Chapter III (3)

Having now considered the poems of the first collection, we are ready to turn our attention to the new offspring of Denis’s muse that found a place in the first edition of _Ossians und Sineds Lieder_ (1784), the first three volumes of which contain the translation of Ossian, revised with reference to the English edition of 1773.[270] Aside from the alterations necessitated by the conformity to the new English edition and the working over of “Comala” referred to above (p. 124), the changes are inconsiderable. The fragment of a Norse poem, “Fithona,” given by Macpherson in the preface to the edition of 1773, is translated and inserted among the songs of Sined, Vol. 4, pp. 98–100.—In his preface “An den Leser” in the first volume, Denis defends his choice of the hexameter in a few words and states: “Er [Denis] glaubt noch Ossians Aechtheit, obwohl er sich, als ein Zeitgenoss des XVIII. Jahrhundertes freuen müsste, wenn dieses Jahrhundert einen solchen Genius hervorgebracht hätte.” He is strengthened in his belief by the statement made by Sturz that he (Sturz) had seen the originals.[271] The preface contains also a chronological bibliography of Ossianic publications from 1762 to 1783, which is by no means complete and contains several errors. The _Fragments_ of 1760 are not mentioned at all. The songs of the five bards given by Macpherson in his note to “Croma” are translated and placed at the end of the third volume under the title “Die Octobernacht. Eine alte Nachahmung Ossians.”

I shall point out the most striking Ossianic characteristics in the poems that have not yet been dwelt upon. The poem “An Gott,” the first in the list,[272] contains nothing deserving of attention. In “Sined und der Tag seiner Geburt” (pp. 113–5), we have the hill covering the dead, the grove of oaks, druids, ghosts, etc. Towards the end Denis addresses his father:

Hättest du Lieder von Selma gehört,
Hättest du Sined gesehn im Kreise der Barden, dein Antlitz
Hätte von inniger Wonne geglänzt!—
Aber hängst du denn nicht ...
Itzo den thauenden Himmel herab? etc.

In “Der Fremde und Heimische,” the stranger asks whether the native has ever heard of Denis (p. 131):

Du kennst den Sänger nicht, der Ossians
Gepriesen Lied, das einst in Morven klang,
Den Kindern seines Volks ins Harfenspiel
Zu singen unternahm?

Next we have a series of five poems, “Sineds Träume,” in which we shall find occasional traces of Ossian’s influence, particularly in the second dream.

A typical bardic song is “Der Neugeweihte und Sined,” which contains several passages worthy of note. In the one beginning (p. 164):

... Als sich Fingals Sohn
Auf seinem leichten Nebel einst in Nacht
Zum Ohre meiner Ruhe niederliess,

Denis speaks of the reception of his Ossianic imitation. The following comparison at the end of the passage (p. 164) is Ossianic: “Und steht so fest Dem Tadel, wie den Wogen Morvens Fels.”—“Das Kunstfeuer” contains a reference (p. 207) to an episode in the songs of Ossian, viz., Fingal’s encounter with Swaran, “Cath–Loda,” Duan i:

... Ist es Uthornas Nacht
Beschwert mit Himmelszeichen, als Lodas Geist
Aus seiner Wolkenburg nach Fingal
Glühende Schrecken umsonst versandte?—

In “Der Jugendgefährte” Denis’s lament (p. 216) sounds truly Ossianic:

Jüngling! Sined ist todt. Von seiner verlassenen Halle
Tönet kein freundlicher Laut,
Leitet kein Fusstritt in Schatten. Ihm haben die Söhne der Lieder
Traurig sein Grabmaal erhöht.

Ossianic touches also occur in the poems that have been added to the fifth volume. In the “Fünfte Reise” Denis speaks of bad advice disappearing “gleich dem Nebel” (p. 89); Ossian has frequent comparisons to the departure of mist. The first line (p. 91) of the “Sechste Reise” is typical: “Das Grau der Vorzeit hellt sich dem Barden auf.” “Der Zwist der Fürsten,” a series of three poems, contains several things of interest. In the first song we have Ossian’s striking on the shield as a sign of battle (p. 111). In the second Joseph’s shield is said to be “gleich dem Monde Mitten in Gewittern” (p. 113). Compare “Temora,” Bk. i, p. 306, ll. 4–5: “His shield is ... like the ... moon ascending through a storm,” and numerous other comparisons of a shield to the moon.—The lines (p. 117):

Die schauernde Gegend erglänzte
Von Waffen, wie feurige Flut.

recall “Fingal,” Bk. iv, ll. 2–3: “The heath flamed wide with their arms.” Ossianic in “Wiens Befreyung” (p. 124) is “Die Wolke des Tods,” “the cloud of death.”[273]—The line (p. 132): “Dein Rath ist Licht, und Flamme dein Muth,” reminds us of “Fingal,” Bk. ii, p. 228, l. 12: “Thy counsel is the sun,” and “Temora,” Bk. iv, p. 338, l. 23: “Valour, like a ... flame.”—Ossian calls the dew the “drops of heaven,”[274] and so Denis in “Der Blumenstrauss” (p. 157) “des Himmels Tropfen.”

The sixth volume, the _Nachlese zu Sineds Liedern_ compiled and edited by Joseph von Retzer, contains but little that demands our attention. It includes several religious songs, a few translations, and a number of occasional poems. Some of the poems were written prior to Denis’s acquaintance with Ossian, and these of course do not concern us here, but even the bardic songs contain little that is Ossianic, only now and then do we meet with a trace of the bard’s influence, as _e. g._, in “Der Heldentempel Oesterreichs” (p. 54): “Aus jeder Brust gedrängte Seufzer steigen,” reminding us of Ossian’s “The crowded sighs of his bosom rose.”[275]

The edition of 1791–2 is virtually identical with that of 1784. Testimony to the high rank the poems of Ossian still occupied in the minds of the German people is given in the preface, where we read: “Auch nur ein Wort von dem Werthe der Werke, ... zu sagen, wäre von mir eine unverzeihliche Kühnheit. Ossians Gesänge haben das Alter äherner Denkmaale überlebt, ...”

A cursory perusal of the facts collected above will at once lead us to the conclusion that Ossian meant much more to Denis than he did either to Klopstock or to Gerstenberg. When we consider the fact that Denis became wholly saturated with Ossian while working on his well–known translation, we no longer marvel at the circumstance that the characteristics of Ossian took such firm hold of him in the composition of his own songs. Again, it requires but a glance to see that at no time was Ossian’s influence stronger than during the years in which the translation was under way and those immediately following, that is, the influence is more noticeable in the poems contained in the edition of 1772 than in those written between 1772 and 1784. While the majority of his productions are of a mediocre character, they nevertheless furnish an extremely interesting picture of the extent to which the imitation of the old bard could be carried. And when we compare his original poems with his translation—instead of with Macpherson’s original—the similarity will appear even more pronounced. As Klopstock later on turned to the Revolution, as Gerstenberg found solace in the study of Kant, so Denis later in life became engrossed in bibliographical labors, and his Ossianic poetry fell into neglect.

