Chapter XIII: Introduction: 1. Review

(1) Appearance and temperature of a boiling
liquid.

(2) Appearance and temperature of a simmering
liquid.

2. State the difficulty of keeping a liquid at simmering temperature; show the double boiler and explain its use for this purpose.

3. Compare boiling and simmering as to length of time required and difficulty.

4. Tell the pupils they are going to study simmering by making Coddled Apples.

DISCUSSION OF RECIPE

1. Read recipe.

2. Question regarding:

(1) Kind of heat used

(2) Whether to prepare apples or syrup first,
and why

(3) Management in measuring so as to use only
one cup

(4) Why one quantity of syrup is sufficient for
so many apples.

3. Decide on the dishes required for the work.

PRACTICAL WORK

Assign work in groups of twos--numbers one and three prepare syrup; numbers two and four prepare apples; all attend to the cooking.

DEVELOPMENT OF IDEAS OF SIMMERING

(To be dealt with while food is cooking)

1. Definition.--Obtain this by comparing simmering with boiling.

2. Effects:

(1) Compare a raw and simmered apple to get the
idea of "soft and tender".

(2) Tell the pupils simmering temperature will
not harden and toughen meat and eggs as much as
boiling does.

(3) Lying longer in the liquid to cook
dissolves out more of the food substance.

(4) Less water going off as vapour does not
carry away as much flavour.

(5) Less motion in the liquid does not break up
the food.

SERVING

When the apples are tender, let each girl serve herself with what she has cooked. While the fruit is being eaten, direct attention to the flavour of apple in the syrup.

HOUSEKEEPING

Assign the work which is necessary to put the kitchen in order, and allow the pupils to carry it out in groups of twos or fours.

RECIPE (INDIVIDUAL): CODDLED APPLES

1 apple
1/4 c. sugar
1/2 c. water.

1. Put the sugar and water in the inside part of a double boiler, set over the fire, and boil gently for about five minutes.

2. Wash and pare the apple, cut it into halves, and remove the core.

3. Put the prepared fruit into the syrup, cover the dish closely, and set in the under part of the double boiler.

4. Simmer the pieces of apple until tender, turning them occasionally.

5. Lift the fruit carefully into a serving dish, then pour the syrup over it.

6. Serve hot or cold.

NOTE.--One cup of sugar will make sufficient
syrup for six or seven apples.

METHODS OF COOKING: DETAILS

BOILING

1. Definition:

Boiling is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food through a boiling liquid.

2. Kinds of boiling:

(1) Gentle boiling--temperature of 212 degrees.

(2) Rapid boiling--temperature of 212 degrees.

3. Uses of rapid boiling:

(1) To make much steam

(2) To break up food

(3) To keep small particles of food in motion.

4. Rules for boiling:

(1) Put the food in a cooking dish, set over
the heat, and pour in the boiling liquid to
cover the food well.

(2) Regulate the heat to the kind of boiling
required.

(3) Keep the food boiling during the entire
cooking.

(4) Continue the cooking until the food is
tender at the centre when it is tested, or for
the time required by the recipe.

(5) When the food is cooked, lift it from the
liquid or drain the liquid from the food.

5. Effects of boiling:

(1) It makes some food soft and tender--fruit,
vegetables.

(2) It makes some food hard and tough--eggs, etc.

(3) It breaks up food.

(4) It dissolves out some of the food substance.

(5) It causes some loss of flavour (in the steam).

(6) It kills germs.

SIMMERING

1. Definition:

Simmering is a method of cooking in a liquid at a temperature of about 180 degrees.

2. Rules for simmering:

(1) Use a double boiler to keep the temperature
correct.

(2) Put the food in liquid in the top dish, and
proceed as in boiling.

3. Effects of simmering:

(1) It makes some foods soft and tender--fruit
and vegetables.

(2) It does not make the protein of animal food
(milk, eggs, and meat) hard as boiling does.

(3) It dissolves out a good deal of the food
substance into the cooking liquid.

(4) It causes very little loss of flavour.

(5) It does not break up the food.

STEAMING

1. Definition:

Steaming is a method of cooking in the steam from boiling liquid.

2. Rules for steaming:

(1) Have the water boiling rapidly in the under
part of the steamer.

