Chapter VII: The Date of Ukhaiḍir (1)

There are no inscriptions by which to fix the date of Ukhaiḍir. If any record of its foundation were made, it must have been written upon the plaster which covered the walls, and in some of the more important rooms the plaster has peeled away. But it is probable that there was no such record. The laudable habit of setting the name and date of the founder upon the building which he had caused to be constructed does not seem to have been followed in the first age of Islâm, and, like Ukhaiḍir, the ḥîrahs upon the Syrian frontier have furnished us with no direct evidence as to their origin. I found in room 44 a graffito upon the plaster on the south side of the doorway which communicates with room 45. It is exceedingly ill written, and in some places the cracking of the plaster makes it almost indecipherable. The authors of _Ocheïdir_ did not notice it and no mention of it appears in M. Massignon’s text, though he certainly saw it, since it is visible in one of his photographs.[429] The original is so indistinct that I doubt whether any photograph would reproduce it satisfactorily. After an unsuccessful attempt to take a squeeze, I made a copy--scarcely more successfully (Fig. 35). When I returned to Ukhaiḍir in 1911 the plaster was still more damaged, and I abandoned the attempt to re-copy the graffito. Meantime Dr. B. Moritz had noticed the characters in M. Massignon’s photograph, and he was inclined to believe that they might be ancient, possibly Nabataean. I therefore sent my copy both to him and to Professor Littmann, and the latter was so kind as to supply me with the following notes. ‘Dr. Moritz and I combined our efforts and something like the following may be suggested:

“This water from the house (?) to ... from this water. And the declaration was pronounced that there is no God but God and Muḥammad is his Prophet. And there was present at this ... Bishr, son of ‘Âdah son of ‘Îsâ son of ‘Umar, in the year of the Hidjrah 77-.”

‘If the date is correctly read we would have to choose between the years A.H. 771 and 779 = A.D. 1369-1378. The purpose of this inscription may be to reserve the rights of watering at or near Ukhaiḍir. The Beduin put their tribe marks on ruins in the desert in order to prove that the region (water and pasture) is theirs. This is their way of annexation. The whole is very doubtful; but we have made out at least something. The words that are absolutely certain are , and .’

The result, as Professor Littmann observes, is small; but we have at any rate the assurance that the graffito is not very ancient and that it is not concerned with the building or restoration of the palace. The water to which it alludes must be the well in the Wâdi al-Ubaiḍ.

The name ‘Ukhaiḍir’ is not mentioned by historians or geographers. Like so many of the place-names now current in the desert it is in all probability comparatively modern. Mshattâ, Qṣair ‘Amrah, Kharâneh, are not known to history under those titles; even the word ‘Ḥamâd’, which is applied universally to the high and barren steppes of the northern Syrian desert, is not used by any mediaeval writer. But the root from which ‘Ukhaiḍir’ is derived, signifying primarily to be green and therefore easily applicable to any spot where there is water or verdure, is found in other place-names. The palace or ḥîrah of the Umayyads in Damascus was called ‘al-Khaḍrâ’,[430] and Balâdhuri mentions another Khaḍrâ, in or near Kûfah, in his description of that city.[431] It would, however, be vain to attempt to identify the Khaḍrâ of Kûfah with Ukhaiḍir, though some at least of the place-names given in Balâdhuri’s catalogue denote sites well without the limits of Kûfah itself, and even at considerable distances from the town. Khawarnaq, for example, comes into the list, and a building or village called Qaṣr al-Muqâtil, which is stated by Yâqût to be either between ‘Ain al-Tamr and Damascus, or near al-Quṭquṭâneh and Sulâm.[432] Quṭquṭâneh we know to be the modern Ṭuqṭuqâneh, and Sulâm I must connect with the well of the same name, of which I heard as lying under the Ṭâr east of Ukhaiḍir a little to the south of my path to Mudjḍah and ‘Aṭshân.[433] Qaṣr al-Muqâtil is said by Ṭabari, by Balâdhuri, and by Yâqût to have been called after a certain Muqâtil ibn Ḥasân ibn Tha’labah ibn Aus ibn Ibrâhîm ibn Ayyûb ibn Madjrûf ibn ‘Âmir ibn ‘Uṣayyah ibn Imra’al-Qais ibn Zaid Manât ibn Tamîm, who would seem to have lived during the Days of Ignorance, and in fact the Qaṣr of the Banû Muqâtil is mentioned by Ibn al-Athîr in his account of the movements of Persian and Mohammadan leaders which preceded the battle of Qâdisiyyeh.[434] From a further passage in Ibn al-Athîr it would appear to have

lain near Quṭquṭâneh, on the road from Kûfah to Anbâr.[435] Yâqût states that ‘Isâ ibn ‘Ali ibn ‘Abdallâh (who was great-uncle to the khalif Manṣûr) demolished and subsequently rebuilt Qaṣr al-Muqâtil, and that it belonged to him: he goes on to quote a couplet of Ibn Takhmâ al-Asadi: ‘Methinks there is not in the Qaṣr, the Qaṣr of Muqâtil, or in Zûrah, any pleasant shade or a friend;’ from which I infer that the Qaṣr was not a walled palm garden, like the modern quṣûr in the vicinity of the Baḥr Nedjef, and therefore that it may well have been an isolated castle in the desert. I do not wish to suggest that there can be any certainty in identifying Ukhaiḍir with the Qaṣr al-Muqâtil, but I would nevertheless call attention to the following points:

1. It is strange that a building as important as Ukhaiḍir should not have been mentioned by historians or poets, since the district in which it stands was the theatre of much action during the first hundred and fifty years of the Hidjrah.

2. The position of the Qaṣr of Muqâtil, so far as somewhat vague indications allow it to be determined, would not accord ill with the site of Ukhaiḍir.

There is, however, another way of accounting for the silence of early records, namely, by supposing that Ukhaiḍir was not in existence at that period. In this matter we can be guided only by such deductions as can be made from the plan, structure, and decorations of the palace.

The plan of Ukhaiḍir is in many respects more closely related to that of the palace of Khusrau at Qaṣr-i-Shîrîn than to the plan of Balkuwârâ. The latter palace is a further development of the scheme which is represented in a less complete form by the two other buildings. That this further development necessarily implies the lapse of any long period of time, or indeed of any appreciable period of time, between the erection of Ukhaiḍir and the erection of Balkuwârâ, I am not prepared to assert; it might be taken to denote no more than that in the one case the architects were called upon to construct a remote hunting palace in the desert, while in the other they were laying out a princely dwelling in the capital of the empire. A similar explanation might be given to account for the difference between the beautiful and varied stucco work of Balkuwârâ, wherein the influence of Hellenistic Syria and Coptic Egypt is apparent, and the limited range of the decorations of Ukhaiḍir, confined as they are to motives which had been borrowed by the Sasanians partly from Mesopotamian Hellenism, and partly from the Assyro-Babylonian tradition. But I cannot regard such reasoning as wholly convincing. The difference both in decoration and in structure between Ukhaiḍir and the buildings at Sâmarrâ are such as to place the foundation of the one considerably earlier than the foundation of the others.