§4. Karl Friedrich Kretschmann.[276]

In the same year that the first two volumes of Denis’s translation made their appearance and created such a stir in the literary world of Germany, another prominent example of bardic literature loomed up in a different quarter, “Der Gesang Rhingulphs des Barden als Varus geschlagen war,” which was published in the autumn of 1768, although the title–page bears the date 1769. This is the first instance we have of the employment of a bardic pseudonym. Kretschmann tells us that he received his impulse through Gerstenberg, whose “Gedicht eines Skalden” had appeared two years previously, and we can easily see that the form and conception of Kretschmann’s song are borrowed from Gerstenberg’s poem. The “Gesang” was followed in 1771 by “Rhingulphs Klage,” which served to establish firmly the contemporary fame the “Gesang” had gained for its author. In both of these poems the influence of Klopstock goes hand in hand with that of Ossian, just as is the case in so much of Denis’s poetry. But while Denis’s original poetic efforts were confined almost exclusively to _vers d’ occasion_, Kretschmann tried his hand not only at bardic and lyric poetry, but also at epigrams, fables, allegories, and even dramas and tales. The bardic fever thus forms a mere episode in Kretschmann’s poetic activity, and, although stray pieces in the bardic vein appear later, the influence of Ossian did not last much beyond the middle of the seventies. As it was, Kretschmann borrowed fewer poetic motifs and expressions from Ossian than Denis did and, on the whole, was influenced less by him. He was extremely sensitive to the opposition that the _Bardengebrüll_ evoked, and he turned his attention into other channels just about the time that Denis began to devote most of his time to bibliographical researches.

Kretschmann’s epigrams, fables, dramas and tales do not, of course, concern us here, nor do the hymns, in which Klopstock’s influence predominates, and, although in his lyric poetry Gleim’s influence reigns supreme, the latter’s anacreontic tone occasionally appears side by side with Ossianic machinery and Klopstockian grandeur. We have, therefore, in addition to the bardic songs to consider mainly his lyric productions.[277] Most of that portion of Kretschmann’s work in which the influence of Ossian is traceable is contained in the first volume of his collected writings. The poetical productions in the volumes are preceded by a sketch “Ueber das Bardiet.” It goes without saying, that Kretschmann was a firm believer in the authenticity of the poems of Ossian, and his admiration for the Celtic bard is apparent, when, in the strife over the priority of the bardic work of Klopstock, Gerstenberg, and himself, he takes the stand that “Vater Ossian war doch eher, denn wir alle!”[278] His theories as to the characteristics of the old Germanic bardic songs are based largely upon Ossian. “Vater Ossian, ein Kelte so gut als die Barden Germaniens,” he says, “überzeugt uns, dass dieses wirklich der Charakter der teutschen Bardenlieder gewesen seyn müsse.”[279] Ossian’s great success he attributes largely to the combination of the epic and lyric elements in his poems. Of course the venerable Ossianic fragments must be regarded as the great models of the new _Bardiet_. While he opposes the hexameter as the form in which the _Bardiet_ shall be cast, yet, because of the beauty of the verse–structure, he cannot condemn Denis’s translation. Of Ossian’s fame in the days that are to come he is assured.[280]

The first poetic production in the volume is “Der Gesang Rhingulphs,” to some of the Ossianic touches in which attention will be called. Norse mythology is introduced in the song, but not to the same extent as in Gerstenberg’s or Klopstock’s synchronous work along similar lines. The bardic paraphernalia, the moon, the grove, the oak, the echo, the harp, and so forth, meet us here as they do in Denis, and it will not be necessary to point them out. Laying aside these bardic properties, there really is little in the song that can be traced directly back to Ossian. In the first four cantos as well as in “Rhingulphs Klage” and other poems of Kretschmann, we meet with the form _Tohro_ for Thor.[281] Scheel is no doubt correct in attributing this odd form to the frequency of names in _–o_ found in Saxo Grammaticus and to the fondness of Ossian for similar forms,[282] _e. g._, Aldo, Artho, Branno, Brumo, etc., etc.

A real bardic scene is presented in the following lines of the first song (p. 51):

Der mächtge Wohlklang füllte den Hain,
Da brausten die Eichen,
Da rauschten die Tannen
Holdselig darein.

And in the same song we have the “Geist der Lieder” (p. 56)[283] as well as a typical Ossianic ghost (p. 55). In the second canto we read (p. 62):

Frisch wie der Eichenbaum,
Wächst Teutschlands Jugend auf.

Compare “Carric–Thura,” p. 152, l. 20: “Thy family grew like an oak.”—In this song we have two Ossianic pictures, the one (p. 64):

Auf einmal tritt ....
Die Sonn’ empor, und vorger Nacht
Lezte graue Nebel fliehen.

And the other (p. 72):

... in den Lüften flog der Sturm,
Und Sausen war im alten Haine.

The echo makes its appearance in the second canto (p. 72): “Und Fels und Wald erklang,” in the third (p. 79), the fourth (p. 107), and elsewhere.[284] I do not wish to imply that the author thought of Ossian each time he employed the echo, but there can be no doubt of the fact that Ossian is in large measure responsible for the fondness which the bardic poets had for the echo.[285] “Die mosigte Höle” (p. 72) goes back to Ossian’s mossy cave.[286] In the fourth canto we come to the battle proper and here Ossianic imagery is not lacking, _e. g._, the lines (p. 96):

Dort, wo der kühnsten Krieger Mengen
Sich wie Gewitterwolken drängen?—
Dort wird der Führer Varus stehn!

suggest Ossian’s “Their heroes follow, like the gathering of the rainy clouds;”[287] “Like the clouds, that gather to a tempest ...! so met the sons of the desert round ... Fingal;”[288] etc. Further along we have (p. 97): “Sein Schwert ... strahlt wie Blitz.”[289] When we read of warriors being hewn down like thistles by the mower (p. 100), we are reminded of the passage in “Fingal,” Bk. ii, p. 231, ll. 12–3: “Cuthullin cut off heroes like thistles.”—The fifth song opens with a comparison in the Ossianic vein (p. 111):

Wie wenn der lezte Wintersturm
Noch eine Nacht mit Sausen,
Mit Schnee und Hagel, fürchterlich
Durchwütete; dann schnell entwich,
Auf fernem Gebürge zu brausen:
Der erste göldne Frühlingstag,
Der lauschend hinter Wolken lag,
Steigt freundlich nun hernieder;

* * * * *

So weicht von uns des Krieges Wuth.

The comparison of wrath to a storm is not foreign to Ossian,[290] and the entire passage bears a resemblance to a paragraph in “The Songs of Selma.”[291] In the same song we have druids (p. 115) and the thistle again (p. 117),[292] also the compound “Schild–Zerbrecher” (p. 118), which is Ossian’s “breaker of the shields.”[293]

The next poem to be considered is “Die Klage Rhingulphs des Barden,” which is divided into four cantos and shows Ossian’s influence in much the same way as the “Gesang.” Ghosts are introduced at the very beginning (p. 131). Both Ossian and Klopstock no doubt are represented in the lines (p. 132):

Wie der Wasserfall brausend die Kluft durchflieht,
Wälze dich wild über Felsenherzen mein Lied!—[294]

The lines (p. 133):

In Rauch zerdampft des Helden
Lichtheller Ruhm vor dir.

recall Ossian’s “fame, that fled like the mist.”[295] The following comparison is Ossianic (p. 134):

Denn er fiel, er fiel,

* * * * *

So reisst im Haine Teutebergs
Des Sturmes Fluth die Eiche hin.[296]

Ossian’s frequent “melting of the soul” may be responsible for (p. 137):

Und ihre Seele schmolz
In ... Minnegesang.

Compare “Croma,” p. 178, ll. 14–5: “Thy song is lovely! ... but it melts the soul.”—Thusnelda sheds ‘tears of joy’ and embraces her father with “schneebeschämenden” (p. 139) arms. He strikes the shield (p. 141) to summon warriors, and Hermann feels “Die sanfte Wehmuth” (p. 147).—In the second canto we notice the following (p. 155):

So wie die Feuersbrunst ...
Entflammt sich oft dein Grimm ...
Verzehrt die Zellter ...

