Chapter M: M. Pelletier and Caventou have discovered in this substance, a (1)

peculiar proximate principle, to which its virulence is owing; it was named _Vauqueline_, in honour of the celebrated French philosopher, but in deference to the opinion of the French Academy of Sciences, the discoverers have substituted the name _Strychnia_, because “a name dearly loved, ought not to be applied to a noxious principle!”[569] (_Annales de Chimie_, _vol._ 8 to 10.) Strychnia is highly alkaline, and crystallizes in very small four-sided prisms, terminated by four-sided pyramids; its taste is insupportably bitter, leaving a slight metallic flavour, and is so powerful as even to be perceptible when a grain is dissolved in eighty pounds of water;[570] it has no smell; is not changed by exposure to the air, nor is it either fusible or volatile, for when submitted to the action of heat, it only fuses at the moment of its decomposition which takes place at a temperature inferior to that which destroys most vegetable substances; it is so extremely active and violent, that in doses of half a grain it occasions serious effects, and in larger ones convulsions and death; it is perhaps the most powerful,[571] and next to hydro-cyanic acid, the most rapid of poisons; notwithstanding its strong taste, it is very sparingly soluble in water, requiring 6667 parts of that fluid for its solution at 50, and 2500 at 212°. It is very soluble in alcohol, but unlike most of the other vegetable alkalies, is nearly insoluble in æther; with acids it forms neutral and crystallizable salts; these salts as well as their base, have the singular property of becoming bloodred by the action of concentrated nitric acid. The alcoholic solution of Strychnia has the property of precipitating the greater number of metallic oxides from their acid solutions. It is precipitated by alkalies and alkaline earths. Strychnia exists in native combination in the Strychnus with an acid which has some analogy with the malic, and which Pelletier and Caventou propose to call the _Igasuric acid_, from the Malay name for the bean of St. Ignatius,[572] (Strychnus Ignatius,) in which its properties were first examined. In conformity with such views, the active principle of the tribe of Strychni is an _Igasurate of Strychnia_;—a fact which suggests the existence of a most singular and striking analogy between the chemical constitution of these narcotico-acrid bodies[573] and that of opium. The recent experiments of Pelletier have shewn, moreover, that besides Strychnia, the Nux Vomica contains _Brucia_, an alkaline body which had been previously discovered in spurious Angustura. Its properties are similar to those of Strychnia, but it is less active. Being much more soluble in alcohol than _Strychnia_, if care be taken to crystallize the latter several times in alcohol, it will be separated, the _Brucia_ remaining in the _mother waters_. Strychnia has been given in doses of one-twelfth of a grain, but it is a most dangerous remedy, and is liable to occasion tetanic convulsions.[574] It has been said, however, to prove serviceable in cases of Epilepsy that had resisted every other method of cure. Dr. Fleming informs us that the Hindoos of upper India are in the habit of adding Nux Vomica in the process of distilling Arrack, for the purpose of rendering the spirit more intoxicating. The London Porter brewers have been accused of the same pernicious practice.

OLEA DESTILLATA. L. OL. VOLATILIA. E.

OL. ESSENTIALIA. D.

_Distilled, Volatile, or Essential Oils._

The British pharmacopœiæ direct them to be obtained by distillation only; the French codex orders several of them to be prepared by expression. QUALITIES. _Form_, liquid, sometimes viscid; _specific grav._ various; oil of turpentine, which is the lightest, being only 0·792, whilst the oil of cloves, cinnamon, and allspice, exceed 1·030, and that of sassafras, which is the heaviest, amounts to 1·094; these latter oils hold resin in solution, and of course sink in water. _Odour_, penetrating and fragrant; _Taste_, acrid; they are volatilized at a temperature somewhat below that of boiling water; they are very inflammable. SOLUBILITY. Very soluble in alcohol, forming what are termed in perfumery _Essences_; in water they are very sparingly soluble; the solutions are known in pharmacy under the title of _distilled waters_; they are also dissolved by æther, and the _fixed_ oils; when digested with ammonia, some of the less odorous acquire a considerable degree of fragrance, whilst on the contrary, fixed alkalies universally impair their odour; they are rapidly decomposed by nitric and sulphuric acids, and their action is sometimes attended with instant inflammation. Volatile oils, from continued exposure to the air, absorb oxygen, and become resinous, by which they lose their volatility, fragrance, and pungency, hence they should be preserved in small opaque phials, completely full and well stopped. MED. USES. They act as powerful stimulants and aromatics; they remove nausea and flatulence, correct the griping of certain purgatives, and cover the offensive taste of various remedies. See _Aquæ destillatæ_. They, moreover, have the property of defending certain animal and vegetable preparations from mouldiness. This curious fact has been already noticed, see _page 177_. The following is a list of the species admitted into our British pharmacopœiæ; those designated in _italics_ are principally for internal use. OLEA _Anisi_, _Anthemidis_, _Carui_, _Juniperi_. Lavandulæ, _Menthæ Piperitæ_, _Menthæ viridis_, Origani, _Pimentæ_, _Pulegii_, _Rosmarini_, L. OLEA VOLATILIA, _Juniperi communis_, Juniperi Sabinæ, Lavandulæ Spicæ, Lauri Sassafras, _Menthæ Piperitæ_, _Myrtæ Pimentæ_, _Pimpinellæ Anisi_, Rorismarini Officinalis. E. OLEA _Juniperi_, _Pimento_, Corticis et Ligni Sassafras, _e Seminibus Anisi_, _Carui_, _Fœniculi dulcis_, Florum Lavendulæ, Foliorum Sabinæ, _Herbæ florescentis Menthæ Sativæ_, Origani, _Pulegii_, _Rorismarini_, _Rutæ_, D. ADULTERATIONS. _Fixed Oils_ may be detected by moistening writing paper with the suspected article and holding it before the fire: if the oil be entirely essential, no stain of grease will remain; as castor oil is more soluble in spirit than the others, it is the one generally selected for this fraudulent purpose, and the addition of alcohol restores the sophisticated oil to its proper degree of consistency. _Alcohol_ is discovered by adding water, which, if it be present, occasions a milkiness, and at the same time, an increase of temperature; a decrease of bulk also takes place, which may easily be ascertained by measuring the oil and water separately, and then transferring them, in a state of mixture, into a tube of small diameter. _Cheaper oils_, as that of turpentine, are recognised by their peculiar odour, which may be developed by rubbing a drop upon the hand and holding it to the fire, or, by the dense black smoke with which they burn. The oil of aniseed, as it crystallizes at 50°, is frequently sophisticated with wax, spermaceti, or camphor; the fraud is detected by warming the oil, when the crystals, if genuine, will dissolve.[575] In some cases the refractive power of the oil affords a test of its purity. _See my work on Chemistry in its relations to Medicine, § 318._

OLEA EXPRESSA. L.D.