As regards structure one of the most significant indications of date is the curve of the arches. Ukhaiḍir belongs to the time of transition from the round or ovoid to the pointed arch. This transition must have been accomplished in Mesopotamia during the course of the eighth century. While the Sasanian vault is invariably round or elliptical (I attach no importance to the fortuitous appearance of the pointed vault in the substructure at Qaṣr-i-Shîrîn), the Sasanian arch is, so far as my knowledge goes, invariably round. The arches of Sarvistân are specifically stated to be round,[436] the arches of Firûzâbâd are also round, though where the arch is set back upon the jambs a tendency to give a curve to the angle lends to them the appearance of a horse-shoe.[437] All the arches of the Ctesiphon façade are round, and at Qaṣr-i-Shîrîn the builders knew no other form. It has been contended that the pointed arch is found in the upper gallery on the interior of the east wall at Ctesiphon, but Dr. Herzfeld has shown satisfactorily that the curve assumed by those arches was dictated by their peculiar construction.[438] The pointed arch, like the pointed vault, may have been used sporadically in the pre-Mohammadan era (it is found in the church of Qaṣr ibn Wardân, which must have been built about the year A.D. 564[439]); it was latent in Sasanian architecture; but it was not until the eighth century that it passed into familiar use. In the Umayyad buildings on the western side of the desert, it appears side by side with the round arch, and at Hammân al-Ṣarakh, Ṭûbah and Mshattâ it assumes exactly the same shape in which we have it at Ukhaiḍir, a slightly stilted, pointed ovoid which bears the hall-mark of its descent from the Sasanian elliptical vault. Similarly at Ukhaiḍir it has not yet ousted all other forms; there are examples in the palace of the true ovoid arch and even of the round arch. The builders of Sâmarrâ went a step further. Their arches have shaken off all connexion with the Sasanian ellipse and have taken on the curve which was to become typical from that time forward of the Mohammadan pointed arch.[440] Of the same character are the arches of the Baghdâd gate at Raqqah, which cannot be earlier than the reign of Manṣûr and may with greater probability be assigned to Hârûn al-Rashîd.[441] It would therefore appear to be certain from the evidence which we possess that in the first half of the ninth century, and possibly as early as the close of the eighth century, the pointed arch had come into systematic use in Mesopotamia, to the exclusion of all other forms, and if that be the case, Ukhaiḍir must belong to an earlier period, more closely approximating, as I would suggest, to the period which witnessed the same transition stage on the Syrian side of the desert, a stage which falls there into the first half of the eighth century.

From the details of arch construction little help is to be derived. The double ring of brick voussoirs, the inner horizontal, the outer vertical, is common to Ctesiphon and to Sâmarrâ, as well as to the Syrian ḥîrahs of the intervening age. The system of arch-building over temporary or permanent centerings has been shown by Dr. Reuther to be practised to the present day, but so far as I am aware, arches set back from the jambs, such as those which were built over temporary centerings in the Sasanian palaces and in Ukhaiḍir, are not present in monumental buildings at a later date. There is no recorded example of this construction at Sâmarrâ.

Neither do the horse-shoe arches of the central court afford any conclusive evidence as to date. In all probability the horse-shoe arch was used in Mesopotamia long before Ukhaiḍir was built, and it is used to this day. It appears at Tâq-i-Girrâ, a monument of which the date is not determined, though the classical workmanship of its mouldings indicates a period early in the Christian era;[442] it is found in a Hellenistic vault at Chiusi,[443] and it is common in the churches of Syria. To the north of Mesopotamia there is an early example of its use in the basilica at Mayâfârqîn.[444] As for the methods of vaulting employed at Ukhaiḍir they exhibit no features which are not present in the Umayyad buildings on the Syrian side of the desert, but in some respects, for example in the use of the groin and of the fluted dome, they are in advance of Sasanian construction.

I have already called attention to the points of similarity between Ukhaiḍir and Kharâneh. They have a certain weight in the chronological problem although they do not afford decisive evidence as to identity of date. With identical requirements details of structure are apt to remain the same over long periods of time. The loophole windows at Abû Hurairah and at Raqqah,[445] in buildings which must be placed in the middle of the twelfth century, differ little, if at all, from those of Ukhaiḍir and Kharâneh. Nor is the coincidence in the latter two monuments of a decorated chamber to the right of the audience room in itself a determining factor. The same scheme may have existed in Mohammadan palaces later in date than Kharâneh, but unfortunately the later palaces have not been preserved or are not yet adequately explored. Possibly the excavations at Sâmarrâ may throw further light on the subject.

There is, however, another matter which must be taken into account. The palace of Ukhaiḍir could not have satisfied the needs of any but a very primitive society. It contains no bath, that indispensable requisite of existence in hot climates, nor any sanitary arrangements whatsoever. Moreover the seclusion of the ḥaram courts is very imperfect, a fact which points to a primitive stage of Islâm. It is true that the ḥaram courts are separated from each other and from the central court of honour, but they are overlooked by the windows of the two upper stories of the northern block, which must have belonged to the public part of the palace. Doorways open from the first floor on to a roof which is continuous with the roof of the ḥiram lîwâns, and even if low walls divided the roof spaces, the guests or guards who were lodged in the upper story had an uninterrupted view into all the courts below. When I first visited Ukhaiḍir I found it inhabited by some Arabs from Djôf. The wives and families of the shaikhs had taken possession of the rooms on the first floor, where none of my servants were allowed to penetrate. They dwelt there because, if they had occupied the lower courts, their movements could have been observed from above.

All these observations point to, or can be reconciled with, a date in the eighth century for the building of the palace, but whether it belongs to the late Umayyad or to the early Abbâsid period cannot be decided from internal evidence. The sister buildings on the western side of the desert are Umayyad, but on the other hand Ya’qûbi, writing towards the close of the ninth century, mentions the fact that the castles of the Abbâsid khalifs were situated on or near the road to Mekkah. ‘He who wishes to travel from Kûfah to the Ḥidjâz goes out along the southern road by stations which are built and halting-places which are kept in repair, among which are the castles of the Hâshimid khalifs. The first station is Qâdisiyyeh.’[446] The Arabic word which I have translated ‘castles’ is _quṣûr_; it is the word which is applied to-day to the mud-walled palm gardens of the Baḥr Nedjef. Whether in this passage it should be taken to denote palm gardens or ḥîrahs situated along the Ḥadjdj road I do not know, but it is significant that, with the exception of Ukhaiḍir, no trace of any such ḥîrahs has remained to our day. Ukhaiḍir is not upon the road that runs from Kûfah to the Ḥidjâz, but neither is it more than two days’ journey removed from it. That the khalif Hârûn al-Rashîd carried his hunting expeditions into the region near Kûfah seems probable from the fact that it was on one of these occasions that he is said to have found the grave of the khalif ‘Ali at the spot which is now occupied by the city of Nedjef.[447] The story of the finding of the grave bears every sign of having been a legend invented by the Shî’ahs, but it lends additional colour to the supposition that the early Abbâsids frequented the eastern deserts in pursuit of game, and therefore that they may have possessed palaces outside Kûfah to which they were accustomed to resort. Manṣûr, the second of the line, founded Baghdâd in A.D. 762, and removed the offices of government thither from Hâshimiyyeh near Kûfah in 763. His predecessor Ṣaffâh had lived at Hâshimiyyeh near Anbâr: it was he who had transferred the capital from Damascus to ‘Irâq. Previous to 750, when the last Umayyad khalif, Marwân II, was deposed and slain, the eastern provinces of the empire were governed by powerful viceroys, and if Ukhaiḍir is to be regarded as pre-Abbâsid it is to one of these that it must be attributed. Men like Ziyâd ibn Abîhi or Ḥadjdjâdj, who controlled the riches of ‘Irâq and Persia, were scarcely second in wealth and power to the khalifs themselves. Ziyâd’s personal austerity is attested by historians who had no desire to depict the character of Mu’âwiyah’s vicegerent in a favourable light, but his architectural activity is shown not only by the number of mosques which he founded or rebuilt, but also by the erection of palaces at Baṣrah.[448] He died in A.D. 673 after holding his high office under ‘Ali and Mu’âwiyah for a period of nearly fifteen years. Ḥadjdjâdj was governor of ‘Irâq from A.D. 695 to 713. In the khalifate of Ḥishâm, Khâlid ibn ‘Abdallâh ruled over ‘Irâq for thirteen years (724-737), and Yûsuf ibn ‘Umar, who succeeded to the post, held it for seven years. Any of these men might have built and occupied palaces in the wilderness, imitating the practice of their Umayyad masters, and also of their Nu’mânid predecessors in the very region in which the Umayyad viceroys wielded in their turn an authority far greater than that to which the Arab princes of Ḥîrah could lay claim. But the existence of a miḥrâb in the mosque fixes a date before which it is unlikely that Ukhaiḍir could have been built. According to Mohammadan writers, the first miḥrâb was that which was constructed in the mosque of Medînah between A.D. 709 and 711, and if that be so Ukhaiḍir cannot be placed earlier than the last years of Ḥadjdjâdj. I take the years 709-711 as the earliest possible date and the khalifate of Hârûn al-Rashîd as the latest possible date, and with due regard to the probable age of the Syrian palaces on the one hand, and to the architectural features of Ukhaiḍir as compared with those of Raqqah and Sâmarrâ on the other, I conclude that Ukhaiḍir must have been built towards the middle of the eighth century.