‘Burning’ or ‘flaming wrath’ occurs frequently in Ossian, where rage is also occasionally compared to a fire. Notice also “They were consumed in the flames of thy wrath,”[297] “His rage was a fire that always burned,”[298] etc. Ossianic are the tone and atmosphere in the following passage (p. 159):

Ich schlich in Wald
Bey Sternen Schimmer;
Warf mich aufs Moos
Der Felsentrümmer:

* * * * *

In hohen dicken Wipfeln brausten
Die Geister luftger Nacht:

* * * * *

Und siehe, mir war,
Als stünd’ ein Mann am Stamme
Der alten Eiche hingelehnet,
Mit wildflatterndem Haar.

and again (p. 161):

Da sauste von Wacholderhügeln
Ein rascher Wind ihm in das Haar;
Ich merkte, dass auf seinen Flügeln
Der Geist des Römers war.

The “Strahl von seinem Ruhme” (p. 173) in the third canto recalls Ossian’s “beam of fame.”[299]—Ossian’s warriors continually lean on their shields, and Kretschmann may have had this in mind when he wrote the line (p. 179): “Siegmund stand, gelehnt auf seinen Schild.” Certain it is that the comparisons in the line (p. 179) “Dein Schild der Mond, dein Schwert der Blitz”[300] are Ossianic.—In the fourth canto the stanza beginning (p. 196): “Ich lag, und schlief so süss” is decidedly Ossianic. As he slept ‘grey ghosts arose’ (p. 197):

Der falbe Nebel dämmerte licht:
Und mitten in wirbelnden Schimmern
Erblickt’ ich ein Gesicht.

It is the face of Irmgard, of which he says (p. 197): “Der Vollmond scheint so lieblich nicht!” Ossian also compares the face to a moon and speaks of a maiden “fair as the full moon.”[301] The spirit departs in good Ossianic style (p. 200):

... da verschwand der Geist,
Wie der Nebel am Teiche zerfleusst
Wenn der Morgenwind erwacht.[302]

A typical Ossianic picture is the following (p. 206), in which the form of comparison also savors of Ossian:

So wie die alte Eiche,
An allen Zweigen entlaubt,
Hoch auf dem waldigten Berge trauert;
Der sinkende Nebel verhüllt ihr Haupt:
So sass, umringt von finsterm Harme,
Ingwiomar, der greise Mann.

Likewise in Ossian we have an oak “clothed in mist”[303] and the comparison of a warrior to a “leafless oak.”[304] Compare also: “But now he is pale and withered like the oak.”[305] Ossian again and again arranges comparisons in exactly the manner we have here, _i. e._, the first member is followed by an independent sentence in the indicative mode. Take, _e. g._, such a passage as the following: “As rushes a stream of foam from the dark shady deep of Cromla ... Through the breaches of the tempest look forth the dim faces of ghosts. So fierce,” etc.[306] Likewise Ossianic is this scene (pp. 207–8):

... Wenn der Sturm der Nacht
Mit allen seinen Winden erwacht,
Die schwarze schlosende Wolke saust,
Der Wald mit allen Zweigen braust,
Der Donner brüllt, die Haide brüllt,
Das wilde Wasser rauschend schwillt,
Ueber die Felsen ins Thal sich giest, etc.,

as are also the following comparisons (p. 210):

Da fuhr hastig, mit blankem Schwert
Der Held hervor . . . . .
. . . . . . . . so fährt
Der schnelle Blitz . . . .
Herab aus finstern Gewittern.—
Von der Linken zur Rechten flog
Sein Schwert einen flammenden Kreis; da bog
Der Schwarm zurück, und Herman stand
Wie durchs Gewitter der Mond sich wand:
Einsamglänzend gebietet er.

Compare such expressions as “Ryno as lightning gleamed along,”[307] “brightened, like the full moon of heaven; when the clouds vanish away,”[308] “risen ... from battle, like a meteor from a stormy cloud,”[309] and the like.—The poem that follows, “Die Jägerin,” includes anacreontic as well as bardic elements, without containing anything specifically Ossianic. It has the ‘grove of oaks’ (p. 224), the ‘snowy breast’ (p. 232), the ‘Geist der Lieder’ (p. 229), the unavoidable echo (p. 227), and other bardic phrases that had by this time become quite common.

The last poem of the first volume is “Kleist,” in three cantos, which cannot be said to have been strongly influenced by Ossian, although the same old bardic paraphernalia of harps and spirits and the like are employed and occasional Ossianic reminders occur _e. g._, the expression (p. 259): “Ihrer Waffen Schein War furchtbar,” reminds us of Ossian’s “Terrible was the gleam of the steel,”[310] etc. We must again point out that although similar expressions occur also in Homer and elsewhere, Ossian served to intensify the impression. Kretschmann and most of the other bardic poets certainly knew their Ossian better than they did their Homer, and I think we can give Ossian the benefit of the doubt in most instances.—The figure of the stars trembling: “Da bebten die Sterne” (p. 259), also probably goes back to Ossian, as does the line “Thauvoll war sein Haar” (p. 259), with which compare, _e. g._, “Filled with dew are my locks.”[311]

In the second volume of Kretschmann’s works, which contains “Hymnen,” “Scherzhafte Lieder,” “Sinngedichte,” and a few other poems, there are but scattered signs of Ossian’s influence scarcely worthy of mention. Only in the “Anhang einiger kleinen Bardenlieder” do we find the bardic tendency more strongly pronounced and in consequence more frequent traces of Ossian. In the first of these bardic poems, “Die teutsche Schamhaftigkeit,” we have a “Mädchen, rabenschwarz von Haaren,”[312] but the comparison was a common one by this time and need not be referred to Ossian. In the one “An den ersten Weinstock” we have the echo once more (p. 230); likewise in “Das Traumgesicht” (p. 236). In the “Frühlingslied” the nightingale is called the bardic bird, “Du Bardenvogel Nachtigall” (p. 232), the expression no doubt going back to Klopstock’s _Bardale_.[313] In the same poem the bard lies on the moss in the cave of the rock (pp. 232–3), and we have the following Ossianic lines (p. 233):

Nur selten blinkte durch die Nebeldecken
Der späten Sonne Blick.

Compare Ossian’s “the sun looks through mist.”[314] In the last poem of the _Anhang_, “Das Traumgesicht,” the bardic character stands out more prominently than in any of the preceding ones. The very first line gives us “Zukunftspähende Druiden” (p. 236), and soon the ghost of the dreamer’s father hovers from the dark oaks (p. 237).—In all these bardic songs Gleim’s influence is distinctly noticeable. In the second stanza of the “Friedenslied” (p. 147), we have “tiefgestimmte Saiten,” whereas the original version in the _Leipziger Musen Almanach_ for 1780 (p. 40) had “Distelumkränzte Saiten.”

Volumes 3 and 4 of the works contain comedies. In the fifth volume we have first some “Vermischte Gedichte und Fragmente,” one of which is addressed to Denis: “An Sined den Harfen–Druiden.” It is written in the bardic spirit with here and there an Ossianic touch. At the beginning we have an imitation of the Ossianic mood of forsakenness and wildness.[315] The spirit of song again appears[316] and also the echo (p. 14). The poet hears the call of the harp, he follows the sound, until he sees “den Sänger am Eichenbaum” (p. 14).—On pp. 15–6 we read:

Und nun kenn’ ich dich, Sined,
Den Freund an Ossians Busen,
Dem er am Abend
Seiner Augen die Harfe liess.

* * * * *

Aber ach, kenn’ ich denn nicht,
Sined, Ossians Harfe,
Die vom Rauschen der Speere,
Vom Säuseln der Schwerter gern begleitet wird?

Another bardic song is that “An Telynhardt,”[317] addressed to Hartmann,[318] and containing the lines (p. 50):

Dann tritt ... unter die Bardenschaar,
. . . . . . . . . .
Da wirst du zittern, so wie Rhingulph
Zitterte, wenn er zu Ossian hintrat.