OLEA FIXA, SIVE EXPRESSA. E.

_Expressed or Fixed Oils._

These are obtained from animal matter by fusion, and from vegetable by expression, or decoction with water. QUALITIES. _Odour_, none; _Taste_, mild; they boil at 600°, but undergo decomposition, becoming acrid and empyreumatic; the oil, in this state, was formerly used in medicine under the name of _philosopher’s oil_.[576] By exposure to air they absorb oxygen and become rancid; they congeal at a temperature of 32°, and some even above that. When the oil is expressed by heating the plates of the press, or by previously roasting the seeds, it is more disposed to become rancid; _cold drawn_ oils are on this account to be preferred for the purposes of pharmacy. SOLUBILITY. They are insoluble in water, and, except castor oil, nearly so in alcohol and æther; with caustic alkalies they combine and form soaps; when aided by heat they readily unite with oxide of lead, forming the solid compound well known by the term _plaister_. They unite also very readily with each other, and with volatile oils. SOLVENT POWERS. They dissolve sulphur, and form a kind of balsam with it; they also possess the power of extracting and dissolving the narcotic and acrid principles of several vegetable and animal substances, in consequence of which, the French pharmacopœia directs a series of preparations under the term “_Olea Medicata_;” thus there are olea Cicutæ, Hyoscyami, Solani, Stramonii, Nicotianæ;[577] which are made by digesting with a gentle heat, one part of the subject in two parts of olive oil.[578]

OLEUM AMYGDALARUM. L.E.D.

_Oil of Almonds._

This fixed oil, whether procured from the _sweet_ or _bitter_ almond, has the same properties, for the bitter principle resides exclusively in combination with a peculiar volatile oil attached to the mucilage;[579] that from the latter keeps longer without rancidity. It is sometimes made from old Jordan almonds, _by heat_, in which case it very soon grows fetid. Nut oil, _Oleum nucum Coryli_, has been proposed as a substitute for that of almonds; in China it is drunk with tea, instead of cream. MEDICAL USES. For forming emulsions, in coughs, and other pulmonary complaints. FORMS OF EXHIBITION. It may be formed into an _emulsion_ by the intermedium of _mucilage_, the _yelk of an egg_, or by that of an _alkali_.

1. BY MUCILAGE. This is in general a more convenient medium than the yelk of an egg; one part of gum, made into mucilage, will be sufficient for the diffusion of four parts of oil, (see _Mucilago Acaciæ_) the oil and mucilage must be carefully triturated together, and the water then gradually added; the emulsion thus formed is permanent, and the addition of a moderate quantity of acid, spirit, or tincture, will not produce decomposition. _See Form. 73._

2. BY ALKALIES. This oil, by uniting with alkalies and water, forms an elegant and grateful mixture, for which purpose the following proportions are to be observed, every fʒj of oil requires ♏︎viij of liquor potassæ, and f℥iss of distilled water. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _Acids_; _oxymel_; _syrups of poppies and squills_; _tartrate and super-tartrate of potass_; _super-sulphate of potass_; _oxy-muriate of mercury_; _resins_; _hard water_. _See Form. 166, 167._

OLEUM AMYGDALÆ AMARÆ VOLATILE.

QUALITIES. _Colour_, pale yellow; _Odour_, fragrant and pungent, having the characteristic smell of prussic acid. _Taste_, pungent, bitter, and peculiar. SOLUBILITY. Like other essential oils, its sensible properties and medicinal effects are imparted to water; in alcohol it is very soluble.[580] CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. A peculiar oil, combined with hydro-cyanic acid. M. Vogel of Munich has lately succeeded in separating these constituents, by agitating the whole in a concentrated solution of potass, and distilling to dryness; the oil volatilized together with water, while the residuum in the retort was found to contain _Cyanide of Potassium_. The volatile oil, thus purified, is without odour, and heavier than water. Its taste is extremely acrid and burning; by contact with air it crystallizes rapidly; it dissolves easily in alcohol and æther, but only in a very small proportion in water. The flame of its combustion is very brilliant, and accompanied with much smoke. In order to discover whether this oil, when freed from its hydro-cyanic acid, is still poisonous, M. Vogel put a drop of it on the tongue of a sparrow; when it died, after violent convulsions, in a few seconds; he also poisoned a dog, two months old, with four drops of it; whence he concludes that the volatile oil, divested of its hydro-cyanic acid, is still a poison, although less energetic than the oil that has not undergone such a change. _Med: Uses._ It has all the characteristic effects of prussic acid, but is so powerful and dangerous as to preclude its application. It is principally sold to perfumers and confectioners.

