

BARRINGTONIA.

There are two littoral species of this genus in the Pacific, B. speciosa and B. racemosa, both widely spread over the Old World, but only the first is generally distributed over the Polynesian region reaching east to Ducie Island, whilst the second does not extend east of Fiji and Samoa. With the exception of one or two inland species in Fiji and Samoa no inland species have been recorded from the groups of the open Pacific, and the genus is not represented at all in Hawaii. If it were not for a suspicion that the aborigines may have aided in the distribution of the inland species, the advocate of the previous continental connections of the islands of the Western Pacific would receive from their occurrence in these islands considerable support for his views. The fruits of the inland Fijian species are large, the smallest being three inches in length; and the agency of birds seems to be out of the question.

The fruits of the littoral species possess dry buoyant husks that enable them to be carried by the currents over wide tracts of ocean. Those of the Fijian inland species display only a trace of these buoyant coverings and the floating power is much diminished or absent altogether. These inland species are two or three in number. One of them, described as a new species by Seemann under the name of B. edulis, has edible kernels and is sometimes cultivated. A species that I found growing in the plantations of the Solomon Islanders in Bougainville Straits may be near the Fijian tree just named (_Solomon Islands_, pp. 85, 297). Its kernels are edible; and I may add that the Solomon Islanders cultivate other species with edible fruits. We cannot, therefore, exclude the agency of the aborigines in the distribution of the inland species of this genus. Horne found an undescribed species in Fiji, which may be that which I found on the slopes of Mount Seatura in Vanua Levu, as described in Note 50; and it is quite possible that it was originally a cultivated tree, though not necessarily within the memory of the later generations of the aborigines.

This retrocession to the wild state of cultivated plants and the resulting production of apparently new species is a point on which Dr. Beccari lays considerable stress in the English edition of his book on the Great Forests of Borneo. He takes the case of Nephelium and other fruit-trees and shows how in old clearings, long since abandoned, they have undergone singular alteration in characters. For these reasons, therefore, Barringtonia can scarcely be regarded as offering in its inland species unequivocal evidence of a previous continental condition of the islands of the Western Pacific. Nor, as shown in Note 50, should we be justified in establishing a genetic connection between the inland and coast species; but a great deal of research is needed before we can handle the numerous interesting problems connected with the genus; and indeed it cannot be said that the specific limits of the inland Polynesian trees have been definitely determined, or the species themselves diagnosed.