(2) Put the food in the upper part, cover
closely, and place over the lower part.

(3) Keep the water boiling rapidly during the
entire cooking.

(4) If extra water be needed, only boiling
water should be added, as quickly and as gently
as possible.

(5) Continue the cooking according to the time
required by the recipe, or test as in boiling,
if the food permits.

3. Effects of steaming:

(1) It makes vegetable food tender.

(2) It makes the protein of animal food harder
than simmering, but not so hard as boiling
does.

(3) It does not break up the food.

(4) It does not dissolve out the food
substance.

(5) It causes little loss of flavour if closely
covered.

STEEPING

1. Definition:

Steeping is a method of cooking, by pouring boiling water over food, and letting it stand in a moderately warm place.

2. Rules for steeping:

(1) Heat the steeping dish.

(2) Use water freshly boiled.

(3) Put the food in the hot dish, pour water
over, cover closely, and set in a warm place.

(4) Let the food remain in the liquid until you
have extracted what is desired.

(5) Strain off the liquid and use as required.

3. Effects of steeping:

(1) To heat and soften the food.

(2) To extract the flavour and, sometimes, the
substance of the food.

TOASTING

1. Definition:

Toasting is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food directly from the fire. It is used mainly for bread.

2. Rules for toasting:

(1) Have a clear, hot fire.

(2) Cut bread in slices from one third to one
half an inch thick.

(3) Hold the food at some distance from the
fire, in a gentle heat at first, to dry and
heat the surfaces. This drying may be done in
the oven.

(4) Then hold the dried, hot surfaces in a
strong heat, to brown and crisp them.

(5) Serve so that the surfaces will not become
steamed from the moisture still contained in
the slices. Put the toast in a toast-rack or
stack it on a hot plate. Buttered toast may be
piled.

3. Effects of toasting:

(1) To heat and dry the surface of the food.

(2) To brown and crisp the surface.

(3) To change the flavour.

(4) To change the starch of the surface into a
brown substance, which is a form of sugar, and
more digestible than starch.

BROILING

1. Definition:

Broiling is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food directly. It is used mainly for meat and fish in slices or thin portions.

2. Rules for broiling:

(1) Have a clear, hot fire.

(2) Grease the broiler and trim the food.

(3) Lay the food in the broiler compactly.

(4) Hold the broiler in a very strong heat to
seal the tubes of the food which hold the
juices, and turn frequently.

(5) When the surface is seared, hold in a
gentler heat to cook the food to the centre,
and turn occasionally while doing this.

(6) Time the cooking to the thickness of the
food--one inch of thickness cooks rare in eight
minutes.

(7) Serve at once on a hot dish, and spread
with butter, salt, and pepper.

3. Effects of broiling:

(1) To sear the surface.

(2) To cook to the centre while browning the
surface.

(3) To change the flavour and develop a very
delicious one in the browned surface.

(4) To make the browned surface hard to digest.

PAN-BROILING

1. Definition:

Pan-broiling is an imitation of broiling and is a method of cooking on a hissing-hot, metal surface.

2. Rules for pan-broiling:

(1) Have a hot fire.

(2) Heat the pan or metal surface until it
hisses when touched with water.

(3) Lay the food in compactly, and turn
constantly until the entire surface is seared.

(4) Place the pan in a gentle heat and cook the
food to the centre, turning occasionally.

(5) Time the cooking to the thickness of the
food--one inch cooks rare in ten minutes.

(6) Serve at once, as in broiling.

3. Effects of pan-broiling:

The same as in broiling.

SAUTÉING

1. Definition:

Sautéing is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food through a smoking-hot, greased surface.

2. Rules for sautéing:

(1) Heat the pan enough to melt the fat.

(2) Put in just enough fat to keep the food
from sticking, and let it run over the surface
of the pan, and get smoking hot.

(3) Put in the food and let it brown on one
side, then turn it and brown the other side.

(4) Serve on a hot dish.

3. Effects of sautéing:

(1) To sear the surface of the food.

(2) To brown the surface and develop a
delicious flavour, while cooking to the centre.

(3) To make the surface slightly fat-soaked
with fat which has been very highly heated.

(4) To make the surface indigestible.