It is generally obtained by distilling the expressed cake of bitter almonds; the operation however requires considerable pharmaceutical address, and is, moreover, attended with unpleasant consequences.[581]

OLEUM OLIVÆ. L.E.D. _Olive Oil._

QUALITIES. _Colour_, pale yellow, somewhat inclining to green; _Taste_, bland; _Odour_, none; it ought to congeal at 38° _Fah_. With the exception of the oil of Almonds, it is the lightest of the fat oils, its specific gravity being only ·915. According to the recent observations of Dr. Clarke of Cambridge, this oil crystallizes in rectangular four-sided prisms with square bases. USES. Although much less laxative than Castor oil, it is a useful aperient. It was long regarded, but erroneously, as possessing antidotal powers against the bites of venemous snakes and insects; and it has been confidently recommended, in the form of liniment, as a remedy against the Plague. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Linimentum Ammoniæ Fortius_. L. ADULTERATIONS. It is not unfrequently mixed with the oil of poppy seeds, (see _Papaveris Capsulæ_), a fraud which may be easily discovered by exposing a sample to the freezing temperature, when the olive oil will congeal, while that of poppies will remain fluid; and since those oils which freeze with most difficulty are most susceptible of rancidity, the admixture of poppy oil must be regarded as injurious: it also deserves notice that the peculiar habitudes of _Oil of Olives_, with the _Pernitrate of Mercury_, offer a distinguishing character, by which the adulteration of the oil may be satisfactorily detected; for if the _pernitrate_, made by dissolving 6 parts of the metal in 7·5 of nitric acid, of sp. grav. 1·36, at a common temperature, be mixed with olive oil, the mixture, if kept cold, will in the course of a few hours become solid, whereas if it has any admixture of the oil of grains, it will not undergo such a change. The contamination derived from lead, which is frequently immersed in the oil for the purpose of removing its rancidity, may be detected by shaking one part of the suspected sample with three parts of water, impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen, in a stopped phial.

OLIBANUM. L.D.

Juniperus Lycia. _Gummi-resina._

Olibanum.[582]

QUALITIES. _Form_, fragments of a translucent, whitish yellow, and generally powdered with a whitish dust, occasioned by the friction of the pieces against each other; _Odour_, when burning is fragrant; _Taste_, bitterish and acrid. SOLUBILITY. When triturated with water, a milky solution results, which after some time deposits the resinous part, and retains not more than three-eighths dissolved. Alcohol dissolves three-fourths of it, and forms a solution perfectly transparent. Æther dissolves more than half, leaving a white opaque residuum soluble in water. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. The latest analysis of this substance is by _Braconnot_, who found in 100 parts of it, of volatile oil 8, resin 56, gum 39, and of an anomalous principle resembling gum, but insoluble in water and alcohol, 5·2 parts. The oil, in colour and smell, very strongly resembled that of lemons. MED. USES. It is now less used than formerly; it is however stimulant and diaphoretic. Pulverized it enters into several popular electuaries for gleets, fluor albus, &c. and very probably acts by finding a passage into the urine, without undergoing any change or decomposition.

OPIUM. L.E.D. (Papaver Somniferum.) _Capsularum immaturarum Succus
concretus._ (Turcicus.)

_Turkey Opium._[583]

Two kinds are found in commerce, distinguished by the name of _Turkey_ and _East India_ Opium.

QUALITIES. _Form_, Turkey opium occurs in flat pieces, of a solid compact texture, and possessing considerable tenacity; _Sp. gr._ 1·336, so that, when compared with the condensed juices of other plants, it is heavy, being exceeded only in this respect by opoponax and gum-arabic. By long exposure to the air it becomes hard, breaks with a glimmering fracture, owing to the presence of a few saline particles, and affords a yellowish powder. It is opaque, tenacious, plastic, adherent to the fingers. _Colour_, a reddish-brown, or fawn. _Odour_, peculiar, heavy, and narcotic. _Taste_, at first a nauseous bitter, which soon becomes acrid with some degree of warmth. It is inflammable, but yields no narcotic odour on burning. SOLUBILITY. It is partially soluble in water, alcohol, æther, wine, vinegar, and lemon juice; when triturated with hot water, five parts in twelve are dissolved, six suspended, and one part remains perfectly insoluble and resembles _gluten_. By long boiling, its soporific powers are impaired and ultimately destroyed: the alcoholic is more highly charged with its narcotic principle than the aqueous solution; but spirit, rather below proof, is its best menstruum. The watery solution when filtered is transparent, and reddens the colour of litmus; it undergoes no change on the addition of alcohol, but precipitates occur from _pure ammonia_ and from the _carbonates of fixed alkalies_; from the solutions of _oxy-muriate of mercury_, _nitrate of silver_, _sub-acetate and acetate of lead_, the _sulphates of copper, zinc, and iron_, and from an _infusion of galls_. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Resin, gum, bitter extractive, sulphate of lime, gluten, _Narcotine_ (_see note_) and a peculiar alkaline body, to which the soporific virtues of opium are owing, and to which the appropriate name of _Morphia_ has been assigned; and it appears moreover that this new alkaline body exists in combination with an unknown acid, which has therefore been denominated the _Meconic Acid_; so that the narcotic principle of opium is _Morphia_ in the state of a _meconiate_, or perhaps of a _super-meconiate_.

For these important facts we are indebted to the successive labours of Derosne,[584] Seguin,[585] Sertuerner,[586] and Robiquet. And the French codex contains, in its appendix, formulæ for the preparation of morphia[587] according to the directions of these two latter chemists: viz. _Robiquet’s_ process. Three hundred parts of pure opium are to be macerated during five days, in one thousand parts of common water; to the filtered solution, fifteen parts of perfectly pure magnesia (carefully avoiding the _carbonate_,) are to be added; boil this mixture for ten minutes, and separate the sediment by a filter, washing it with cold water until the water passes off clear; after which, treat it alternately with hot and cold alcohol, (12, 22, Bé.) as long as the menstruum takes up any colouring matter; the residue is then to be treated with boiling alcohol (22, 32, Bé.) for a few minutes. The solution, on cooling, will deposit crystals of _Morphia_.

_Rationale of the Process._ A soluble _Meconiate of Magnesia_ is formed, whilst the sediment consists of _Morphia_ in the state of mixture, with the excess of magnesia; the boiling alcohol with which this residuum is treated, exerts no action upon the magnesia, but dissolves the _Morphia_, and on cooling surrenders it in a crystalline form. A repetition of the treatment with boiling alcohol will procure a fresh crop of crystals, and the process should be continued until they cease to appear.

_Sertuerner’s_ method. It differs from the preceding, in substituting ammonia for magnesia, and in adding to the sediment, separated as before mentioned, as much sulphuric acid as is sufficient to convert the _Morphia_ into a sulphate, which is subsequently decomposed by a farther addition of ammonia; the precipitate thus produced is then dissolved in boiling alcohol, which on cooling surrenders the _Morphia_ in a state of crystalline purity. It appears however that the _Morphia_ produced by this latter method, is less abundant and more impure and coloured, than that which is furnished by the process of Robiquet.