This leads me back once more to the Qaṣr of Muqâtil, which, though it was in existence during the pre-Mohammadan and Umayyad periods, was destroyed and rebuilt by ‘Îsâ ibn ‘Ali; and without insisting upon the identity of the two, I submit that the suggestion that they may be identical is not groundless. The well in the Wâdi al-Ubaiḍ is the only spot in the region immediately south of the lake of Abû Dibs at which fresh water can be obtained, and for that reason it was probably always frequented. That no advantage should have been taken of it at a time when Ḥîrah and Kûfah were rich and important centres of population is difficult to suppose. But whatever habitation was in existence on the Wâdi al-Ubaiḍ during the Days of Ignorance, it cannot have been the same as the palace of Ukhaiḍir, which is indisputably of Mohammadan origin. The Qaṣr al-Muqâtil was, however, rebuilt in the early part of the Abbâsid era; and that is a date (and as I have attempted to show, it is the latest date) which is consistent with the architecture of Ukhaiḍir.

SUBJECT INDEX

A

abacus, 12, 29;
boss on, 135.

acanthus, 141, n. 3.

acroterion, 129.

aedicula, 127, 129, 139.

aisle of mosque, 151, 152, 153, 154, 157, 158, 159.

aiwân, _see_ lîwân.

Alexandrian influence, 126, 127, 136.

ancient road, Kûfah-Shethâthâ, 2, 43.

antechamber, _see_ ṭarmah.

apadana, 63.

arcade, 16, 17, 19, 23, 28, 30, 32,
35, 49, 50, 71, 125, 153, 154, 155, 156, 159;
blind, 5, 6, 24, 25, 30, 32, 34.

arch, breaking into vault, 10, 20, 34;
construction, 6, 12, 15, 18, 24, 26, 29, 39, 42, 113, 166;
decoration, 122;
horse-shoed, 8, 24, 165, 166;
ogee, 40;
oversailing, 9, 15, 16, 26, 27, 33, 79, 115;
ovoid, 6, 26, 28, 32, 33, 34, 114;
pointed, 5, 6, 9, 16, 29, 32, 34, 112, 114, 118, 165;
relieving, 112, 113, 115, 118;
round, 30, 39, 41, 43, 76, 112, 113, 115, 118, 165;
segmental, 13;
set back from jambs, 14, 16, 20, 25, 26, 28, 33, 76, 79, 118, 166;
stilted, 8, 29, 114, 118;
transition from round or ovoid to pointed, 114, 165;
transverse, 8, 9, 17, 18, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 36, 37, 51, 53,
72, 73, 83, 96, 97, 112, 115, 140.

architrave, 123, 131, 135, 136;
broken, 125, 128.

archivolt, 128, 129, 131, 133, 135.

armamentarium, 102, 103.

Assyro-Babylonian influence, 142, 164.

asymmetry, 51, 52, 79, 81, 93, 94;
in façade, 130, 131, 132.

âteshgâh, 91, 92.

attic, 127, 128, 129, 130.

B

bâdiyah, 55, 112, 119.

bait, 82, 83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 104, 105, 106,
112, 113, 114, 116, 117, 118, 120.

balcony, 19, 23, 25, 133.

barracks, in Roman camp, 100, 102, 105.

base, absence of, 27, 42, 134;
bell-shaped, 156.

bastion, 107, 108.

bath, _see_ ḥammâm.

battering-ram, 107.

brackets, horizontal, under domes, semi-domes, and
calottes, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24, 25, 27, 42, 73, 97, 111, 112, 113.

brick, 13, 24, 26, 28, 30, 39, 40, 41, 45, 54, 69,
70, 71, 79, 82, 84, 96, 113, 115, 117, 154, 155, 160;
enamelled, 122, 123, 140;
sun-dried, 38, 68, 75, 146, 147, 148, 153, 154, 160.

buttress, 4, 35, 71, 122.

buttressing vaults, 14, 26, 35, 74, 75, 95.

Byzantine influence, 115, 119, 143, 147.

C

calotte, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 24, 26, 34, 38, 73, 133, 138;
construction, 13;
laid in rings, 24, 42;
stilted, 13.

capital, 25, 77;
absent, 6, 30, 138, 140;
bell-shaped, 156;
Corinthian, 135, 141;
impost-, of masonry and stucco, 12, 24, 25,
27, 29, 30, 42, 134, 135, 138, 140;
Ionic, 65;
wreathed acanthus, 153.

caravanserai type, 104, 106, 111 n.

casemate, 22, 107, 108, 109, 121.

castrum, Sasanian, 105.

cavetto, 12.

cella, 94, 126.

centering, 9, 12, 13, 15, 18, 26, 28, 30, 33 nn.
1 and 2, 45, 71, 72, 75, 76, 96, 118, 166.

centralization, 129, 131.

chapel replacing sacellum, 105.

chemin de ronde, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 21, 73, 106, 116.

chimney, 29, 32, 82.

Christian influence, 147, 148, 149.

cloister, _see_ arcade.

closet, 83, 118.

coffering, 140.

colonnade, 84, 98, 123, 125.

column, absence of, in Babylonia and Assyria, 62, 77;
clustered, 24, 131, 135, 158;
double, 138;
dwarf, 127, 128, 130, 133;
engaged, 8, 12, 13, 16, 17, 19, 22, 23, 24, 25, 30, 32,
34, 36, 42, 46, 78, 122, 124, 125, 127, 128, 130, 131, 133, 136;
free-standing, 16, 17, 28, 29, 32, 35, 45, 47,
63, 80, 82, 123, 136, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 158, 159, 160;
of wood, 148, 154, 157, 158, 160;
quarter-, in antis, 127, 128, 129, 138.

concrete, 28.

cornice, 25, 34, 70, 133;
broken, 128.

courts, isolation of, 31, 33, 48, 49, 83.

crémaillère, 106, 108, 109.

crenellated motive on archivolt, 14, 18, 140.

crenellation, 7, 18, 107, 121, 122, 123, 127, 128, 133, 134, 140, 143.

curtain wall, 7, 106 n. 8, 108.

cusp, 19, 24, 132, 133, 135, 142, 153.

D

Days of Ignorance, 56, 120, 168.

decoration, continuous niches, 123, 124, 125, 136;
continuous pattern, 123, 130, 131, 135, 143;
Coptic, 141, 143, 147, 164;
derived from wooden structure, 123;
geometric, 143;
imitative architecture, 65, 77, 123, 124, 125, 127-36;
in horizontal zones, 122, 124-36;
of structural character, 140.

dîwân, 19, 22.

djâmi’, _see_ mosque.

dog-tooth, brick, 40, 79.

dome, 8, 10, 51, 53, 56, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75,
76, 78, 79, 92, 97, 112, 117, 118, 152;
fluted, 9, 13, 166;
on columns, 71, 72, 73, 74, 78;
ribbed, 7, 111;
thrust of, concentrated on angle piers, 78, 96.

dragon motive, 90, 143.

dungeon, 9.

Duru, 88.

E

Egyptian fortification, 106;
influence, 127 n. 1;
tombs, 124.

entablature, 76, 130;
broken, 127, 128;
Ionic, 127.

F

façade, Babylonian and Assyrian, 122, 123;
Graeco-Roman, 123;
Hellenistic, 24, 25, 51, 66, 88, 119, 122, 123, 124, 126-34;
of lîwân, 32, 34, 66, 78, 82, 95, 136, 137, 138;
of mosque court, 143, 144, 156, 158;
Roman, 124, 125;
single-arched, 138, 139;
towered, of khilâni, 62, 63, 75, 77, 78, 116;
triple-arched, 136, 137, 138.

fillet, 8, 10, 25, 27, 51, 52, 76, 79, 115, 123, 133.

fire altar, _see_ âteshgâh.

flutes, triple, 78, 115.

fluting, 40, 41, 78, 122, 123, 133.

forum, 72, 98.

fresco, 112, 140, 142;
Alexandrian, 128 n. 3;
of Boscoreale, 125, 127, 128 n. 3.

frieze, broken, 128, 133.

funnel above arch, 8, 14 n. 1.