BAKING

1. Definition:

Baking is a method of cooking in which the heat is brought to the food through the confined heat of an oven.

2. Kinds of ovens:

(1) Slow.

(2) Moderate--white paper browns in ten minutes.

(3) Hot--white paper browns in five minutes.

(4) Very hot--white paper browns in one minute.

3. Rules for baking:

(1) Heat the oven according to the recipe.

(2) Put the food in the oven, usually on the
lower shelf, to get an under heat first, then
toward the last of the cooking, set it on the
top shelf to brown.

(3) Watch carefully during the baking, but in
opening the oven door, be gentle and quick.

(4) If the oven gets too hot, set a pan of cold
water in it, or leave the door slightly open.
If browning too quickly, cover the surface with
brown paper.

(5) Cook the food according to the time
required by the recipe, or until it is done, as
shown by some test.

FRYING

1. Definition:

Frying is a method of cooking in which the heat is brought to the food by immersing it in smoking-hot fat.

2. Temperature for frying:

(1) For cooked foods which have only to brown
and warm through--about 400 degrees.

(2) For raw foods which have to cook--about 350
degrees.

3. Rules for frying:

(1) Use a deep iron, steel, or granite kettle,
which will hold the heat.

(2) Put in sufficient fat to cover the food
well, but never fill the kettle more than
two-thirds full.

(3) Heat the fat to the desired temperature.

(4) Have the food as dry as possible and not
very cold.

(5) When the fat begins to give off a small
quantity of _white_ vapour, test it for the
required heat, as follows:
(_a_) For raw food, put in a small square of
bread, and allow it sixty seconds to brown.
(_b_) For cooked food, allow a square of bread
forty seconds to brown.

(6) Put the food carefully into the hot fat, and
only an amount which will not cool it too much.

(7) When the food is nicely browned, lift it
from the fat with an open spoon or lifter and
drain over the pot until it stops dripping.

(8) Lay the food on crumpled brown paper or
blotting paper, to absorb any fat still clinging
to the surface.

(9) Strain the fat through cheesecloth and set
it away to cool.

4. Effects of frying:

(1) To sear the surface and prevent it from
absorbing fat.

(2) To cook or heat the food to the centre.

(3) To brown the surface of the food and make
it crisp.

(4) To develop a delicious flavour in the
browned surface.

(5) To make the browned surface indigestible,
because it has absorbed highly-heated fat.

NOTE.--As frying requires the fat used to be at
a very high temperature, it is dangerous to let
young children take the responsibility in this
method of cooking. For this reason, it may be
wise to defer lessons on frying until the
Fourth Form, or even later.

For practice in the methods of cooking, the following is suggestive:

Boiling.--Cooking of any vegetable or fruit in season or rice, macaroni, eggs, coffee

Simmering.--Dried fruit, such as prunes, peaches, apricots, apples; strong-smelling vegetables, such as cabbage, onions; porridge; stew

Steaming.--Potatoes, cauliflower, apples, peaches, cup-puddings, dumplings, fish

Steeping.--Tea, coffee, lemon rind for sauce

Toasting.--Bread, rolls

Broiling.--Steak, fish

Pan-broiling.--Steak

Sautéing.--Sliced potatoes, potato cakes, hash cakes, griddle-cakes (teacher prepares the batter)

Baking.--Apples, bananas, potatoes, scalloped potatoes, scalloped tomatoes, cheese crackers, drop biscuits, beef-loaf

Frying.--Potatoes, cod-fish balls, doughnuts (teacher prepares the dough).

The lessons which give practice in the methods of cooking will also afford excellent drills in _measuring_, _manipulation_, and _cleaning_. Throughout all these, the weak points of individual members of the class should receive careful attention. In the case of typical defects, much time may be saved by calling the attention of the class to these, instead of correcting them individually.

After the pupils have considered and practised the methods of cooking, they should be able to prepare any simple dish of one main ingredient, for which recipes should be given. If these cannot be used at school, they may be of service in the homes of the pupils.

Economy should be emphasized by suggesting simple ways of using left-overs, and definite recipes should be written for these. Fancy cooking should be discouraged. The teacher should aim to show how the necessary common foods may be prepared in a nutritious and attractive manner.