_Characters of Morphia._ When pure, it crystallizes in very fine, transparent, truncated pyramids, the bases of which are either squares or rectangles, occasionally united base to base, and thereby forming octohedra. It is sparingly soluble in boiling water, but dissolves abundantly in heated alcohol; and the solution is intensely bitter; in æther it is far less soluble. It has all the characters of an alkali; affecting test papers, tinged with turmeric or violets; uniting with acids, and forming neutral salts, and decomposing the compounds of acids with metallic oxides. It unites with sulphur by means of heat, but the combination is decomposed at the same instant; it is incapable of forming soap with an oxidized oil. It fuses at a moderate temperature, when it resembles melted sulphur, and like that substance, crystallizes on cooling; it is decomposed by distillation, yielding carbonate of ammonia, oil, and a black resinous residue, with a peculiar smell; when heated in contact with air, it inflames rapidly; the voltaic pile exerts but little action upon it, yet, when mixed with a globule of mercury, the latter appears to become increased in bulk, and to change consistence. When analyzed by means of the deutoxide of copper, it yields carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; and if ammonia has been employed, as a precipitant in its preparation, we shall also obtain some nitrogen, but not if prepared according to the improved process of Robiquet. Its habitudes with different bodies have not hitherto been sufficiently investigated, but they are highly important, in as much as they will explain the operation of those various medicinal compounds, into which opium enters as a principal ingredient. _Sertuerner_ has given us an account of the effect of the alcoholic solution of Morphia on himself and three of his pupils; he found, that repeated small doses of half a grain produced at first decided excitation; then weakness, numbness, and tendency to fainting; after swallowing vinegar while in this condition, violent vomiting was excited, profound sleep intervened in one delicate individual, and next day he suffered from nausea, vomiting, head-ache, anorexia, constipation, and heaviness (_Ann. de Chim. et de Phys_. T. v.) This case is sufficient to shew that although Morphia possesses the characteristic powers of opium, its strength is by no means commensurate with its supposed concentration. When uncombined it exerts little or no action in consequence of its insolubility. The following history of its saline compounds may be useful.

The _Carbonate_ crystallizes in short prisms.

The _Acetate_ in needles, very soluble, and extremely active.

The _Sulphate_, in arborescent crystals, very soluble.

The _Muriate_, in plumose crystals, much less soluble; when evaporated, it concretes into a shining white plumose mass on cooling.

The _Nitrates_, in prisms grouped together.

The _Meconiate_, in oblique prisms, sparingly soluble.

The _Tartrate_, in prisms.

Morphia is separated from the above combinations by ammonia.

Morphia is very soluble in olive oil, and according to the experiments of M. Majendie, the compound acts with great intensity; with extractive matter, it forms a compound which is almost insoluble in water, but very soluble in acids.

The solubility of Morphia in acids explains why the administration of vinegar increases the powers of opium, (_see_ page 135.) _M. Majendie_ considers Morphia to produce a more purely soporose effect than opium, and that it is moreover exempt from the consecutive operation which so generally renders opium objectionable. This opinion, however, has not been confirmed by the trials made in this country; equally gratuitous is the assertion of the same physiologist, that by ringing changes on the salts of Morphia, its hypnotic effects may be kept up without increasing its dose.

As _M. Majendie_ considers the _after_ effects of opium to be independent of Morphia, it was necessary for him to point out the particular principle from which these noxious consequences arose, and he accordingly ascribed them to the _Salt of Derosne_, now more usually denominated _Narcotine_, and which may be entirely removed from the extract of opium by macerating it in sulphuric æther; and in this way, it is said, a preparation is obtained, which, like Morphia, is exempt from the occasional bad consequences of the common drug; but no satisfactory trials have as yet been made with it.

The _Meconic acid_, when separated from the residuum of the magnesian salt, as described above, does not appear to possess any medicinal activity. Its distinguishing _chemical_ character is, that it produces an intensely red colour in solutions of iron oxidized _ad maximum_.

EAST INDIA OPIUM is an inferior species;[588] it differs from _Turkey Opium_, in its _texture_ being less compact, and much softer; its _colour_ darker; its narcotic _odour_ fainter, but combined with a strong empyreuma, and in its _taste_ being more bitter, but less acrimonious. According to the experiments of Mr. A. T. Thomson, _Turkey Opium_ contains three times more morphia than the _East Indian_ variety. This latter, when triturated with water, is taken up without any residuum; hence it contains no gluten, but the sulphate of lime is more abundant, as appears from the relative proportion of precipitate produced by oxalic acid. The solution of the acetate of barytes, whilst it occasions no disturbance in the solutions of the Turkey variety, produces a copious precipitate with the East Indian.

MED. USES. Are so well known that a few practical remarks will suffice.[589]