G

gangway, _see_ balcony.

gate-house, Ukhaiḍir, 8, 81, 117.

gate, monumental, 4, 7, 9, 41, 49, 51, 52,
53, 81, 84, 86, 92, 96, 116, 122, 142.

gate towers, 7, 9, 10, 41, 114;
of Roman camp, 99.

gorge, Egyptian, 76, 127.

graffito, Kharâneh, 115;
Ukhaiḍir, 31, 161, 162, 163.

Greek influence, 65, 66, 75, 87, 97, 119, 127, 130, 137, 139;
in India, 123, 136, 140, 141, 142, 143, 152, 164.

guard-rooms, 50, 51, 81, 92.

H

ḥair, 56.

ḥammâm, 4, 37, 56, 111, 112.

ḥaram, 17, 18, 21, 26, 27, 82, 83, 122,
147, 151, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 167.

ḥarb, 58.

Hazârbâf, 26, 138.

head wall, 19, 27.

ḥertâ, 56.

ḥîrah, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 74, 78, 81,
86, 87, 90, 97, 117, 119, 120, 161, 162, 166.

ḥîri, 58, 59, 86, 121.

horizontal decoration, 24, 79, 128, 129, 130, 131, 133.

horreum, 102, 103.

hourd, 107, 116, 121, 133, 134.

house, Arab, 145, 146, 158;
Hellenistic, 65, 87, 89, 99, 120;
lîwân-ṭarmah, 87, 117;
Roman, 87, 89.

hypostyle pavilion over gate, 81.

I

incrusted style, 124.

inscriptions, absence of, in early Mohammadan architecture, 161.

inscription with date, Diyârbekr, 158;
Ḥarrân, 152;
Kharâneh, 115;
Mayâfârqîn, 159;
Môṣul, 160;
Qaṣr ibn Wardân, 112;
Raqqah, 153.

intervallum, 98, 100, 102, 103.

K

khân, 40, 41, 43, 143.

khilâni, 62, 63, 66, 75, 76, 80, 82, 84, 87-93, 116, 119, 120.

khuṭbah, 146 n. 1.

kitchen, 32, 33, 42, 47, 48, 49, 82, 83.

L

label, rectangular, 13, 27, 51.

latitudinal chamber, 45, 47, 49, 62, 65 n. 4, 78, 80, 90, 92, 93, 94.

ledge, _see_ balcony.

limes, Roman oriental, 97, 98, 100-6, 110, 111, 120;
Roman western, 98, 110.

lintel, 112, 113, 115;
of masonry, 16, 25, 118.

lîwân, 22, 23, 26, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 42, 46,
47, 48, 49, 53, 60, 62, 63, 65, 66, 70, 73,
75, 76, 78, 80, 82, 83, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89,
90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 104, 112, 116, 117, 119,
132, 137, 138, 142, 143, 167.

loggia, 78, 123.

longitudinal chamber, 78, 93, 94.

loophole, 6, 7, 9, 107, 115, 116, 121, 140, 166.

lozenge, 8, 17.

M

machicolation, 7, 107, 121.

madjlis, 145.

madrasah, 159.

Magi, 91, 92.

maqṣûrah, 147, 148, 149.

masdjid, 145.

masdjid al-djamâ’ah, 146, 148.

megaron, 65 n. 4, 89, 120.

miḥrâb, 16, 17 n., 18, 132, 141, 147, 149, 150, 151, 152, 155, 157, 159, 168.

minaret, at Abu Dulaf, 156;
at Baghdâd, 40;
at Baṣrah, 148;
at Iṣfahân, 41 n. 1;
at Raqqah, 153, 154;
at Sâmarrâ, 156;
at Ṭâûq, 40;
of Ghazni, 41;
of Ibn Ṭulûn, 156.

minbar, 146, 149, 150, 151.

misr, 146, 148.

Mohammadan art, 142.

mortar, bitumen, 69, 96;
clay, 96;
gypsum, 12, 15, 44, 96.

mosaic, 65, 147, 148.

mosque, 16, 17, 20, 21, 26, 40, 86,
117, 132, 133, 141, 142, 144, 145-60, 168.

moulding, 124, 125, 128, 133, 166;
continuous, 133.

N

narthex, _see_ ṭarmah.

niche, arched, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 16,
19, 24, 25, 34, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 47,
50, 51, 52, 53, 76, 78, 122, 123, 124,
125, 130, 131, 133, 138, 139, 142, 154, 158;
architraved, 40, 126;
flanked by colonnettes, 13, 24, 25, 27, 28, 42, 52, 130, 131, 139, 140;
in rectangular frame, 8, 34, 40, 76, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 139.

O

oecus, 87.

orientation of mosques, 150, 151.

orthostatae, 62, 122, 123 n. 1, 124.

ovolo, 29.

P

painting, Greek, 125.

palace, Achaemenid, 62-4, 140;
Assyrian, 93, 94, 124, 140;
Babylonian, 93;
Byzantine, 121;
Greek, 89;
Hittite, _see_ khilâni;
Mohammadan, 84-7, 110-21, 168;
Parthian, 65-72, 89, 90, 140;
Roman, 121;
Sasanian, 44-54, 73-81, 83, 84, 90-7, 118, 119, 120, 121.

palmette, 141 n. 3;
broken, 132;
tree, 143.

panel, 42, 122.

pediment, 129, 139;
broken, 125, 127, 128.

pendentive, 42, 73, 111.

peristyle, 65, 87, 99, 120, 136.

pier, 12, 17, 18, 20, 24, 25, 29, 30, 33, 123, 127, 128, 152, 153, 158;
heart-shaped, 46, 74.

piers, clustered, 135, 156, 158.

pilaster, 5, 6, 8, 34, 123, 126.

plan, basilical, 111, 117, 142;
change of, at Ukhaiḍir, 10, 33 n. 3, 60, 81;
circular city, 107, 109;
conjunctive, 89;
disjunctive, 89;
injunctive, 89, 90, 106, 120.

plaster, _see_ stucco.

plinth, 122, 128, 134.

podium, 122, 123, 124, 125, 130;
broken, 125, 127, 128.

Porta Decumana, 98, 103.

Porta Praetoria, 98, 103.

Porta Principalis Dextra, 98.

Porta Principalis Sinistra, 98.

portcullis, 7, 10.

portico, 58, 59, 126, 152.

potsherds, mediaeval, 38, 56.

Praetentura, 102.

Praetorium, 72, 98, 99, 102, 103, 104, 120.

prostas, 87.

pylon-like wall, 130, 131.

pylon tombs, 127, 128.

Pyraetheia, 91.

R

ramp, 12, 14, 19, 21, 45, 46, 50, 80, 86.

recess, _see_ niche.

recessed calotte, 13;
ornament, 18, 27, 34, 40, 133, 140;
square containing circle, on mosques, 156.

Retentura, 102.

retreating angles, _see_ crémaillère.

rinceaux, 141 n. 3.

riwâq, arûqah, 17, 20, 58, 59, 147,
150, 151, 152, 153, 155, 156, 157, 158, 160.

rock-cut monuments, 72, 123, 126-30, 142.

Roman camp, stockaded earthwork, 97, 99, 110;
stone, 97, 99, 100-4;
type, 98, 99, 103, 105, 106, 120, 121.

Roman influence, 136, 137.

Roman temple tomb, 127.

roof, wooden, 144, 150, 152, 153, 156, 158.

rosette, 17, 18, 27, 140.

S

sacellum, 98, 101, 103, 104.

safâfîd, 149.

ṣaḥn, 17, 20, 21, 23, 143, 144, 148,
149, 150, 151, 152, 154, 156, 157, 159, 160.

Sasanian influence, 59, 75, 115, 137, 141, 164.

scollop, _see_ cusp.

semi-dome, 18, 27, 28, 38, 42, 73, 79, 111, 112, 115, 139;
fluted, 25, 118, 139.

serdâb, 25, 28, 35, 37, 82.

spandrel, 6, 12, 24, 27, 34, 131, 133.

spear-shaped motive, 27, 140.

spiral motive, 133.

squinch arch, 18, 23, 27, 38, 50, 51, 52, 53, 73, 79, 96, 97, 115, 140, 159;
fluted, 18.

stair, 7, 13, 20, 21, 22, 23, 28, 29, 31, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 40, 46, 82;
on âtesgâh, 91, 92.

staircase motive, 127.

stela, 123, 135.

stoa, 65, 124, 126.

stone, dressed, 65 n. 1, 70, 96, 124, 126, 159;
undressed masonry, 6, 24, 28, 44, 69, 76, 78, 84, 96, 113, 116, 117, 160.

stucco, 12, 16, 17, 18, 23, 24, 26, 34, 52, 86, 115, 124, 125, 134, 140, 164;
oversailing bars, 18, 26, 28, 38, 51, 65, 66, 140.

stupa, 123.