The following poem “An den Herrn B. von F. * * *” sets up Ossian as a model and ends with the exclamation (p. 53):

O dringe fürder bis zum Ziele,
Und komm’ als Ossian zurück!

The following passage is worthy of note (p. 52):

Als Ossian, in Deiner Blüte,
Der süssen Harfe schwur;
Da harrt’ er oft am heissen Tage,
In kalten Nächten, auf der Flur;
Und sucht’ und fand Natur und Wahrheit,
Bis ihn der ehrenvolle Zweig umlaubt,
Den ihm nicht Helle’s Barde,
Der Barde Roms nicht raubt.

We see from the above lines that Kretschmann also was not inclined to set Ossian below Homer or Vergil, and that it was Ossian’s naturalness that appealed to him, his freedom from rules and conventions.[319]

The remainder of the fifth volume does not offer anything for our purpose. The sixth and last volume, which was not published until 1799, is made up of “Fabeln,” and of “Lyrische, Vermischte und Epigrammatische Nachlesen.” In these later poems no traces of Ossian’s influence are discernible, except in the cycle of the Seasons, where we encounter an Ossianic description now and then, although no distinct imitation is traceable.

I believe that the examples given have borne out the statement made in the introduction. Kretschmann was really never saturated with Ossian as Denis was. That he admired the Gaelic bard, he does not hesitate to admit, but aside from his fondness for the poems that were in everybody’s mouth in his day, he felt no scientific curiosity to enter more deeply into the question of their authenticity. The fact that Klopstock and Herder regarded the poems as genuine, satisfied him completely. And when the bardic ghost stalked through the land, he willingly paid his tribute—wrote a number of bardic songs—and then retired on his laurels to seek new fields of poetical activity distinctly hostile to a continuation of Ossianic influence. Even his later lyric poems, where we might look for lingering tokens of its presence, reveal nothing of the sort. The bard and the grove and the oak of course still make their bow upon occasion, but these were so firmly engrafted in the lyric poetry of Germany by this time, that Ossian can no longer be called to account for each individual occurrence. More of this when we reach the _Göttinger Hain_.

§5. Minor Bards.

The paragraphs on Denis and Kretschmann have amply demonstrated just how the so–called bards were dependent upon Ossian. There is little difference between the bardic work of these two and that of the remaining bards, the names of many of whom have been consigned to oblivion, and it would serve little purpose to take up the entire work of each separately. I shall therefore content myself with pointing out some of the more striking Ossianic characteristics in a number of selections of bardic poetry taken at random.

Lorenz Leopold Haschka (1749–1827), in whose lyric poetry the influence of Klopstock and Denis is visible, has a bardic poem in the _Litterarische Monate_,[320] “Cronnan und Minona[321] an Annas Hügel” (pp. 8–14), the very title of which proclaims Ossian’s presence. The first two names are taken from “Carric–Thura.” The hill we have encountered before, and in the poem we even have the four stones at the corners of the grave.[322] Then we read (pp. 11–2):

Horch’ auf! Da winselts das Farrenkraut
Kläglich hindurch, wie Sterbelaut
Auf Harfen!—Annas Seelchen ists, Minona!
Sie wünschet die Stimme des Lobes zu hören!

The sound emitted by the harp to herald a person’s approaching death,[323] the desire of the ghost to hear the voice of fame are both taken from Ossian. Then we have ‘Disteln’ (p. 10) and a “Tochter der Schattenharfe” (p. 12), Ossian’s shadowy harp again.[324] Anna’s ghost hovers over Tonthena (p. 13), the star mentioned several times in Ossian.[325]

In the same magazine we have several other bardic songs by Haschka. In the one “Bei Annas von Gluck Hügel,” we have the echo called the “Sohn des Felsen” (p. 14) as in Ossian;[326] likewise in “Auf Elisabeth von H.” (p. 307) the echo is the “Bergsohn.”—“An den Gespielen meiner Harfe” contains the image of the youth standing tall “der luftigsten Eiche gleich” (p. 18), with which compare “He stands tall, ... as an oak.”[327] After his death, the youth lies “unter den graulichten Vier Steinen” (p. 19), Ossian’s “four grey stones.”[328] Note also the following (p. 19):

Wenn ich dann, gleich der Blume, verwelkt bin
Und, ihren Blättern ähnlich, mein dürr Gebein
Zerstreut liegt, ...
. . . . . .
Dann komm zu meinem blumichten Hügel her
Mit allen deinen Liedern, und gieb, mein Freund,
Dem Winde meinen Geist, und meine
Harfe dem niedrigsten Espenzweige.

As for the first stanza, see _supra_, pp. 93–4. When we strike an imitator of one of the leading bards, the chances of a direct influence on the part of Ossian are naturally lessened. More than likely Haschka was in this instance indebted to Klopstock more than to Ossian directly, or to Homer or the Bible, for that matter. The situation in the second stanza is thoroughly Ossianic and calls for no further comment.

In “Die Kraft der Tonkunst” we encounter the bardic machinery again as well as Ossianic rhetorical figures. The moon, _e. g._, is called the “Nachtschild” (p. 210). Then we have the ‘sending round the shell’ (p. 212),[329] “der Wehmut ... Wonne” (p. 215),[330] and the following noteworthy passage (p. 215):

Schwindend itzt, wie Lonas Stimme
Einst im Widerhalle starb,
Da waldeinwärts Jäger riefen:
Ossian! Der Felsen Sohn
Heischer widerseufzt’:
Ossian!

In the poem “Auf Elizabeth von H.,” Elizabeth is said to resemble the morning–sun (p. 307). In the same poem we have the ‘snow of the bosom’ (p. 308) and in the “Geburtslied” the ‘hand of snow’ (p. 310).[331]

In Karl Mastalier’s (1731–95) “Ode auf den Freyherrn von Laudon,” we have Ossian’s ‘trembling harp’ several times.[332] “Das Nationaltheater” shows traces of Ossian’s influence in the bardic paraphernalia and the imagery. The moon is termed the ‘daughter of the silent night.’[333] On the whole, Mastalier’s poems were but little influenced by Ossian, and there is nothing that distinguishes his poetry particularly from the usual run of bardic productions.

Knorr’s[334] “Der Barde an seinen Freund K * * *,” which appeared in the _Leipziger Musenalmanach_ for 1776, is written in the Ossianic vein. The bard sits by the grey oak and asks the breeze to lift his black locks. “Wie Sänger Ossian Hebt er sich vom heiligen Eichbaum,” we read on p. 95.

In the same number of the almanac we have a bardic song by Brown, entitled “Die Nacht,” in which we find Ossianic description and Norse mythology side by side. In the opening lines of the poem, the Ossianic _Stimmung_ is imitated to prepare for the appearance of the ghost.[335] A few quotations from the poem may not be amiss:

Und auf dem bemoosten Hügel,
Ueber den des Sturmes Flügel
Flattert, walle ich allein.[336]

The mossy hill, the wings of the storm, the lonely wanderer are all Ossianic, as is the lament (p. 216):

Auch mich, auch mich, schliesst einst im Felde
Ein aufgethürmter Hügel ein,
Auch ich werd’ unter Eichenschatten

* * * * *

Wo am bemoosten Steine, etc.

In “Das Gesicht,” a bardic poem that appeared anonymously in the _Almanach der deutschen Musen_ for 1773 (pp. 23–5), we have a splendid illustration of how far the imitation of Ossianic apparitions was carried.—The situation of a ghost appearing upon a stream of light and the beholder trembling in terror, as presented in “Die Erscheinung” by N——ch,[337] is Ossianic.