Chemistry, it appears, has developed the principle of its activity, and accumulated experience has established the value and importance of its medicinal applications, but Physiology is still unable to demonstrate the manner in which it produces its effects. It must be admitted that its primary operation is that of a powerful and diffusible stimulant, but it is immediately followed by narcotic and sedative effects, which are far greater than could have been inferred from the degree of previous excitement, and hence much keen controversy has arisen in the schools concerning its _modus operandi_, (_see_ page 76.) In large doses, the primary excitement is scarcely apparent, but the powers of life are instantly depressed, drowsiness and stupor succeed, and when the dose is excessive, these are followed by delirium, stertorous breathing, cold sweats, convulsions, and apoplectic death. Its stimulant effects are apparent only in small doses, by which the energy of the mind,[590] the strength of the pulse, and the heat of the body, are considerably increased, but all the secretions and excretions, except the cuticular[591] discharge, are diminished; for example, the fæces of persons, after the use of opium, are not unfrequently clay-coloured, from the suspension of the biliary secretion; this circumstance suggests some important precautions with respect to its exhibition. Opium, when properly directed, is capable of fulfilling two great indications; 1st, of supporting the powers of life, and 2nd, of allaying spasm, pain, and irritation, and of blunting that morbid susceptibility of impression, which so frequently attends fever. Its use is contra-indicated in all cases where inflammatory action prevails, as in pulmonary affections, attended with an accelerated circulation and a dry hard cough.[592] It is employed by some of the oriental nations for the same purposes that we take spirituous potations: by the Turks especially, to whom our more generous beverages are prohibited by religious prejudice, opium is solicited to inspire courage, or to invigorate fortitude;—to soothe sorrow;—or to dissipate the remembrance of misfortune;—to awaken the fancy to more brilliant exertions; or to create that mild composure and serenity of feeling, which is desirable after the cares and solicitudes of an active, perplexing, and arduous scene: like spirituous liquors among other people, it is, in short, the support of the coward,—the solace of the wretched,—and the daily source of intoxication to the debauchee. Notwithstanding all this, spirit and opium are by no means parallel medicines; on the contrary, the latter substance offers the best remedy for the _Mania a Potu_, and in cases of habitual drunkenness from alcohol, where our wish is to abstract the spirit, but are for obvious reasons unable so to do, we may frequently alternate its use with that of opium, with considerable advantage. Many of the beneficial effects of this remedy are to be referred to its power of allaying irritability; Sir G. Blane has remarked, that in ill-conditioned ulcers in the West Indies, opium was found superior to all other internal medicines for producing a disposition to heal. Under the free use of it, such ulcers would in place of a sanious discharge produce a healthy puss succeeded by granulations and cicatrization. It appears to do this by suspending irritation, and perhaps by promoting absorption.

In combination, the medical powers of opium are wonderfully extended, so that there is scarcely a disease in which it may not, during some of its stages, be rendered useful. By diminishing the sensibility of the stomach and bowels, it becomes a valuable and efficacious _corrigent_ to many important medicines, and thus frequently favours their absorption and introduction into the system, as for instance, in the exhibition of mercurial alteratives, (_Form. 141,_) and in certain diuretic combinations, (_Form. 100, 106, 107, 110,_) in combination with antimonials, and with ipecacuan, its narcotic powers are obviated, and sudorific results are obtained. See _Pulv. Ipecac. co_. (_Form. 117, 119, 124, 125, 127, 130._) FORMS OF EXHIBITION. In substance, or under the form of tincture. When we wish to continue the operation of opium, and not to obtain its full effect at once, it may be advantageously combined with some substance capable of retarding its solution in the stomach, as _gum resins_. See _Pilulæ_ and _Form. 10, 11, 12, 13_. A watery infusion, made by infusing powdered opium in boiling water, will often operate without producing that distressing nausea and head-ache which so frequently follow the use of this substance. With respect, however, to the best modes of correcting the operation of this remedy, see pages 160 and 162. Dr. Porter of Bristol has introduced to our notice a solution of opium in citric acid; his formula[593] for its preparation is subjoined, because I am of opinion that it merits the attention of the practitioner; I have lately submitted it to the test of experience, and it certainly possesses the merit of a powerful anodyne, operating with less disturbance than the more ordinary forms of this substance. I also take this opportunity of stating, that the _pyroligneous acid_ manufactured by Beaufoy was used as a menstruum, and the effect of the solution was similar to that of Dr. Porter. When the stomach rejects altogether the internal exhibition of opium it may be successfully applied along the spine, by friction, with the camphor liniment; a piece of solid opium introduced into the rectum, or dissolved in some appropriate solvent, and injected as an enema, affords also considerable relief in spasmodic affections of the bowels, and in painful diseases of the prostate gland, or bladder, (_Form. 9._) When thus introduced into the rectum, it cannot undergo that change which the digestive organs produce upon it, and consequently it is more uniform in its action than when presented to the stomach. Opium appears to be readily absorbed into the system, when applied to the surfaces of sores; considerable relief has been thus afforded to irritable stumps, after amputation, on which occasions, all the characteristic effects of opium have been produced upon the system, such as costiveness, head-ache, nausea, &c. INCOMPATIBLE SUBSTANCES. _Oxy-muriate of mercury_; _acetate of lead_; _alkalies_; _infusions of galls_, and _of yellow cinchona_. Orfila states that the decoction of _Coffee_ is less energetic as an antidote, than the infusion. When we intend the opium to act as a sedative, we should not combine it with stimulants. The Edinburgh College certainly erred in this respect, when they made pepper an ingredient in their _Pilulæ Opiatæ_. In combination with vegetable acids, its narcotic powers are increased, in consequence of the formation of soluble salts with _morphia_.[594] When the opium however has passed out of the primæ viæ, vinegar and acids are then the best remedies for counteracting its effects; (see _page 136_.) _Dose_, must be varied according to the intention of the prescriber, the constitution of the patient, and the nature of the disease. A quarter of a grain, frequently repeated, will keep up its exhilarating influence; (_Form. 15_) from gr. j to ij acts as a narcotic; its power on the system soon becomes weaker; and from habitual use it is so much impaired that very large doses are required to produce its usual effects. Russell observes that the effects of opium on those addicted to its use, are at first obstinate costiveness, succeeded by diarrhœa and flatulence, with loss of appetite and a sottish appearance; the teeth decay, the memory fails, and the unhappy sufferer prematurely sinks into the grave. OFFICINAL PREP. Gr. j of opium is contained in _Confect. Opii_. L. grs. 36. _Elect. Opii_. E. grs. 43. _Elect. Catechu_. E. grs. 193. (=F.=) _Elect. Catechu. comp_. D. grs. 199. (=F.=) _Pil. Saponis cum opio_. L. grs. 5. _Pil. Opiat_. E. grs. 10. _Pil. e Styrace_. D. grs. 5. _Pulv. Corn. ust. cum Opio_. L. grs. 10. _Pulv. Cret. comp, cum Opio_. L. grs. 40. _Pulv. Ipecac. comp_. L.E. grs. 10. (=H.=) _Pulv. Kino. comp_. L. grs. 20. (=F.=) _Tinct. Opii_. L. ♏︎19. _Tinct. Camphor. comp_. L. f℥ss. _Tinct. Opii ammon_. E. fʒj. _Troch. Glycyrr. cum Opio_. E. ʒj. _Vinum Opii_. L. ♏︎17. The Medicinal Dynameter will at once shew the quantity of opium in any proportion of the above preparations. ADULTERATIONS. The _Turkey Opium_, when good, is covered with leaves, and the reddish capsules of some species of _rumex_; the inferior kinds have none of these capsules adhering to them. It is frequently adulterated with the extract of liquorice; it should be regarded as bad when it is very soft and friable, of an intensely black colour, or mixed with many impurities, when it has a sweetish taste, or marks paper with a brown continuous streak when drawn across it, or when it melts like wax, and makes a yellow solution in water. It frequently happens that in cutting a mass of opium, bullets and stones have been found imbedded in it, a fraud which is committed by the Turks, from which the retailer alone suffers. It is also adulterated with the extract of poppy capsules, or of the whole plant; with that of _chelidonium majus_, with gum arabic or tragacanth, with the oil of linseed, and even with the dung of oxen.