ṣuffah, 146.

symmetry, 92.

T

tabernacle in votive niches and tombs, 127.

ṭâqchah, 28, 35, 51, 52, 76.

ṭarmah, 30, 32, 48, 53, 83, 84, 87, 88, 93, 94, 119, 137, 138.

temple, Assyrian, 92, 93, 94, 124;
Babylonian, 92, 93, 94;
fire, 90, 92, 94;
in antis, 66;
peripteral, 65.

tetrapylon, 98.

theatre, at Babylon, 65;
at Ephesus, 125.

tholos, 128, 129.

torus, 76.

towers, à cheval, 103, 108;
chamber, 7, 31;
flanking, 4, 6, 7, 33, 36, 37, 41,
60, 99-110, 113, 114, 116, 117, 121, 153, 155;
in Roman camp, 99;
polygonal, 109;
rounded and rectangular, 103, 107, 108, 109;
tomb, 41 n. 1.

transept of mosque, 152, 155, 158, 159.

trifoliate apse, 117.

tubes, decoration, value of, 35, 143;
imply vault, 143;
in vault, 14, 19, 22, 30, 31, 33, 35, 36, 76, 143, 144.

U

Ukhaiḍir, absence of bath, 166;
central court, 23, 24-6, 33, 34, 82, 131;
corridor, 28, pp. 20, 23, 24, 25, 29, 33;
court A, 16, 19;
court B, 23, 30, 31, 32, 33, 82, 83;
court C, 23, 30, 32, 33, 82, 83;
court D, 23, 33;
court E, 23, 24, 30, 33, 83;
court F, 29, 33;
court G, 23, 30, 32, 33, 82, 83;
court H, 23, 30, 32, 33, 82, 83;
east annex, 34, 35, 82;
great hall (7), 12-14, 19, 24, 81;
ḥammâm, 37;
imperfect seclusion of ḥaram courts, 166;
inner walls and towers, 33;
mosque, 16-19, 150;
name of, 162;
north annex, 36, 37, 60;
north gate tower, 9, 10, 19, 21;
outer walls and gates, 4-9, 34, 78, 81;
palace yard, 5, 14, 20, 32, 33, 34;
passages 5 and 6, pp. 10, 14, 16, 34;
room 4, p. 9;
rooms 29-42, pp. 26-9, 34, 35, 82;
three-storied block, 14-23, 24, 25, 32, 33, 81, 117.

underground rooms, _see_ serdâb.

‘uqûd, 148.

V

vault, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16,
19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27, 28,
29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36,
37, 39, 41, 42, 48, 49, 50, 51,
72, 73, 75, 82, 83, 95, 112, 115,
143, 144, 150, 155, 160, 165, 166;
at Hatra, 70-3;
construction, 9, 10, 13, 14, 19, 43, 118;
elliptical, _see_ (vault) ovoid;
flattened, 22;
groined, 29, 33, 35, 73, 97, 111, 112, 120, 166;
history of, 68-70;
intersection, avoided, 9, 17, 29, 53, 73;
introduction of changes plan, 66;
on columns, 71-2, 78;
over inclined plane, 7, 16, 46, 97;
oversailing, 9, 43, 45, 52, 70, 79, 118;
--imitation of, 27;
ovoid, 31, 52, 71, 76, 165;
pointed, 45, 50, 165;
pointed and oversailing, 8, 9, 14, 16, 17;
segmental, 28;
stilted, 13, 70;
want of skill in Sasanian, 97.

Via Praetoria, 98, 103, 121;
Principalis, 98, 121;
Quintana, 98;
Sagularis, 98.

Viceroys of ‘Irâq, 168.

vine motive, 141.

W

wall, buttressed, 131;
construction, 6, 38, 45;
outer, angle sliced off, 39, 54;
unbroken face, 126, 131.

ward, 17.

water basin in mosque, 151.

windows in drum of dome, 79, 111.

wooden beams, in wall, 6, 12, 13, 95;
under vault, 9, 17, 18, 21, 32, 34, 36, 37, 39.

Z

ziggurat, 92.

zigzag motive, 17, 27, 38, 40, 116, 140.

ziyâdah, 156.

ẓullah, 148, 150.

INDEX OF NAMES

A

Abbâs, Abu, 75 n.

‘Abdeh, 103, 112.

Absalom, tomb of, 128 n.

Abydos, 70 n.

‘Adhrâ, the, church of, 133 n.

‘Adi ibn Zaid, 57, 59.

Africa, 98 n., 110;
North, 98, 99, 152.

Ahwâz, Djebel, 148, 149, 160.

‘A’ishah, 146.

Akbar’s mosque, 139.

Akeldama, tomb of, 72.

Alabanda, 128 n.

Aleppo, ix, x, xi, 58, 126.

Alexander, Emperor, 69, 119;
his invasion, 63.

Alexandria, 125, 127, 129, 152.

‘Ali, 167, 168.

Alinda, walls of, 108.

Alkader, _see_ el-Chader.

Alyattes, tumulus of, 96.

Ammân, 118 n., 140.

‘Amr ibn al-’Âṣ, 146 n., 148, 149;
his mosque, 149, 150, 151.

‘Amrah, Qṣair, 56, 111, 112, 114, 118, 142, 162.

Amrân mound, 65.

‘Ânah, ix.

Anatolia, Central, 138.

al-Anbâr, 43 n., 57 and n., 164, 167.

Anderîn, 105.

Andrae, Dr. Walther, v, 66 n., 69 n.,
73 n., 90, 91, 92 n., 93 n., 94 n.,
106 n., 107 and n., 137, 141 n., 143 n.

Antioch, 57, 65, 119, 120 n., 121, 124.

Anu-Adad, 93.

Aosta, 109, 128, 136.

Apamea, 98 n., 120 and n., 126.

Aqṣâ, the, mosque of, 145, 151, 152.

Arabia, vii, 127.

Arabia Petraea, 98.

Ardashir I., 74 n.

Ardeshîr Bâbagân, 91.

Argos, 96.

Asarhaddon, 62, 108.

al-’A’shâ, 145 n.

al-’Âshiq, 86, 132 n.

Asia, 65, 69, 87, 142;
South-west, 126;
Western, 63, 68, 123, 124, 126, 135.

Asia Minor, 73, 78, 96, 108.

‘Asîleh, wells, 1.

Aslâm, _see_ ‘Aṭshân.

Assos, 109.

Assur, 65, 66, 68, 93, 94 n., 96 n., 106 and n., 107, 140, 141 n.

Assyria, 62 n., 65, 68, 74, 78, 93, 122, 123, 140, 142.

al-Aswad ibn Ya’fur, 57 n.

Athenaeus, 128 n.

Athens, 66 n., 124.

al-Athîr, Ibn, 3 n., 162 and n., 164 n.

‘Atîl, 126.

‘Atiyyah, 58.

‘Aṭshân, Khân, viii, 2, 3 and n., 40-3, 162 and n.

Attalus, 124.

Austria, 98.

Autun, 109.

Ayyûbid Ghâzi, 159, 160.

al-Azîz ibn Marwân, ‘Abd, 149.

al-Azraq, Qaṣr, 56, 111.

B

Ba’albek, 126, 152 and n.

Bâbisqâ, 132 n.

Babylon, xi, 65 and n., 68, 69, 70, 76, 87, 93, 96, 119.

Babylonia, 64, 65, 74, 78, 94, 96, 142.

Bacon, 109 n.

Baghdâd, ix, 5, 40, 58, 66, 72, 79, 121,
141, 143 n., 150, 154, 157, 158, 167.

Baḥr Nedjef, _see_ Nedjef.

Bahrâm V Gûr, 57, 59, 74 n.

el-Baḥri, _see_ Dair el-Baḥri.

al-Baiḍâ, _see_ Khirbet al-Baiḍâ.

Bait al-Khalîfah, _see_ al-Khalîfah.

Balâdhuri, 74 n., 147 and n., 148 and n., 149, 153, 162.