The _Barden–Almanach der Teutschen_ for 1802 contains a bardic poem, “Wodan und Braga,” with Ossianic nature touches, as the following extract will show (pp. 174–6):

Welch ein Aechzen weht vom Hayn der Fichten,
. . . . . . . . .
Blut’ge Schatten, ...
Wimmeln aus der Finsterniss hervor,
. . . . . . . . .
Schreiten über Hayde, Sumpf und Moor.

* * * * *

Plötzlich, gleich dem Aufruhr wilder Wogen,
Braus’t der Sturm, und hohler Donner kracht:
Unterm dunkelblauen Himmelsbogen
Rollt er, rollt er in Gewitter–Pracht.

* * * * *

... aus der Felsen–Oede
Donnert Nachhall durch den Fichten–Wald.

Sufficient examples have been given to show the nature of Ossianic imitation as practiced by the minor bardic poets. Among the features they admired in Ossian was his independence of all rules and conventions, and here they approach the writers of the _Storm and Stress_. Nor did they hesitate to place him on a level with Homer. Interesting in this connection is the following statement by Bernold: “Und wo nahm denn Ossian seine Regeln her? aus der Natur—und doch übertrifft dieser Dichter in meinen Augen noch einigermassen den Homer selbst und taugt wenigstens für einen Schweizer besser zu einem Vorbild als jener, indem seine besungenen Gegenstände, sowohl in als ausser der Natur, den unsrigen näher kommen und ungleich ähnlicher sind, als jene der Griechen und Römer oder anderer Nationen.”[338] What Ossian meant to them is laid down in a poem “An Heyder,” by J. G. Schulz, published in the _Leipziger Musenalmanach_ for 1783, with a striking quotation from which (pp. 152–3) we shall leave this portion of our subject.—Grim sickness has chased the joyous muses away from the poet’s side; no friend can aid, no book console him:

Nur Ossians des Barden Klage
Umgiebt in meinem Jammer mich.
Da seh ich ihn in seiner Väter Höhle,
Voll tiefen Schmerz die heisse Seele,
Um Oskarn, der vor Ihm erblich
Die väterliche Zähre weinen:
Und höre seiner Harfe Jammerlaut
Durch dumpfe Klüfte wiederhallen.
Ich seh wie ihm auf ihren luftgen Hallen
Die Geister der Vergangenheit erscheinen,
Und Fingaln, der hernieder schaut
Auf seinen alten müdgeweinten Sohn,
Den er von allen einsam übrig siehet,
Den Barden, den des Tages Schimmer fliehet.—
. . . . . .
Hier find ich all die vielen Leiden,
Das karge Loos der Sterblichkeit,
Und die Erinnrung an verflossne Freuden,
Die zu den gegenwärtgen Leiden
Noch Schwefel in die Flamme streut.—

INDEX OF PROPER NAMES.

Ackermann, K.E. 9.

Adelung 47, 48, 50, 67.

Ahlwardt, C. W. 40, 48, 50, 51, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 74, 89, 126.

Aikin, A.L. 13.

Aikin, J. 13.

Alstrup 32.

Arnault, V. A. 34.

Arnot, Hugo 30.

Aschenberg, W. 38.

Auffenberg, J. v. 54.

Authenrieth, G. 61.

Baggesen 64, 89.

Balbach, J. 25, 31, 53–54.

Baour–Lormian 48.

Becker, W. G. 37, 38, 46, 47.

Berlepsch, Emilie v. 41, 43.

Bernold 152.

Bernoulli, J. 25.

Beschnitt, J. 63.

Bilfinger 89.

Birckenstädt, F. 43.

Blair, Hugh 7, 20, 24, 25, 33, 38, 40, 45, 48, 54, 57, 58, 72, 73,
76, 77, 79, 121.

Blankenburg, F. v. 35.

Bodmer 23.

Boie 9, 18.

Böttger A., 58, 59, 61.

Böttiger, K. A. 35, 50, 101, 102.

Bouterwek, F. 27–28, 51.

Brachmann, Luise 46, 49.

Brahms, J. 16, 63, 67.

Brinckmeier, E. 56, 62.

Brion, Friederike 12, 57.

Brown, 151.

Bruce, M. 39.

Buchanan, J. L. 33.

Buchner, W. 63.

Bürger 16, 40–41, 67.

Buri, C. K. E. W. 53.

Butenschön, J. F. 40.

Cameron, Ewen 15.

Campbell, A. 42.

Campbell, H. 57.

Cesarotti 3, 6, 24, 79, 120.

Clark, John 18, 22, 23.

Clarke, K. H. 63.

Claudius 10, 12, 13, 67.

Clemen 59.

Coupigny, A. P. 12.

Cramer, K. F. 67.

Cramer, K. G. 37.

Crome, L. G. 6, 7, 15, 32, 45, 80.

Curths, Karl 45.

Curtius, J. 54.

Dalberg, H. v. 17.

Denina, C. G. M. 28.

Denis 1, 5, 7–8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 30,
31, 32, 34, 40, 58, 60, 67, 69, 73, 79, 80, 81, 84, 85,
90, 91, 92, 103, 104, 105, 106, _119–138_, 139, 140,
147, 148, 149.

Dippoldt, H. K. 48.

Ditters von Dittersdorf, K. 63, 67.

Döring, H. 56.

Drummond 57, 60.

Duff 34.

Dühn M. H., 17.

Dunker, W. 63.

Dusch, J. J. 103.

Ebert, J. A. 72, 90.

Ebrard, A. 61.

Eginhard 84.

Ehrmann, E. 62, 103.

Elwert, A. 24.

Engelbrecht, J. A. 5, 76, 77.

Epheu, F. L. See Hanker.

Ernault, E. 62.

Eschenburg, J. J. 9, 15, 29.

Faujas de Saint–Fond, B. 36.

Fielitz, W. 62.

Fink 52.

Flügge, C. W. 32, 34.

Förster, L. G. 54, 55.

Frederick the Great 83.

Freiligrath 55, 63, 67.

Freudentheil, W. N. 33, 50.

Gade, N. W. 63.

Garnett, T. 39, 42, 43.

Gellert 134.

Gemmingen, O. v. 26, 40.

Gerard, F. 65.

Gerstenberg 6, 26, 32, 52, 67, 78, 82, 87, 93, _103–119_, 120,
123, 127, 138, 139, 140.

Gessner 67, 103.

Gleim 86, 89, 90, 121, 132, 139, 147.

Godefroy, J. 65.

Goeckingk 16, 28.

Goethe 11, 12, 15, 17, 21, 56, 57, 60, 64, 65, 67, 73, 74, 99, 102,
128, 130.

Gohren, L. v. 44.

Gottschalk, L. M. 64.

Graham 52.

Grässe, J. G. T. 56.

Gräter, F. D. 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 38.

Grimm, J. 51, 62, 67.

Gurlitt, J. G. 1, 7, 22, 25, 28, 34, 39, 42, 43, 44, 46, 56, 65.

Hagedorn 83.

Halem, G. A. v. 19, 24, 28–29, 45, 46.

Haller 5, 7, 27, 67, 83.

Hanker, G. 16, 17.

Hardenberg, F. v. 67.

Hardorf, G. 47.

Harklots, K. A. 64.

Harmes. See Berlepsch.

Harnisch, C. 64.

Harold, E. v. 13, 16, 19, 20, 21, 26, 27, 32, 35, 38, 39, 41, 42,
43, 56.

Hartmann, G. D. 103, 147.

Haschka, L. L. 89, 103, 149–150.

Hasselqvist, T. 63.

Hauffen, A. 30.

Haug, B. 19.

Heller, H. J. 60.

Henoch, F. 12.

Herder 8, 9, 10, 11, 16, 17, 21, 22, 27, 31, 33, 35, 41, 44, 48,
56, 58, 59, 60, 63, 67, 71, 106, 122–123, 148.