In this first year of practical work, _the main point is the formation of correct habits of work_. Cleanliness, neatness, and accuracy should be insisted on in every lesson, and deftness should be encouraged.

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE USE OF LEFT-OVERS

BREAD

1. Toast for garnishing stews and hash

2. Croutons for soup

3. Bread crumbs to use for croquettes and scalloped dishes, or for stuffing meat and fish

4. Pudding (chocolate bread pudding, cabinet pudding, plain bread pudding, brown betty)

5. Pancakes.

CAKE

1. Pudding (steamed until just re-heated and served with a sauce)

2. Pudding (baked in a custard mixture)

3. Trifle.

MEAT

1. Meat pie or potato and meat pie

2. Meat loaf

3. Stew with dumplings

4. Hash

5. Scalloped meat

6. Croquettes

7. Meat moulded in gelatine

8. Salad (light meats only)

9. Sandwiches.

FISH

1. Scalloped fish

2. Salad.

EGGS

1. Stuffed eggs

2. Hard-boiled for salad

3. Garnish for salad

4. Sandwiches.

CHEESE

1. Cheese crackers

2. Cheese straws

3. Cheese cream toast

4. Cheese omelet

5. Cheese salad

6. Welsh rarebit

7. Macaroni and cheese

8. Sandwiches.

VEGETABLES

1. Scalloped vegetable

2. Cream of vegetable soup (water in which vegetable is cooked should be kept for this)

3. Sautéd vegetables

4. Salad.

CANNED FRUIT

1. Cup pudding or roly poly

2. Steamed or baked batter pudding

3. Pudding sauce (strain juice and thicken)

4. Trifle

5. Fruit salad

6. Gelatine mould.

BEVERAGES

After the moist heat methods of cooking are learned, a special lesson on beverages may be taken, if the teacher thinks it desirable. If the subject be not taken as a whole, each beverage may be taught incidentally, when a recipe requiring little time is useful. The following will suggest an outline of facts for a formal lesson:

MEANING OF BEVERAGES

A beverage is a liquid suitable for drinking. Water is the natural beverage; other beverages are water with ingredients added to supply food, flavour, stimulant, or colour. Since water is tasteless in itself and also an excellent solvent, it is especially useful in making beverages.

KINDS OF BEVERAGES

1. Refreshing.--Pure cold water, all cold fruit drinks

2. Stimulating.--All hot drinks, tea, coffee, beef-tea, alcoholic drinks

3. Nutritious.--Milk, cocoa, chocolate, oatmeal and barley water, tea and coffee with sugar and cream.

NOTE.--As tea, coffee, and cocoa are ordinary
household beverages, they should be specially
studied. Their sources and manufacture will
have been learned in Form III Junior, but their
use as beverages may now be discussed and
practised. It is desirable that the pupils be
led to reason out correct methods of cooking
each.

TEA

1. Description.--The leaves contain, beside a stimulant and flavour, an undesirable substance known as tannin, which is injurious to the delicate lining of the stomach. If the tea be properly made, the tannin is not extracted.

2. Method of cooking.--Steep the tea from three to five minutes, then separate the leaves from the liquid (suggest ways of doing this). Boiling is not a correct method to use for making tea, as it extracts the tannin and causes loss of flavour in the steam.

NOTE.--Because of the stimulant, young people
should not drink tea or coffee.

COFFEE

1. Description.--The beans, or seeds, of coffee also contain tannin as well as a stimulant and flavour. This beverage is more expensive than tea, since a much larger amount must be used for one cup of liquid. After the beans are broken by grinding, the air causes the flavour to deteriorate, so that the housekeeper should grind the beans as required, or buy in small quantities and keep in tightly covered cans.

2. Method of cooking.--Coffee may be cooked in different ways, according to the size of the pieces into which the roasted beans are broken. These pieces are much harder than the leaves of tea, hence coffee may be given a higher temperature and a longer time in cooking than tea. Small pieces of beans are apt to float in the liquid, making it cloudy; this may be overcome by the use of egg-white or by careful handling.

Coarsely ground coffee must be boiled gently. Finely ground coffee may be boiled gently or steeped. Very finely ground, or powdered coffee should be steeped or filtered with boiling water.

COCOA

1. Description.--This contains a stimulant, but differs from tea and coffee in being nutritious. It makes a desirable drink for children.