OVUM. L. (Phasianus Gallus. _Ovum._)

_The Egg of the Domestic Fowl._

VITELLUS, The _Yolk_ or _Yelk_, is principally employed in pharmaceutical operations, for rendering oils and balsams miscible with water. It is gently laxative.

_Oleum e vitellis_, Oil of Eggs. Obtained by boiling the yelks, and then submitting them to pressure; fifty eggs yield about 5 oz. of oil. It is introduced into the Paris Pharmacopœia, being much employed on the Continent for _killing_ mercury.

ALBUMEN. Used principally for clarifying turbid liquors.

TESTA. Similar to other absorbents.

OXYMEL SIMPLEX. L.D. MEL ACETATUM. P.L. 1787.

_Simple Oxymel._[595]

This composition of honey and acetic acid has been long valued on account of its detergent qualities, and has accordingly been much used as the basis of gargles, and expectorant remedies.

OXYMEL SCILLÆ. L. D. OXYMEL SCILLITICUM. P.L. 1720. 1745.

OXYMEL OF SQUILLS.

This preparation certainly possesses considerable powers as an expectorant; especially if allowed to pass slowly over the fauces, as when applied in the form of a linctus, (_Form: 135,_) which by stimulating the top of the trachea may possibly act, by a kind of “_contiguous sympathy_,” upon the pulmonary structure,[596] and thereby increase the activity of the exhalant vessels, and so dilute the mucus contained in the follicles as to cause it to be poured out in a less viscid form, and consequently in a state to be more easily brought up by expectoration. Its action will also admit of another explanation, but for this see page 102. DOSE from fʒss to fʒij. In larger doses it is given for the purpose of exciting vomiting, especially in hooping cough.

PAPAVERIS CAPSULÆ. L.E.D.

(Papaver Somniferum. _Capsulæ Maturæ._)

_Poppy Capsules_, or _Poppy heads_.

These capsules are employed in medicine for the purpose of affording a decoction, to be applied as an anodyne fomentation, see _Decoctum Papaveris_, and as a syrup of hypnotic qualities, see _Syrupus Papaveris_.

The seeds of the poppy capsules are not directly used for any medicinal purposes, but they yield a fixed oil which is daily met with in the market, and is frequently used to adulterate _Olive Oil_, which see. As an article of trade it is considered very inferior to the other fixed oils; it burns very badly, and yields a great quantity of smoke. To the pharmaceutic chemist it is an article of interest from the controversies to which it has given origin.[597]

PILULÆ L.E.D. _Pills._

For general instructions respecting the formation and administration of pills, the practitioner must refer to the _first part_ of this work, _page 193_.

OFFICINAL PILLS.

PILULÆ ALOES COMPOSITÆ. L. Extract of Aloes, _two parts_, extract of gentian, (=G=) _one part_, with oil of carraway; (=E=) to which syrup is unnecessarily added. It is a useful pill in habitual costiveness. _Dose_, grs. x to ℈j.

PILULÆ ALOES ET ASSAFŒTIDÆ. E. Powdered aloes, assafœtida (=G=) and soap, (=L=) _equal parts_. Anodyne and cathartic; a very useful combination in dyspepsia attended with flatulence. _Dose_, grs. x.

PILULÆ ALOES CUM MYRRHA. L. _Pilulæ Rufi._ P.L. 1745. Extract of Aloë, _two parts_, saffron and myrrh, (=E=) _one part_, syrup, q. s. This is a very ancient form of preparation, and is described by Rhazes. It is stimulant and cathartic. (_Form: 11, 81, 98, 99._) _Dose_, grs. x to ℈j.[598]

PILULÆ ALOES CUM COLOCYNTHIDE. E. This pill is known by the popular name of _Pil. Cocciæ_, κοκκὶον signifies a seed, and the term was first applied to this preparation by Rhazes. It consists of _eight parts_ of aloes and scammony; _four_ of colocynth; and _one part_ of oil of cloves, (=E=) and of sulphate of potass with sulphur, olim _Sal Polycrest_. It is more powerful in its operation than the simple aloetic pills.

PILULÆ CAMBOGIÆ COMPOSITÆ. L. Gamboge, extract of aloe, and compound powder of cinnamon _one part_; soap _two parts_; see _page 172_, and _Form: 88_.

PILULÆ FERRI COMPOSITÆ. L. This combination is analogous to that of Griffith’s mixture. _Dose_, gr. x to ℈j. _Form: 99._ They become extremely hard by keeping. If the practitioner consult the MEDICINAL DYNAMETER, he will observe that in order to give the same quantity of Proto-carbonate of Iron as is contained in f℥iss of _Mist: Ferri comp:_ he must direct ℈j of this pill mass; which quantities will be seen to contain, respectively, a grain and seven tenths of this of the proto-carbonate, or, one grain of Protoxide, which is equivalent. It is doubtful whether the former preparation will not prove more active, in consequence of the saponaceous vehicle formed by the Myrrh and alkali in a state of solution.

PILULÆ GALBANI COMPOSITÆ. L. _Pil. Gummosæ_, _P.L._ 1745. We are here presented with a combination of fœtid gums, in which assafœtida is the most potent article. Antispasmodic, and emmenagogue. _Dose_, grs. x to ℈j. See _Form: 10, 27, 98_.