Hermann, F. 64.

Hill 34.

Hofmann–Wellenhof, P. v. 5, 66, 119, 125.

Hohenwart, J. v. N. 135.

Hölderlin 67.

Hölty 67.

Home, H. 12, 23, 34.

Homer 7, 12, 23, 33, 37, 42, 62, 66, 72, 73, 76, 78, 79, 91, 92,
93, 94, 106, 120, 121, 122, 125, 146, 148, 150, 152.

Horace 93.

Hoven, F. W. v. 20, 21, 35, 64.

Huber 52.

Huber, V. A. 57

Ideler, C. L. 40, 51, 55.

Jachmann, R. 61.

Jacobi, J. G. 13.

Jani 28.

Johnson, Samuel 13.

Jones, E. 28.

Jongues, A. de 45.

Jung, F. W. 49, 51.

Justi, K. W. 27, 47, 65.

Kant 138.

Karsch 103.

Kastner, J. G. 64.

Kauffmann, M. A. C. 90.

Kind, J. F. 45.

Kistemaker, J. H. 37.

Klausing, A. E. 12.

Klöntrup, J. Ae. 26.

Klopstock 10, 12, 17–18, 60, 67, 69, 71, 72, 73, _82–102_,
103, 104, 120, 122, 123, 127, 138, 139, 140, 142, 146,
147, 148, 149, 150.

Klotz 73.

Knebel, K. L. v. 44.

Knorr 151.

Körner, T. 12.

Kosegarten, G.L. 32, 39, 43, 52, 67, 99.

Köster, J. 91, 93, 97.

Krafft, P. 64.

Kramer 29.

Kretschmann 17, 19, 25, 37, 67, 103, 104, 133, _139–148_, 149.

Krug von Nidda, F. A. F. 89

Kunzen, F. L. A. 64.

Küttner, K. G. 25.

Laing, M. 38, 44, 46, 47, 48, 56, 92, 102.

Lappenberg, J. M. 60.

Lenz 12, 13, 14, 16, 21, 57, 63, 67, 92.

Lessing 71, 77, 127.

LeTourneur 34.

Lilienfeld, G. v. 37.

Link, H. F. 52, 57.

Loebell, J. W. 59, 102.

Logan, J. 39.

Lombard, J. G. 28.

Lösch, E. 57, 59.

Löwe, J. C. G. 64, 67.

Ludwig, J. F. 38.

M’Arthur, J. 3.

Macdonald, H. 50.

Macdonald, J. 35, 36, 42, 44, 50, 102.

Macfarlan, R. 3, 8, 10.

Macgregor, P. 57.

MacKenzie, H. 3.

Mackenzie, J. 44.

Mackintosh, J. 102.

MacLachan 42.

Macnab 38.

Macpherson, John 7, 9, 79, 85.

Mallet 103.

Mastalier 151.

Matthisson 7, 45, 67.

Meissner, C. 26.

Mendelssohn–Bartholdy, F. 64.

Merck 11, 14, 23, 56, 67.

Merian, J. B. 25.

Meyer, F. L. W. 29, 30, 31, 41.

Milton 69, 92, 93, 120.

Montengon 40.

Müller, F. 104.

Müller, F. A. 29.

Müller, J. v. 48.

Münch, E. H. J. 55.

Neumann, K. G. 43, 44, 46, 56.

Nicolai, A. F. 14, 22, 39, 61.

Nicolai, C. F. 121, 127.

Nöldeke, G. F. 28.

Nolte, J. W. H. 40, 51, 55.

Novalis. See Hardenberg.

Oelrichs, O. A. H. 25.

Opin 16.

O’Reilly 60.

Orpheus 88.

Oswald 59, 60.

Parker, J. C. D. 64.

Percy, Bishop 71, 76, 106.

Perière, J. F. A. de la 53.

Petersen, J. W. 21, 49, 51.

Pfaff, C. H. 30.

Prevod 98.

Rabener 37.

Rambach 31.

Ramler 37, 125, 132.

Raspe, R. E. 4, 9, 75, 76, 77.

Rausch, F. 60.

Ravius, S. F. J. 37.

Rebbach, A. v. 24.

Rehberg, F. 65.

Reichardt, J. F. 64.

Reiner, C. 31.

Retzer, J. F. v. 24, 40, 91, 138.

Reyer, 46.

Rhode, J. G. 37, 38, 44, 52, 53.

Robinson, Mrs. (T. A. L. v. Jacob) 52, 57, 60, 61, 63, 74, 85.

Rosen, G. 33.

Rousseau 70, 111.

Rüdiger, J. C. C. 32.

Ruhl, J. C. 65, 72.

Rungaldier, I. 64.

Runge, P. O. 47, 65.

Saam, F. 19.

Saunders, Bailey 3, 5, 65, 66.

Saxo Grammaticus, 141.

Schenk, M. 25.

Schiller 21, 33, 35, 62, 67, 102, 119.

Schlegel, A. W. 41, 44, 65, 67.

Schlegel, F. 41, 52, 60, 67.

Schmid, C. H. 6, 7, 8, 14, 20.

Schmidt, C. E. K. 15.

Schnabel, B. 63.

Scholz, G. 38.

Schönfeld, F. v. 11.

Schreiber, C. 46, 47.

Schröder, W. 37, 74.

Schubart, L. A. 34, 35, 36, 49, 51, 54.

Schubert, F. 64, 67.

Schulten, H. A. 28.

Schulz, J. G. 152.

Schundenius, C. H. 36.

Schütze, J. S. 47, 49.

Seckendorff, K. S. v. 39, 45, 64, 67.

Shakspere 52, 71, 72, 102, 109.

Shaw 22, 23.

Sinclair, J. 3, 48, 51.

Smith, J. 20, 27, 28, 30, 79.

Soltau, D. W. 50.

Stäudlin, C. F. 44.

Stäudlin, G. F. 23.

Stern, L. C. 63.

Sternfeld, J. Blodig v. 22.

Stöber, A., 12, 57.

Stolberg, C. 18, 19, 53, 99.

Stolberg, F. 14, 18, 19, 46, 47, 53, 67, 99.

Stuhr, P. F. 58.

Sturm. See Rambach.

Sturz, H. P. 15, 18, 136.

Sulzer, J. G. 12, 13, 18, 27, 31, 33, 35, 50.

Suttner–Erenwin, H. v. 62.

Tacitus 84, 85, 95, 103.

Taillasson, J. J. 45.

Talvj. See Robinson.

Thomas, A. 64.

Thomson, Jas. 70.

Tieck 30, 31, 67.

Trost, K. F. 23.

Trumbull, J. 65.

Tytler, W. 32.

Ursinus, A. F. 6, 7, 15.

Velde, K. F. van der 54.

Vergil 120, 121, 125, 148.

Voltaire 10.

Voss 28, 67.

Waag, E. 10, 60.

Wachsmuth, K. H. 22, 23, 27, 31.

Weber, B. A. 64.

Weisse, 6, 9, 20, 67, 79, 80, 132.

Weitsch, F. G. 43, 44, 65.

Wendeborn, G. F. A. 28.

Wiedemann, C. R. W. 36.

Willamov 103.

Winckelmann 76.

Windisch, E. 61–62, 63.

Wittenberg, A. 5, 16, 77.

Wood, R. 72.

Wurz, I. 132.

Young, A. 30.

Young, E. 71, 72, 73, 83.

Zimmer, H. 63.

Zumsteeg, J. R. 21, 64, 67.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Cf. _infra_, p. 136.

[2] Cf. _infra_, p. 42.

[3] Prague, Vienna, Zurich, and Basel are included in the list of places of publication, a fact that calls for no further explanation.