2. Method of cooking.--Cocoa contains starch and should be simmered or gently boiled.

CHOCOLATE

This substance is the same as cocoa, except that it contains a much larger amount of fat.

TABLE SETTING

The serving of food is incidentally a necessary part of nearly every lesson in cookery, as the pupils usually eat what they prepare. In regular class work the bare work table is used, and each pupil prepares a place for herself only. The dishes soiled during the lesson should be placed on the section covered with metal or glass at the back of the table, and the front, or wooden part, cleared to be used as a dining table. The teacher should insist on this part being clean and neatly arranged. The few dishes used should be the most suitable selected from the individual equipments, and they should be as carefully placed as for a meal. From the very first, the pupils should be trained to habits of neatness in setting the table, and in serving the food; and, what is most important, they should be trained to eat in a refined manner. Lack of time is sometimes given as an excuse for neglecting this training in the usual cookery lessons; but if the teacher insists upon neatness in work and good table manners, the pupils will soon learn to comply without loss of time.

Laying a table may be formally taught at any stage of the work of Form III, but it is most suitable after the class is capable of preparing the food for a simple home meal. The topics of the lesson may be presented as follows:

PREPARATION

1. See that the dining-room is well aired and in order.

2. See that the linen is clean and carefully laundered.

3. See that the glass, silver, and steel are polished.

4. Decide on the number to be served.

ARRANGEMENT

1. Place a silence cloth of felt, woollen, or thick cotton:

(1) To prevent the dishes from making a noise

(2) To give the table a better appearance

(3) To preserve the table top.

2. Lay the cloth, placing the centre of the cloth in the centre of the table and spreading it smoothly, having its folds parallel with the edges of the table.

3. Arrange a centre-piece, using a vase or basket of flowers, a small plant or a dish of fruit.

4. Put a plate at each person's place and lay the cutlery and silver beside it about one inch from the edge of the table, in the order of use, those used first on the outside, or farthest from the plate. At dinner these plates are usually placed before the one who serves.

(1) Place the knives at the right side, with
the sharp edges toward the plate.

(2) Place the forks at the left side, with the
tines up.

(3) Place the soup spoons at the right of the
knife, bowl up.

(4) Place the dessert spoons in front of the
plates, the handle to the right, the bowl up.

(5) Place the dessert forks with the other
forks, or in front of the plates with the
dessert spoons.

5. Place the water glasses at the end of the knife blades, top up.

6. Place the bread and butter plates at the left of the forks. (These are not necessary at dinner.)

7. Place the napkins at the left, neatly folded; discourage fancy folding.

8. Place the salt and pepper so that they are convenient to every one.

9. Place the dishes that are to be served at table directly in front of the one who is to serve them.

10. Place the carving set in front of the host, and the tablespoons as on page 89, or where food is to be served.

11. Place a chair for each person.

TABLE MANNERS

In Form III, the children are too young to serve at table, so the lesson on Preparing and Serving Meals, page 136, has been reserved for the work of Form IV, Junior Grade. The class should, however, be carefully trained in table manners from the first. In their usual class work this will be incidentally taught. A regular lesson should include the following:

RULES FOR CORRECT TABLE MANNERS

These are based upon the accepted customs of well-bred people, and have in view the convenience and comfort of all who are at the table.

They may be stated as follows:

1. Stand behind the seat assigned you.

2. Wait until the hostess is seated, before taking a seat.

3. Sit naturally erect, without any support from the elbows, placing the feet on the floor.

4. Do not begin to eat until others are served.

5. Eat and drink quietly, taking small mouthfuls; keep the mouth closed while eating.

6. Do not drink with food in the mouth.

7. Do not talk with food in the mouth.

8. Use a fork preferably, whenever it will serve the purpose; and never put a knife into the mouth.

9. Take soup from the side of the spoon.

10. Wipe the mouth before drinking from a glass.

11. Be attentive to the needs of others.

12. If it be necessary to leave the table, ask the hostess to excuse you.

13. If a guest for one meal only, leave the napkin unfolded beside the plate.

14. Never use a toothpick at the table, or in any company.

15. Wait for the hostess to rise, then stand, and replace the chair in position.