PILULÆ HYDRARGYRI. L.E.D. _Pil. Mercuriales_. P.L. 1745, vulgo, The _Blue Pill_. The mercury in this preparation, is not, as it was formerly considered, in a state of mere mechanical division, but in that of a black oxide, upon which its activity as a remedy undoubtedly depends; for mercury in its metallic state is entirely inert with regard to the living system. Various substances have at different times been triturated with the mercury, for the purpose of _extinguishing_ or _killing_ it, by effecting the mechanical division and subsequent oxidation of its particles, as manna, melasses, &c. _Conserve of Roses_ is now generally preferred for this purpose, although Swediaur suspects that the astringent principle of this conserve invalidates the effects of the mercury, “I have,” says he, “given these pills to several patients for a long time, without any symptom of salivation.” Mr. Abernethy observes in his surgical works, that the _Pilulæ Hydrargyri_ are uncertain in their effects; and that some of the students at the hospital on examining them, and different parcels of the conserve of roses, say that the sulphuric acid may be discovered in each. Nor is it improbable that in making the conserve for sale, some of this acid may be added to brighten the colour; and if so, the mercurial pill which is made from it may contain in varying proportions, some of that highly deleterious compound, the _sub-sulphate of mercury_. When any of the gums are employed for _killing_ the metal, the pills soon become hard and brittle, and after some time the mercury is liable to run into its metallic state. The pill-mass, when rendered thinner by the addition of a little water, and extended on a piece of paper, ought not to exhibit any metallic globules; in this examination, however, we must be careful not to be betrayed by the fallacious appearance which is frequently presented by small crystals of saccharine matter. The relative proportion of mercury contained in the mass can be ascertained only by its weight. The _blue pill_ is made at Apothecaries’ Hall by a very ingenious machine actuated by steam, and which rubs as well as rolls the materials, and it is said the pill thus made is more active than that produced in the ordinary way. MED. USES. It is by far the best form for the internal exhibition of mercury; where it is intended to act upon the system as an alterative, it should be administered in doses of from grs. iv to vj; if it occasion any action on the bowels, it may be conjoined with opium; sometimes a few grains of rhubarb, exhibited every morning, will impart such a tone to the intestines, as to enable them to resist the mercurial irritation. In cases where the form of pill is objectionable, it may be readily suspended by the aid of mucilage, in some aqueous vehicle; when exhibited in doses of grs. x to ℈j, it acts as a mild but efficient purgative. _Form: 79, 106._ One grain of mercury is contained in three grains of the mass; the proportion of metal, or oxide, in any other given quantity, is shewn at once by the Dynameter. For the specific effects of mercury, see _Ung. Hydrarg_.

PILULÆ HYDRARGYRI SUB-MURIATIS COMPOSITÆ. L.E. Olim _Plummer’s Pills_. They consist of _one part_ of calomel and precipitated sulphuret of antimony (=H=) and _two parts_ of guaiac (=E=) made into form with spirit. It is a very useful alterative, especially in cutaneous eruptions and in secondary syphilitic symptoms, particularly when affecting the skin. _Dose_, grs. v to x. Should their exhibition affect the bowels, the addition of a small proportion of Opium may be added.

PILULÆ OPIATÆ. E. Opium _one part_; extract of liquorice, _seven parts_; Jamaica pepper, _two parts_. It is however a compound of questionable propriety.

PILULÆ RHEI COMPOSITÆ. E. Rhubarb, Aloes, and myrrh, with oil of peppermint. When such a combination is indicated, it is better to prescribe it extemporaneously: for the mass, by being kept, will become less efficacious.

PILULÆ SAPONIS CUM OPIO. L. _Pil. Opii_. P.L. 1787. By substituting soap for extract of liquorice, these pills are now rendered more soluble in the stomach, and are consequently more efficient. Five grains contain one of opium.

PILULÆ SCILLÆ COMPOSITÆ. L. A stimulating expectorant: but as squill is always impaired by keeping, it ought to be considered as an extemporaneous combination. It is surely injudicious thus to multiply our officinal formulæ, but it is difficult, on such occasions, to run counter to popular opinion. _Form: 104._

PIMENTÆ BACCÆ. L.E. Pimento. D.

Myrtus Pymenta. _Baccæ._

_Pimenta Berries._ _Jamaica Pepper._ _All-spice._

QUALITIES. _Odour_, aromatic and agreeable, combining that of cinnamon, cloves, and nutmegs; hence the term _all_-spice. _Taste_, warm and pungent, resembling that of cloves. These qualities reside principally in the cortical part of the berry. CHEMICAL COMP: It contains a volatile oil, very like that of cloves, resin, extractive, tannin, and gallic acid. SOLUBILITY. Water, alcohol, and æther, extract its virtues. MED. USES. Principally to cover the disagreeable taste of other remedies; it is also a very useful adjunct to dyspeptic medicines. OFFICINAL PREP. _Aq. Piment_. L.E.D. _Ol. Piment_. L.E.D. _Pil. Opiat_. E. _Syrup. Rhamni_. L. (=E=)

PIPERIS LONGI BACCÆ. L.E.D.

_Long Pepper._

The chemical and medicinal properties of this substance are similar to those of black pepper; _which see_. The varieties in the market are distinguished by the names _short_ long pepper, and _long_ long pepper. The native practitioners of India prescribe it in infusion, mixed with a little honey, as a remedy in catarrhal affections, when the chest is loaded with phlegm.

PIPERIS NIGRI BACCÆ. L.E.D.