Balkuwârâ, 84, 85, 86, 87, 117, 121, 138, 157, 164.

Ballu, 98 n.

Bâqirḥâ, 126.

Bashmishli, 132 n.

Baṣrah, ix, x, 58, 146, 149, 150, 158, 168.

Bassora, _see_ Baṣrah.

Baṭûṭah, Ibn, 56, 58, 75 n.

Becker, Prof., 17 n., 112 n., 146 n., 147 and n., 149 n., 150.

Beduin, tribe, 5.

Bel, temple of, 122.

Bell, Miss G. L., xi, 40 n., 56 n., 57 n., 59 n., 70 n., 71 n.,
73 n., 78 n., 86 n., 132 n., 133 n.,
138 n., 143 n., 153 n., 154 n., 165 n., 166 n.

Benndorf, 108 and n.

Berlin, xii, 115, 118 n.

Bethlehem, 117.

Binbirklisse, 73 n.

Bishr (son of ‘Âdah son of ‘Îsâ son of ‘Umar), 161.

Bîsutûn, 134.

Blanchet, 103 n., 109 n., 110 n.

Boghâz Keui, 93 and n., 108, 122.

Bosco, R. Velazquez, xii, 143 n.

Boscoreale, 125, 127, 128 n.

Boṣrâ, 98 n., 120.

Bostân, 41 n.

Britain, 98 and n.

British Museum, 76, 123, 132 n.

Bruce, 98 n.

Bruckmann, xii.

Brünnow, Prof., xii, 98 n., 100, 101, 102, 103 n.,
104, 105, 106 n., 110 n.,
117 n., 118 and n., 126 n., 127 n., 128 n., 129, 135 n.

Bruno, 56 n.

Bryas, 121.

Bshair, 103, 104.

Bulard, 124 n.

Burdân, Wâdi, 1.

Burgess, 72 n., 73 n.

Bury, 121 n.

Butler, 72 n., 98 n., 105 n.,
111 n., 112 n., 126 n., 132 n.,
133 n., 135 n., 138 n., 139 n., 165.

Byzantium, 97, 109, 110.

C

Cagnat, 98 n., 99 n.

Cairo, 92 and n., 141, 144, 156.

Carchemish, 122.

Caria, 108.

Carmichael, Mr., x.

Carnuntum, 100.

Carthage, 109.

Casr Chaider, ix.

el-Chader (Ukhaiḍir) Ras el-’Ain, x, xi, 58.

Chaitya Cave, 123 n.

Chaldaea, 70 n., 106, 122, 123.

Chehâr Qapû, 44, 45, 51-4, 90, 92, 94, 115.

Chipiez, 65 n., 68 n., 70 n., 75 n.,
78 n., 93 n., 94 n., 106 n.,
108 n., 109 n., 122 n., 123 n., 128 n., 140 n.

Chiusi, 69 n., 166.

Choisy, 68 n., 69 n., 70 n., 109 n.

Chosroës, the, 59, 80, 94, 120, 148, 149.

Chosroës II, 44.

Clarke, 109 n.

Constantine, Emperor, 117, 121.

Constantinople, vii, xi, 121, 151.

Corbett, 146 n., 149 n.

Cordova, 152.

Corinthian tomb, 128, 135.

Coste, 74 n., 76 n., 78 n., 79 n., 106 n., 107 n., 137, 165 n.

Cramer, 110 n.

Ctesiphon, vii, 57, 59, 66, 70,
75, 77, 94, 95, 115, 119, 120,
122, 129-32, 134-8, 165, 166.

Curie, 98 n.

D

Ḍaba, Djebel, 2, 3.

Da’djaniyyeh, 102, 103, 116.

al-Dair, 128 and n., 129.

Dair al-Kafh, 104.

Dair el-Baḥri, 70 n.

Dalman, 126 n.

Damascus, 55, 66, 101, 119,
120 and n., 126, 147, 151, 152, 154, 158, 162, 164 n., 167.

Dânâ, 126.

Darius, King, palace of, 63, 64, 76.

Dastadjird, 60, 107 n., 120.

Daumet, 138 n.

Dead Sea, the, 97.

De Beylié, 142 n., 143 n.

De Goeje, 3 n., 57 n., 147 n., 167 n.

Delbrück, Prof., 68 n., 69 n., 70 n.,
72 n., 73 n., 96 n., 123, 124 and n.,
125 and n., 127 n., 132 n., 136 n., 166 n.

Della Valle, ix.

Delos, 65 n., 68 n., 87, 124.

De Meynard, Barbier, 59 n., 167 n.

De Morgan, M., xii, 80 n., 134.

Dereh Shah, 80 n.

De Sarzec, 78 n., 87 n., 122 n., 142.

De Vogüé, 56 n., 72 n., 73 n., 84 n., 111 n.

Dibs, Abu, 1, 2, 3, 168.

Dieulafoy, M., xii, 53 n., 65 n., 68 n.,
71 n., 72 n., 74 n., 75, 76 n., 77, 78 n.,
79 and n., 81 n., 90, 91, 92 and n., 95, 96 n.,
106 n., 107 and n., 118 n., 122 n.,
130, 134 n., 140 n., 143 n., 157, 165 n.

Diocletian, Emperor, 56, 103, 109, 110, 121.

Diodorus, 69 n.

Diyârbekr, viii, 120, 132, 154, 158, 159.

Djabala ibn al-Ḥârith, 110.

Djâbiyah, 56 n.

Djaulân, the, 56.

Djôf, 5, 167.

Djôfîyîn, the, 5.

Djûr, 91, 92.

Domaszewski, 98 n., 102, 103 n.,
106 n., 110 n., 117 n., 118 and n., 126 n., 127 and n., 128 n., 135 n.

Dulaf, Abu, mosque of, 144, 154, 155, 156, 158.

Ḍumair, 101, 102, 103 and n., 110.

Durm, 65 n., 66 n., 70 n., 89, 108 n., 109 n., 124 n.

Dussaud, 56 n.

E

Ebersolt, 121 n.

Ecbatana, 123 n.

Egypt, vii, 68, 70 n., 72, 96, 106, 123, 124, 127 n., 142, 146, 147.

Epaminondas, 109 n.

Ephesus, 109, 125, 132 n.

Euphrates, river, x, xi, 1, 56, 57.

Euphrates road, 43 n.

Europe, 101, 110, 142.

Evans, Sir Arthur, 70 n.

F

Fars, 79, 80, 96, 143 n.

Fatehpur Sîkrî, 139.

Ferâshâbâd, 78.

Fergusson, 41 n., 72 n., 73 n., 123 n., 139.

Firûzâbâd, 53 n., 73, 74 and n.,
76-80, 82, 83, 86, 91, 95, 119, 134, 136, 137, 143, 165.

el-Fityân, _see_ Khirbet el-Fityân.

Flandin, 74 n., 76 n., 78 n., 79 and n., 106 n., 107 n., 137, 165 n.

Flavians, the, palace of, 120.

Flavius Silva, 97.

Franks, the, 110.

Fréjus, 109.

Fusṭâṭ, 146 n., 148, 149, 150.

G

Garstang, Prof., 60 n.

Gaul, 104 n., 110.

Gebhardt, Messrs., xii, 89.

Germany, 98.

Ghadaf, Wâdi, 111, 112.

Ghassânids, the, 56.

Ghazni, towers, 41.

Gsell, 98 n.

Gudea, 106, 122.

H

Ḥabbâniyyeh, 1, 2, 3.

al-Ḥadjdjâdj, 43 n., 148, 162 n., 164, 168.

Hadrian, Emperor, 97, 98.

Ḥakh, 133 n.

al-Ḥâkim, 158.

Halicarnassus, 124.

Ḥamâd, Khân, 2.

Hammâd, Bani, the, fortress of, 142.

Ḥamrath, tomb of, 126.

Hamza al-Iṣfahâni, 110.

Ḥanbal, Ibn, 55 n.

Hanging Gardens, the, 69 n.

Harbâ, 143 n.

Ḥarrân, 132, 152, 153, 158.

Ḥarûn al-Rashîd, 165, 167, 168.

Ḥasan, Bani, 3, 57, 58.

Ḥasan Kaif, 133, 143, 160.

Hâshimiyyeh, 167.