[4] Fingal appeared early in December, 1761, although 1762 is the date given on the title–page Cf. Bailey Saunders, The Life and Letters of James Macpherson, London, 1895, p. 161.

[5] These as well as all later references to the Poems of Ossian are made to the Tauchnitz Edition (1847), which contains the complete works and is probably more easily accessible than any other, particularly on the continent.

[6] Macpherson’s first dissertation is the one entitled “A Dissertation Concerning the Aera of Ossian,” the second the “Dissertation concerning the Poems of Ossian.”

[7] The almanacs were generally published in the year before that for which they were intended, but the date covered by them is given in this bibliography.

[8] The title has ‘den.’

[9] The date of publication (1775) is not given on the title–page.

[10] Meyer’s Klassiker Ausgaben, Goethe, Vol. 2, p. 480, has p. 230.

[11] References to the Allg. Lit. Zeitung and several other papers are given in pages, although the numbers refer to columns.

[12] Ossian, Fils de Fingal, ... Poésies Galliques, Traduites sur l’Anglois de M. Macpherson, Par M. Le Tourneur, 2 vols., Paris, 1777.

[13] Vincent–Antoine Arnault, 1766–1834.

[14] Edinburgh, 1798.

[15] The date of the first appearance of the poems of Ossian is often stated erroneously as 1762, so Kürschner’s Dtsche Nat.–Litt., Klopstock, Vol. 3, p. xx; Hettner’s Literaturgesch. des 18. Jahrh., iii, 2, p. 122; Klopstock’s Works, ed. Boxberger, Vol. 5, p. xxi; Hofmann–Wellenhof in his biography of Denis, p. 165, etc., etc.

[16] Macpherson was born in 1736, not in 1738 as generally stated. Cf. Saunders, The Life and Letters of James Macpherson, pp. 32–4.

[17] For exact titles of these and following publications, cf. Bibliography.

[18] We must not overlook the fact, however, that Macpherson’s Ossian appeared at a time when literary forgeries were common.

[19] It has occurred to me that the picture of Ossian and Malvina entered into Goethe’s conception of the harper and Mignon in Wilhelm Meister, but more of this in the chapter on Goethe.

[20] Besides these names Ryno, Toskar, Alpin, Minona, Minvane, Comala, Daura, and others were at one time not uncommon in Germany, and now and again we hear of an Ossian—there is an Ossian H. in Leipzig at this day. Several of the names mentioned were employed as pseudonyms and all of them figure prominently in the poetry of the day.

[21] Cf. _infra_, pp. 122–3.

[22] Cp. Fraser’s Mag., N. S., Vol. 21, p. 520.

[23] German translations of the latter appeared in Leipzig, 1760, and 1787.

[24] Cf. _infra_, pp. 78–9, 91.

[25] Cf. J. Barnstorff, Young’s Nachtgedanken und ihr Einfluss auf die deutsche Litteratur, Bamberg, 1895 (Dissertation).

[26] It had played a rôle in Klopstock’s work, but was first widely promulgated by Werther.

[27] The ‘joy of grief’ (ἵμερος νόοιοοιο) is found also in Homer, _e. g._, Iliad, 23, 108, but not until the appearance of Ossian did it assume importance.

[28] Cf. Retzer, Denis’ Lit. Nachlass, Vol. 2 (1802), p. 169.

[29] Cf. _l. c._, p. 172. Letter dated Wien, Dec. 8, 1769.

[30] For exact data cf. Bibliography.

[31] Cp. _supra_, p. 73.

[32] Cf. review in the Neue Bibl. der schönen Wissenschaften, Vol. 2, i, pp. 54–88.

[33] Cf. Han. Mag., 1763, p. 1468.

[34] Cf. _ibid._, p. 1467.

[35] Cf. _ibid._, p. 1468.

[36] Cf. Lessing, Anti–Goeze, No. 8. Wittenberg’s reply: Sendschreiben an den Herrn Hofrath Lessing.

[37] Cf. Zuschrift, _op. cit._, which is signed J. A. Engelbrecht.

[38] Cp. _infra_, p. 106.

[39] Cf. Gött. Anz., 1765, i, p. 129.

[40] Cf. _l. c._, 1765, i, p. 130.

[41] Cf. _l. c._, 1767, ii, p. 1140. Cp. _supra_, p. 72.

[42] Cf. _l. c._, 1765, i, p. 130.

[43] Cf. _ibid._

[44] Cf. _l. c._, 1767, ii, p. 1140.

[45] Cp. Gött. gel. Anz., 1765, i, p. 129; _supra_, p. 72.

[46] Cf. Neue Bibl., Vol. 3, i, p. 38.

[47] Gedichte, Leipzig, 1795, Cf. Meusel. Lexikon, Vol. 2, pp. 237–8.

[48] Cf. Letter of Nov. 14, 1771. Muncker, Lessings Verhältnis zu Klopstock, p. 224.

[49] Cf. Scheel, Vierteljahrschrift für Litteraturgeschichte, Vol. 6, pp. 188–94; Seuffert, Gött. gel. Anz., 1895, i, p. 72.

[50] Cf. _infra_, p. 120.

[51] Cf. Scherer, Gesch. der deutschen Litt., 7th ed., p. 643.

[52] Cf. Tacitus de German. 3: “Sunt illis haec quoque carmina, quorum relatu, quem baritum (barditum) vocant...” Cp. Knothe, Kretschmann, Zittau, 1858, pp. 17–8.

[53] For different shades of meaning cf. Hermanns Tod, xv; Hermanns Schlacht Ein Bardiet. Klopstock’s note.

[54] Cf. Sponda, II. 9–12.

[55] Cf. Der Hügel, und der Hain, II. 12–4. He refers here not to Ossian alone, but to Caedmon, “der grösste Dichter nach Ossian unter unsern Alten,” the Heliand, etc.—seiner = the songs of the bards of his fatherland.

[56] Cf. J.M. Lappenberg, Briefe von und an Klopstock. Braunschweig, 1867, p. 164.

[57] Cf. _ibid._, p. 172.

[58] Servian folk–songs. Cf. Talvj, Volkslieder der Serben, 2d ed., Leipzig, 1853. Preface.

[59] Cf. Lappenberg, _op. cit._, p. 210.

[60] Cf. Muncker, Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. Geschichte seines Lebens und seiner Schriften. Stuttgart, 1888, p. 390.

[61] Cf. Bibliography, _supra_, p. 7.

[62] Cf. Lappenberg, _op. cit._ p. 210.

[63] Cf. Tacitus, Agric., II. Cp. _infra_, p. 123.

[64] Cf. Letter to Gleim, dated Copenhagen, June 31, 1769. Klopstock u. seine Freunde ... herausgegeben von Klamer Schmidt, 2 vols., Halberstadt, 1810. Vol. 2, pp. 214–5.

[65] Cf. Der Hügel, und der Hain, l. 4, where the term Celten is used to signify all the Germanic peoples, ‘including the Celts.’

[66] Cf. Vol. 6, ii, p. 232 (1800).

[67] The earliest impulse of any import toward the introduction of Norse mythology proceeded from Gerstenberg’s Lied eines Skalden (1766), which exerted a wide influence. For an account of Klopstock’s relation to the Lied eines Skalden, cf. Scheel, Vierteljahrschrift, Vol. vi.

[68] Cf. Friedr. Gottl. Klopstocks Wingolf. Kritische Ausg. nebst Commentar von Jaro Pawel, Wien, 1882; Kürschner’s Dtsche Nat.–Litt., Klopstock, Vol. 3, pp. 4–29.

[69] Bacchus.

[70] Cp. Die deutsche Sprache, l. 26: “Orpheus der Celt.”