_Black Pepper._

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. An oily matter, fecula, and extractive; the acrid principle of Pepper has been separated by Oersted in an alkaline form. The following was the process by which it was procured. The pepper having been digested in alcohol, muriatic acid and afterwards water were added to the tincture, by which the resin was precipitated, while a _muriate of Pipera_ remained in solution. The solution was then, after having been submitted to a certain evaporation, decomposed by pure potass, when a precipitation of _Pipera_ took place. This salifiable base is nearly insoluble in cold, and only very slightly soluble in boiling water. It dissolves in alcohol, and the solution has a greenish-yellow colour, which by the addition of nitric acid is rendered green. The capacity of the base for saturation appears very small. SOLUBILITY. The virtues of pepper are entirely extracted by æther and alcohol; and partially by water, 550 pints being required to extract all the sapidity of ℔j of pepper. MED. USES. It appears to be a more general and permanent stimulus than other species of equal pungency on the palate; it may be combined with bitters, and exhibited in nausea, dyspepsia, retrocedent gout, or as a stimulant in paralysis; it is also a valuable coadjutor to bark, in obstinate intermittents. An infusion made with black pepper that has been toasted, is often prescribed by the natives of India in cases of cholera morbus; and I have known it, says Dr. Ainslie, put a stop to the vomiting when many other remedies had failed. DOSE, grs. v to ℈j, or more. OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. _Emplast. Meloes vesicat. comp_. E. _Unguent. piper. nig_. D. _White_ pepper is made by separating the first skin of the berry, by soaking it in salt and water. ADULTERATIONS. The powdered husk of the mustard seed is universally mixed with powdered pepper, and is regularly sold for this purpose by the mustard manufacturer, under the technical title of P.D. (_Pepper Dust_;) there are besides other admixtures less innocent.—_Whole Pepper_ is also frequently factitious; artificial pepper-corns, composed of peas-meal, both white and black, are mixed with real pepper-corns, and sold as genuine pepper; the method of detecting the fraud is very simple; throw a suspected sample into water; those that are artificial will fall to powder, or be partially dissolved, while the true pepper-corns will remain whole.

PIX ABIETINA.[599] L. (_Pinus Abies. Resina Præparata._)

PIX BURGUNDICA. E.D. _Burgundy Pitch._

This substance is procured by making incisions through the bark of the Norway Spruce fir, and afterwards boiling the flakes so obtained in water, and then straining the resin through coarse cloths under a press; whereas _frankincense_ (Abietis resina) is a spontaneous exudation from it. It is now entirely confined to external use, as a rubefacient spread on leather; it is very adhesive. _Emplast: Picis comp_. L. _Emplast: Picis Burgund_. D. ADULTERATIONS. A factitious sort, manufactured in England, is often met with; it is to be distinguished by its friability, and its want of viscidity and unctuosity, and by the absence of that peculiar odour which characterises the genuine specimens.

PIX LIQUIDA. L.E.D. (Pinus Sylvestris.) _Tar._

This fluid is formed from the decomposition of the resinous juice of the pine, during the slow and smothered combustion of its branches, and as a summary definition of the substance, that by Pliny cannot be surpassed, “_Pix nihil aliud quam combustæ resinæ fluxus._” _Lib. 23. c. 1._ CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. It is found to consist of empyreumatic oil, resin, acetic acid, and some salts. SOLUBILITY. Water readily dissolves a portion of Tar, and forms a solution of the colour of Madeira wine, with a sharp empyreumatic taste. MED. USES. Tar water, under the auspices of Bishop Berkley, was formerly considered a remedy of extraordinary powers;[600] this opinion however has at length passed away, (_see page 27_.) and Tar is now particularly indebted for a place in the Materia Medica, to an essay by Sir Alexander Crichton, entitled, “_An Account of some Experiments made with the Vapour of boiling Tar,[601] in the cure of Pulmonary Consumption_.” At the request of Sir Alexander, I was induced to make a trial of its effects, and I do not feel any hesitation in stating that the result has led me to believe that it may, in some cases, be attended with benefit. In the application of the remedy several precautions are necessary for its success. The Tar employed should be that used in the cordage of ships; to every pound of which half an ounce of sub-carbonate of potass must be added, in order to neutralize the pyroligneous acid generally found mixed with the tar, the presence of which will necessarily excite coughing; the tar thus prepared is to be placed in a suitable vessel over a lamp, and to be kept _slowly_ boiling in the chamber during the night as well as the day; the vessel however ought to be cleaned and replenished every twenty-four hours, otherwise the residuum may be burnt and decomposed, a circumstance which will occasion increased cough and oppression on the chest. The ancients entertained a high opinion of the efficacy of Tar in pulmonary diseases, when internally administered; supposing it to promote expectoration, relieve dyspnæa, and check spitting of blood; Dioscorides particularly speaks of its utility in such cases; he also recommends it to be applied to ulcers, which he says it fills up and heals, whether they be situated on the surface of the body, or in the ears, throat, and other internal parts. See the chapter on “_Inhalations_,” _page 202_. OFFICINAL PREP. _Unguent._ _Picis Liquidæ._ L.

PLUMBI SUB-CARBONAS. L.

CARBONAS PLUMBI, vulgo _Cerussa_. E.

CERUSSA, _Sub-acetas Plumbi_. D.

_Cerusse_, or _White Lead_.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. The composition of this substance has not until lately been well understood, and hence the different appellations bestowed upon it by the different colleges. SOLUBILITY. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in pure potass. USES. It is only employed externally, by sprinkling on excoriated parts; the safety of such a practice however is questionable. OFFICINAL PREP. _Unguent._ _Ceruss._ D. _Plumbi Acetas_ L.E.D. (=K=) ADULTERATIONS. _Chalk_ may be detected by assaying its solution in cold acetic acid with oxalate of ammonia; _Carbonate of barytes_, by adding to a portion of the same solution, sulphate of soda very largely diluted with distilled water; and _Sulphate of barytes_, or _Sulphate of lead_, by the insolubility of the white lead in boiling distilled vinegar.

PLUMBI OXYDUM SEMI-VITREUM. L.E.

LITHARGYRUM. D. _Litharge_.[602]

It is a yellow protoxide of lead, which has been melted and left to crystallize by cooling. It is only employed in pharmacy for forming other preparations of lead, and the following officinal plasters, _Emplast._ _Plumbi_, L. E.D. _Ceratum Saponis_. L. It is added to wines to remove their acidity; for the detection of which, evaporate the suspected liquor to a thick fluid, add charcoal, and calcine in a crucible: in the space of an hour metallic points will be obtained, consisting of lead surrounded by a quantity of yellow protoxide.

PLUMBI ACETAS. L.

_Cerussa Acetata._ P. L. 1787. _Saccharum Saturni._ 1745.

ACETAS PLUMBI. E. Acetas Plumbi. D.

vulgo, Sugar of Lead.