Hatra, 66, 67, 69-72, 75, 78, 82,
87, 88, 90-2, 94-6, 107, 119, 136-8, 141 n., 143.

Hatti, 60 n.

Hauqal, Ibn, 142 n.

Ḥaurân, the, 56, 98 n., 138.

Ḥaurân, Wâdi, 1.

Haush Quru, 80 n.

Haverfield, Prof., xii, 99.

Hazâr Dâr, 80 n.

Heberdey, 125 n.

Ḥedjr tombs, 127, 128.

el-Heiadîe, _see_ Ṭuqṭuqâneh.

Heraclius, 120.

Herodotus, 90, 92.

Herzfeld, Dr., xii, 58, 60 n., 62 n., 65 n., 74 n.,
80 n., 84, 85, 86 and n., 94 n., 105 n., 107 n.,
110 n., 117, 118 n., 121 n., 123 n., 130 n., 132 n.,
134 n., 135 n., 136, 138 and n., 140 n., 141 n., 143 n.,
151 n., 153 and n., 154, 155,
156 and n., 157, 159, 160 n., 165 and n., 166 n.

Hêt, _see_ Hît.

Heuzey, 78 n., 87 n., 122 n., 138 n.

Ḥidjâz, 167.

Hidjrah, the, 55.

Hilprecht, 65 n., 107 n., 122 n.

Hindiyyeh, the, 2, 39, 41, 56, 57.

al-Ḥîrah, 56-9, 86, 87, 148, 168.

Ḥishâm, 168.

Hît, x, xi, 43 n.

Hittorff, 128 n.

Ḥiyyadhiyyeh, 58.

Hogarth, Mr., 122.

Holman, Messrs., xii, 66.

el-Hossian, 58.

Housesteads, 99.

Humann, 125 n.

Hurairah, Abu, 166.

Hyginus, 98.

I

Iassos, 108.

Ibrahîm ibn Salamah, 74 n.

Inaldi, Inalid, 158 n.

India, 72, 73, 137.

‘Irâq, 162 n., 167, 168.

‘Îsâ ibn ‘Ali ibn ‘Abdallâh, 164, 168.

Iṣfahân, 41 n., 134.

Isriyyeh, 126.

Iṣṭakhr, 107 n.

Italy, 68, 128.

Ives, x.

‘Izziyyeh, 58.

J

Jacobi, 98 n.

Jaussen, 126 n., 127 n.

Jerusalem, 72, 128, 145, 146.

John of Ephesus, 56 n.

Jordan, Dr., 122.

Joshua the Stylite, 56.

Jupiter, 91.

Justinian, Emperor, 57, 117, 119, 145.

K

Ka’bah, the, vii, 145.

al-Kahf, _see_ Dair al-Kahf.

Karkh, 94, 95, 139.

Kayder, _see_ el-Chader.

Kerbelâ, 1, 2.

Kerbelâ-Nedjef road, 2, 3 n.

Kerîm Khân, 79;
his brother, 80 n.

Kerkûk, 40, 71, 134.

Kfair, 132 n.

Khader, _see_ el-Chader.

al-Khaḍrâ, _see_ al-Qabbet al-Khaḍrâ.

Khâlid ibn ‘Abdallâh, 168.

Khâlid ibn al-Walîd, 3.

al-Khalîfah, Bait, 86, 138, 144.

Kharâneh, 39, 78, 82, 111, 114-18, 120, 162, 166.

Khâṣakî Djâmi’, the, 141.

Khawarnaq, 56, 57, 75 n., 87, 119, 162.

Khazneh, the, 128 and n., 135.

al-Khernîna, Khân, 143 and n.

al-Kherr, Wâdi, 58 n.

Khirbet al-Baiḍâ, 56, 106.

Khirbet el-Fityân, 102 n.

Khodja ‘Alam, 41 n.

Khorsâbâd, 68, 81, 92, 93, 94, 106 and n., 122, 123.

Khurâsân, the, 74 n.

Khusrau I, 57, 119.

Khusrau II Parwêz, 59, 74 n., 94.

Khusrau, palace of, 44-51, 74, 79, 80,
81, 83, 84, 86, 87, 90, 92, 93, 119, 164.

Khusrau, Qal’a-i-, 60.

Knossos, 70 n.

Koepp, 97 n.

Koldewey, Prof., 61, 62 n., 65 n., 68 and n.,
69 n., 76 n., 77 n., 87 n., 88, 92 n., 93 n.,
94 n., 108 n., 109 n.

Kubaisah, xi.

Kûfah, x, 2, 3, 43 and n., 148-50, 158, 162, 164, 167, 168.

Kuhna, Qal’a-i-, 107 n.

L

Lagash, 106, 107.

Lambaesis, 99.

Lammens, 17 n., 55 n., 56 n., 111 n.,
117 n., 145 n., 146 n., 147 n., 148 n., 162 n., 168 n.

Lanckoronski, 124 n.

Lane, 59 n.

Layard, 68 and n., 75.

Leachman, Captain, 162 n.

Ledjdjûn, 101, 102, 103 and n.

Leleges, wall of the, 108.

Le Strange, 40 n., 57 n., 58 n., 151 n., 167 n.

Littmann, Prof., xii, 161, 162.

Lixos, 109.

Loftus, 65 and n., 90, 122, 140 n.

Lyall, Sir Charles, xii, 22 n., 56 n., 57 n., 145 n.

Lyell, 98 n.

Lynch, 135 n.

Lysimachus, 109.

M

Macmillan, Messrs., xii.

Madâin Ṣâliḥ, vii, 126-8, 135, 138, 142, 145 n.

Madjḍah, _see_ Mudjḍah.

Magnesia, 124, 125 n.

al-Mahdi, 151.

Maḥmûd of Ghazni, 41.

Makhḍah, _see_ Mudjḍah.

Makrîsi, 147 n.

al-Malik, ‘Abd, 151.

Maṇsûr, 150, 151, 153, 154, 157, 158, 164, 165, 167.

Mantineia, 109.

Maqrîzi, 151.

Marçais, 152 n.

Marmora, sea of, 121.

Marwân, 147, 149, 168.

Masada, 97.

Massignon, M., xi, 31 n., 38 n., 39 n., 40 n., 57 n., 58 n., 161.

Mas’ûdi, 58, 86, 87, 118.

Mau, 72 n.

Mauritania Tingitana, 109.

Maximian, Emperor, 56.

Mayâfârqîn, viii, 132, 153, 159, 166.

Media, 62 n.

Medînah, 145-52, 158, 168.

Medînat al-Zahrâ, palace of, 143.

Medinet Abu, 70 n.

Mediterranean coast-lands, the, 64.

al-Mehdiyyeh, gates of, 142.

Meissner, 56 n.

Mekkah, vii, 120, 145-8, 150, 167.

el-Melfûf, _see_ Ridjm el-Melfûf.

Memphis, 72.

Menâr, the, palace of, 142.

Merchel, 109 n.

Merkes, the, 65 n., 76.

Meshed ‘Ali, _see_ Nedjef.

Mesopotamia, 12, 16 n., 38, 66, 68, 70,
71, 75, 76, 79, 88, 96,
97, 115, 124, 130, 133, 137, 141, 143,
144, 146, 152, 156, 158, 165, 166;
Northern, 71, 75, 141 n.;
Southern, 28.

Mesopotamian plain, 60.

Messene, 109 and n.

Michael II, 121.

Michaelis, 122 n.

Miletus, 124, 125.

Mommsen, 101 n.

Moritz, Dr. B., xii, 111 n., 114 n., 115, 161, 167.

Môṣul, 133, 160.

Mount Eryx, 108.

Mshaiyesh, 111 n.

Mshattâ, 111, 113, 117, 118 and n., 120,
133 n., 135, 138, 139, 141, 142, 162, 165.

Mu’âwiyah, 148, 168.

Mudjḍah (Madjḍah, Makhḍah), viii, 2, 3, 39-41, 43, 162.

Mughair, 70 and n.

Muḥaiwir, 1.

Muḥammad, 145, 146, 147, 161.

Muhtadi, 165 n.

al-Mundhir, 56, 148.

Munich, 133 n.

Muntaṣir, 165 n.

Muqaddasi, 3, 58, 151, 153.