[71] When Klopstock speaks of the songs of the bards, he does not refer particularly to the songs of Ossian, but rather to the German hero–songs and battle–songs. He used the term in this sense before the songs of Ossian appeared.

[72] Cf. Klopstocks Oden. Erläutert von Heinrich Düntzer. 2d ed., Leipzig, 1878, i, p. 392.

[73] Baggesen wrote a bardic ode, An die Telyn, pp. 171–3, Taschenbuch for 1802. Hgbn von J. G. Jacobi, Hamburg. Haschka employs the term in Der Entschluss der Männinnen, Litt. Monate, pp. 111–3; Bardale he uses in the poem Der Frühling, _l. c._, p. 314, and Filea in the Geburtslied, _l. c._, p. 311 (cp. _infra_, pp. 149–50). Bilfinger, in the bardic poem entitled Hartmanns Tod, speaks of the “Klang der Telyn,” Almanach der deutschen Musen for 1778, p. 255. Friedrich Krug von Nidda speaks of the Telyn in his poem Der Feldherr und der Barde, Taschenbuch zum geselligen Vergnügen, 1813, p. 119. Cp. _infra_, p. 147.

[74] Cf. _supra_, p. 85.

[75] Cf. Lappenberg, _op. cit._, p. 211.

[76] Cf. _ibid._, p. 218.

[77] Marie Angélique Catharine Kauffmann, 1741–1807, the Swiss historical and portrait painter.

[78] Cf. Klopstock und seine Freunde, Vol. 2, p. 228.

[79] Cf. Letter of Klopstock to Gleim, Bernstorff, Aug. 28, 1770, _l. c._, p. 247.

[80] Cf. Lappenberg, _op. cit._, pp. 226–7.

[81] Cf. Vom deutschen Hexameter. Aus den Fragmenten Ueber Sprache und Dichtkunst. Hamburg, 1779, pp. 117–9. Klopstocks sämmtliche Werke, ed. Back u. Spindler, Leipzig, 1823–30, Vol. 15, pp. 165–6.

[82] Cp. _supra_, pp. 72, 78–9.

[83] Cf. Retzer, Denis Lit. Nachlass, 1801–2, Vol. 2, p. 116.

[84] Cf. Gelehrtenrepublik, p. 178.

[85] Cf. § xiii.

[86] Cf. Lappenberg, _op. cit._, p. 171.

[87] Cf. _supra_, p. 81.

[88] Cf. History of Scotland, London, 1800.

[89] Gerstenberg was sagacious enough to notice Macpherson’s borrowings and upon this conviction he based his first scruples as to the authenticity of the poems. Cf. _infra_, p. 105.

[90] Cf. _op. cit._

[91] Cf. Vetterlein, Klopstocks Oden und Elegieen, 3 vols. Leipzig, 1827–8. Vol. 2, p. 106, after whom Düntzer, _op. cit._, Vol. 1, p. 349.

[92] Cp. “bemoste Steine,” Hermannsschlacht, Sc. 2, and Ossian’s continually recurring “mossy stones.”

[93] Cp. _infra_, p. 127.

[94] Cf. Muncker, _op. cit._, p. 384.

[95] Cf. p. 208, ll. 1–18 (Tauchnitz).

[96] Cf. The Songs of Selma, p. 208, l. 13.

[97] Cf. Fingal, Bk. ii, p. 231, ll. 10–12, Bk. iv, p. 249, ll. 11–6, 24–7; Temora, Bk. iii, p. 326, ll. 28–32, Bk. viii, first 9 ll., p. 361; etc., etc.

[98] Cf. _supra_, p. 93.

[99] Cf. _op. cit._

[100] Cf. p. 212, ll. 15–6 (Tauch.).

[101] Not the country, as Muncker and others.

[102] Cf. _op. cit._, Vol. 1, pp. 137–8.

[103] Cf. Vol. 2, pp. 90–1.

[104] Cf. Deutsches Museum, 1782, i, pp. 165–8.

[105] Cf. _l. c._, 1782, ii, pp. 389–95.

[106] Cp. l. 50 of the ode Kaiser Heinrich (1764): “Dein ist der Vorzeit edler Gesang!” etc.

[107] The first edition had a chorus in the second scene corresponding to the one cited, except that the last line read: “Wie die Frühlingsluft in der Eiche,” and a stanza by two bards in the third scene beginning:

Ihr Sohne Thuiskon’s, der Bardengesang
Schweigt von den Schlachten der lang vergangnen Zeit.

[108] In the first edition only.

[109] Not May 9, as Back und Spindler and others. Cf. Archiv für Literaturgeschichte, Vol. 3, p. 397

[110] Cf. _supra_, p. 91.

[111] Cf. _ibid._ But cf. Löbell, Die Entwicklung der deutschen Poesie, etc., Braunschweig, 1856, Vol. 1, p. 282.

[112] Cf. Arch. für Litteraturgesch., Vol. 3, p. 404.

[113] Cf. Memoirs of the Life of Sir James Mackintosh, 2 vols., London, 1835. Vol. 1, p. 345. Letter dated July 28, 1807.

[114] Cf. Ehrmann, Die Bardische Lyrik im Achtzehnten Jahrhundert. (Diss.) Halle, 1892; reviewed in the Gött. gel. Anz., 1895, i, pp. 69–80, where a _Vorgeschichte_ of the new _Bardentum_ is given on pp. 69–72. Kürschner’s Dtsche Nat. Litt., Vol. 48, etc.

[115] Denis first received the name from Kretschmann; cf. Lieder Sineds des Barden, 1772, p. 173, note.

[116] It must not be forgotten, however, that this giving of names was no uncommon thing a century and a half ago, the names of Greek poets being frequently resorted to, _e. g._, Gessner—the German Theocritus, Madame Karsch—Sappho, Willamov—Pindar, etc., and likewise Klopstock—Homer, Gerstenberg—Alciphron.

[117] The term bard was not exclusively confined to German poetry, but speaking broadly, bardic and German were synonymous. Cf. Ehrmann, _op. cit._, p. 14.

[118] Max Koch, in his review of Ehrmann’s Bardische Lyrik, Lit. Centralblatt, 1893, pp. 796–7, does not consider Ossian as the chief source of the introduction of the spirits of the departed, but I am inclined to refer most of this business to Ossian.

[119] Cf. Ehrmann, _op. cit._, p. 47.

[120] Cf. _l. c._, pp. 4–59, where examples are given.

[121] Cf. _l. c._, p. 59.

[122] Briefe über Merkwürdigkeiten der Litteratur. Erste und Zweyte Sammlung. Schleswig und Leipzig. 1766. Dritte Sammlung. 1767. Continued in Ueber Merkwürdigkeiten der Litteratur. Hamburg und Bremen. 1770.

[123] On pp. 103–5. Cp. _supra_, p. 78. The letter further contains paragraphs on The Reliques of ancient English poetry (pp. 105–8) and on Dänische Kiämpe–Viser (pp. 108–15).

[124] Cf. _l. c._, p. 104.

[125] Cf. Vierteljahrsch. für Litteraturgesch., Vol. 2, pp. 180–1.

[126] Cf. Works, 1815–6. Vol. 2, p. 90.

[127] Cf. _l. c._, p. 92.

[128] Cf. Vierteljahrsch. für Litteraturgesch., Vol. 2, p. 182.

[129] Cf. Works, Vol. 2, p. 97.

[130] Cf. V. f. L, _l. c._

[131] Cf. Works, Vol. 2, p. 98. Compare Gerstenberg’s Schlachtlied: “Feuerbraunen Angesichts, Ihr Auge blutroth, starr ihr Blick.” This poem shows the influence of Ossian, especially in the refrain: “Die Sonne sinkt, und stiller wird’s im Thal, Und Geisterschatten lispeln durch die Luft.”