Muqâtil ibn Ḥasân ibn Tha’labah ibn Aus ibn Ibrâhîm ibn Ayyûb ibn Madjrûf
ibn ‘Âmir ibn ‘Uṣayyah ibn Imra’al-Qais ibn Zaid Manât ibn Tamîm, 162.

al-Muqâtil, Qaṣr, 162, 164, 168.

Mûsâ, Abu, 148.

Muṣallâ, Khân, 57.

Mushennef, 126.

Musil, Prof., 2 n., 55 n., 58 n.,
103 n., 111 and n., 112 n., 113,
114 and n., 115, 116 and n., 117 n., 162 n.

Musmiyyeh, 72.

al-Mustanṣir, 143 n.

Mustanṣiriyyeh, the, 40, 143 n.

Mustaufi, 58.

Mutawakkil, 58, 59, 86, 121, 154.

Mu’tazz, 165 n.

Muwaqqar, 110, 135.

Mycenae, 96, 108, 120.

N

Nabataean tombs, 127 n., 128.

Nâṣiri Khusrau, 159 n.

Naṣr, Banû, 58.

Nassick, 123 n.

Nebuchadnezzar, palace of, 70, 93, 96.

Nedjd, 5.

Nedjef, ix, x, 3 n., 40, 57, 58, 167.

Nedjef, Bahr, 56, 57, 58, 164, 167.

Nereids, the, monument of, 108.

Nero, Emperor, 72.

Nicephoricum-Callinicum, 153.

Niebuhr, x, 58 n.

Niederberg, 100 n.

Niederbieber, 100 n.

Niemann, 108 and n.

Niffer, 65 and n., 66, 87, 89, 107, 119, 122.

Nimrûd, 93.

Nöldeke, 56 n., 57 n., 96 n., 112 n.

Novaesium, 100.

Nu’mân III, King, 59.

Nu’mân ibn Mundhir, 56.

Nu’man ibn Imra’ al-Qais, 57.

Nu’mânid, 120.

Nûr al-Dîn, 153, 154, 158, 160 (Maḥmûd).

O

Odhruḥ, 98-103, 110.

Oppenheim, Baron, 60 n., 123.

Orontes, the, 64, 108.

Orthma, Khân, 72.

Ortokid Alpi, 159.

P

Palatitza, 138 n.

Palmyra, 101, 126.

Parwêz, _see_ Khusrau II Parwêz.

Pasargadae, 62, 63, 96, 119, 123 n.

Pergamon, 66 n., 69 n., 73 n., 89, 124, 125 n.

Perge, 124, 125.

Perrot, 65 n., 68 n., 70 n., 75 n.,
78 n., 93 n., 94 n., 106 n., 108 n.,
109 n., 122 n., 123 n., 128 n., 140 n.

Persepolis, 63, 64, 76 and n., 80, 119.

Persia, 65, 71, 73, 74, 110, 123, 137, 140, 168.

Persian Gulf, the, 1.

Perugia, 136.

Petra, vii, 97, 126-9, 135, 136, 138, 142.

Philon of Byzantium, 109.

Pinara, 108.

Place, 68 and n., 94 and n.

Polybius, 98.

Pompeii, 72, 87, 124;
Oscan, 124.

Praeneste, 125 n.

Preusser, Dr., 152.

Priene, 87, 88, 124, 125 and n., 126.

Princeton Expedition, the, 111.

Probus, 110.

Promis, 109 n., 136 n.

Ptolemy Philadelphos, 124 n., 128 n.

Puchstein, 62 n., 93 n., 108 n., 123 n., 126 n., 127 and n., 128 n.

Pydnai, 108.

Q

al-Qabbet al-Khaḍrâ, 162 and n.

Qadesh, 108.

Qâdisiyyeh, 58, 162, 167.

Qairawân, 152.

Qalb Lôzeh, 132 n.

Qanawât, 126.

‘al-Qâsin ‘Ali, Abu, 158 n., 159 n.

Qaṭal, 103-6, 110-13, 118, 120.

Qṣair, viii, 1, 38-9.

Qṣair ‘Amrah, _see_ ‘Amrah.

al-Quṭquṭâneh, 162, 164.

Quyundjik, 75, 76, 77, 90, 93, 94, 123.

R

Raḥḥâliyyeh, 1.

Ramâdi, 2.

Rameses II, 108.

Ramsay, 73 n., 78 n., 138 n.

Raqqah, 138, 142, 153, 154, 158, 165, 166, 168.

Râs al-’Ain, 60 n., 123.

al-Rasâs, Umm, 106.

Rashîd, 167.

Reuther, Dr., xi, 6-36 _passim_, 82 and n., 83, 131, 132 n., 136-40, 166.

Rhages, 41 n.

Rḥaibeh, 112.

Ridjm el-Melfûf, 70 n.

Rimini, 128.

Ritter, xi.

Roderick, King, 112.

Rome, 72, 73, 95, 110, 126.

Rothstein, 57 n., 59 n.

al-Ruḥbân, 57.

Ruḥbeh, 58 and n.

Ruḥeimeh, 58 n.

Rûm, 120.

Ruṣâfah, 150.

S

Saalburg, the, 98 n.

Sachau, 152 n.

Sa’d ibn abi Waqqâs, 148.

al-Sadîr, 57.

Ṣaffâh, 167.

Sa’îd ibn ‘Âmir ibn Ḥudhaim, 153.

St. Petersburg, 133.

Sais, Djebel, 56, 111.

Sakcheh Geuzu, 60 n., 122.

Saladin, M., x n., 152 n.

Ṣalâḥ al-Dîn, 152, 153, 159.

Salamah, 74 n.

Salmanassar III, 106 n.

Salmon, 154 n.

Sâl Nâmeh, 58.

Sâmarrâ, 58, 70 n., 84, 87, 92,
93, 121, 132 and n., 135, 138, 140-4, 151, 156-8, 164-6.

al-Ṣarakh, Ḥammâm, 111, 112, 165.

Sardis, 96.

Sargon, palace of, 68, 81, 94, 122.

Sarre, Prof., xii, 41 n., 60 n., 65 n., 74 n.,
80 n., 84, 94 n., 107 n., 130 n., 143 n., 153 n., 154 n., 160 n., 166 n.

Sarvistân, 53 n., 71, 74 and n., 78-80,
82, 84, 92, 115, 118 n., 119, 134, 136, 137, 165.

Saudâ, 146.

Savignac, 126 n., 127 n.

Sbai’i, Bir, 2.

Schefer, 159 n.

Schrader, 124 n.

Schreiber, 135 n.

Schultz, 117 n., 118, 133 n., 138 n.

Schultze, 109, 136.

Seleucia, 65, 69, 70, 119.

Selinus, acropolis of, 109.

Septimius Severus, 69 n.

Sextius Florentinus, 128 n.

Shabîb, revolt of, 164 n.

Shahbâ, 126.

Shâhnâmah, the, 22 n.

Shakhârîz, 2.

Shammar, tribe, 2.

Shamshi-Adad, 93.

Sham’ûn, Qaṣr, 59.

Shapûr I, 94.

Shapûr II, 57, 96.

Shaqqah, 73 n., 126, 139.

Shethâthâ, Shefâthâ, x, xi, 1, 2, 3 and n.

Shîrîn, Qaṣr-i-, viii, 44-54, 60, 70, 74 and n., 76, 79,
80 and n., 81, 82, 84, 86, 87, 90,
93, 94, 96, 105, 119, 120, 137, 164, 165.

Shirwân, 80 n., 134.

Shuhbâ, 98 n.

al-Shukâfa, Kôm, 135.

Sî’, 126, 138.

Sicily, 108, 109.

Sidi al-Ḥalwi, 152.

Sieglin, 135 n.

Sim’ân, Qal’at, 84 n.

Simbel, Abû, 108.

Sindâd, 57 n.

Sindjâr, Djebel, 143.

Sinimmâr, 57 and n.

al-Ṣinnîn, 57.

Sixtus of Bourbon, Prince, 58 n.

Ṣlaibiyyeh tomb, 165 n.

Slâm, Biyâr, 2.

Smith, George, 90.

Smyrna, 108.

Solomon’s temple, 94, 116.

Spain, 110, 143.

Spalato, 121.

Sprenger, 122 n.

Stockstadt, 100 n.

Stolle, 98 n.

Strabo, 69 and n., 91, 92.